Unit - 3 PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC - 1

UNIT STRUCTURE

3.1 Learning Objectives

3.2 Introduction

3.3 Definition of statements

3.3.1 Examples of Statements

3.4 Logical connectives

3.4.1 Negation
3.4.2 Conjunction

3.4.3 Disjunction

3.4.5 Conditional
3.4.6 Biconditional

3.5 Converse, Opposite and Contrapositive of

statement
3.6 Let Us Sum up

3.7 Answers to Check your Progress

3.8 Further Readings

3.9 Possible Questions

3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to

define statements and examples of statements

define truth tables about different statements
know about negation of statements
know about conjuction, disjunction, conditional and bi-condi-
tional of two statements
Learn about converse, opposite and contrapositive of state-
ment

3.2 INTRODUCTION
Mathematical logic or logic is the discipline that deal with the methods
of reasoning . As all of us know that the main asset that makes

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humans far move superior that other species is the ability of reason-
ing. Logic provides rules and techniques for determining whether a
given argument or mathematical proof or conclusion in a scientific
theory is valid or not . Logic is concerned with studying arguments
and conclusions. Logic is used in mathematics to prove theories
and to draw conclusions from experiments in physical science in
our every day life to solve many types of problem . Logic is used in
computer science to verify the correctness of programs. The rules
of logic or techniques of logic are called rules of inference because
the main aim of logic is to draw conclusions inferences from given
set of hypothesis. In this unit, we will introduce you to the definition
and examples of statements, truth table of different statements. We
will allso discuss about the logical connectives. Moreover, we will
discuss about the converse, opposite and contrapositive of state-
ments.

3.3 DEFINITION OF STATEMENTS

In logic we communicate our ideas or thoughts with the help of sen-

tences in a particular language. The following types of sentences are
normally used in our everyday communication.

Assertive sentence : A sentence that makes an assertion is

called an assertive sentence or declerative sentence.
For example , “ Mars supports life .“is an assertive or a declerative
sentence .

Imperative sentence : A sentence that expresses a request or a

command is called an imperative sentence .
For example , “ please bring me a cup of tea.” is an imperative.

Exclamatory sentence : A sentence that express some strong feel-

ing is called an exclamatory .
For example , “ How big is the whale fish !.”is an exclamatory sen-
tence .

Interrogative sentence : A sentence that asks some questions is

called an interrogative .
For example , “What is your age ? “ is an interrogative sentence .
STATEMENT : A sentence or proposition is an assertive (or
decleartive) sentence which is either true or false but not both . A
sentence cannot both true and false at the same time .

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3.3.1 Examples of Statements

IIIUSTRATION 1 : Consider the following sentences :

i) Washington D .C is not in America.

ii) Every square is a rectangle.
iii) The earth is a planet.
iv) Three plus six is 9.
v) The sun is a star.
Each of sentences (iii) , (iv) & (v) is a true declerative sentence and
so each of them is a statement .
Each of sentences (i) & (ii) is a false declerative sentence and so
each of them is a statement .

IIIUSTRATION 2 : Consider the following sentences : NOTE

To denote statements
i) Do your home work. we use the capital
ii) Give me a glass of water? letters P, Q, R, .........
iii) How are you ? etc
iv) Have you ever seen Taj Mahal ?
v) May god bless you !
vi) May you live long !
Sentences (i) & (ii) are imperative sentences . so they are not
statements .Each of sentences (iii) & (iv) is asking a question. So
they cannot be assigned true or false. Hence they are not statements
. Each of sentences (v) & (vi) is an imperative optive. So we cannot
assign true or false of them and hence none of them is a statement.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - 1

1. Find out which of the following sentences are statements

and which are not - justify your answer.

i) Paris is in England.
ii) May god bless you ?
iii) 6 has three prime factors .
iv) 18 is less than 16 .
v) How far is chennai from here?
vi) Every rhombus is a square .
vii) There are 35 days in a month.
viii) Two plus three is five.
ix) x +2 = 9
x) The moon is made of green cheese.

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3.4 LOGICAL CONNECTIVES

Till now , we consider primary statements. We often combine simple

(primary ) statements to form compound statements by using certain
connecting words known as logical connectives. Primary statements
are combined by means of connectives : AND , OR, IF---- THEN ,
and IF AND ONLY IF, lastly NOT.

Now we will discuss in details about logical connectives with their

truth tables.

3.4.1 Negation

The denial of a statement P is called its negation and is written as ~

and read as ‘not P’. Negation of any statement P is formed by writing
“ It is not the case that ------- “ or “ It is false that ------- “ before P or
inserting in P the word “ not “.
Let us consider the statement
P : All integers are rational numbers .
The negation of this statement is :
~ P : It is not the case that all integers are rational numbers.
or
~ P : It is false that all integer is not a rational numbers.
or
~ P : At least one integer is not a rational numbers.

or
~ P : At least one integer is not a rational numbers.

Consider now the statement ,

P : 7> 9
The negation of this statement is
~P:7<9
or
~ P : 7= 9

TRUTH TABLE OF NEGATION

If the truth value of “P “ is T, then the truth value of ~P is F. Also if the

truth value of “P “ is F, then the truth value of ~p is T .
This definion of the negation is summarized as follows by a table .

The truth table of ~P is :

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 P ~P

T F

F T

Table 4.1
IIUSTRATION EXAMPLES :
Write the negation of the following statements :
(i) 7 is a rational.
(ii) 2 is not a complex number..
(iii) Every natural number is greater than zero.
(iv) All primes are odd.
(v) All mathematicians are man .

Solution : (i) Let r denotes the given statement i.e

r: 7 is a rational.
The negation ~ r of this statement is given by
~ r : It is not the case that 7 is a rational.
or
~r: 7 is not a rational.
or
~ r : It is false that 7 is rational .

(ii) Let the given statement be denoted by u i.e

u: 2 is not a complex number..
The negation ~ u of this statement is given by
~u : 2 is a complex number..
or
~u : It is false that 2 is not a complex number..
(iii) The negation of the given statement is :
It is false that every natural number is greater than 0.
or
There exists a natural number which is not greater than 0.
(iv) The negation of the given statement is
There exists a prime which is not odd.
or
Some primes are not odd.
or
At least one prime is not odd.

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(v) The negation of the given statement is :
Some mathematician is not man.
or
There exists a mathematician is not man.
or
At least one mathematician is not man.
or
It is false that all mathematicians are man.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - 2

1. Write the negation of the following statements -

i) Bangalore is the capital of Karnataka.

ii) The Earth is round.
iii) The Sun is cold.
iv) Some even integers are prime.
v) Both the diagonals of a rectangle have the same
length.

3.4.2 Conjunction

The conjunction i.e joining of two statements P and Q is the statement

P Q which is read as “P and Q”

IIIUSTRATION EXAMPLES :

(i) The conjunction of the statements :

P : It is raining.
Q : 2+2=4 is P Q.i.e
It is raining and 2+2=4 .
(ii) Consider the statement
P : The Earth is round and the Sun is cold.
Its components are :
Q : The Earth is round.
R : The Sun is cold.
Truth table : The statement P Q has the truth value T whenever
both P and Q have the truth value T ; Other wise it has the truth
value F.

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The truth table for conjunction as follows :

P Q P Q

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F

Table 4.2

IIIUSTRATION EXAMPLES :

Translate the following statement into symbolic form :

Ramu and Raghu went to school.
Solution : In order to write it as a conjunction of two statements, it is
necessary first to paraphrase the statement as Ramu went to school
and Raghu went to school.
Now write P : Ramu went to school.
Q : Raghu went to school
Then the given statement can be written in symbolic form as P Q.

3.4.3 Disjunction

The disjunction of the two statements P and Q is the statement P Q

which is read as “P or Q”.

IIUSTRATION 3 :

(i) Consider the compound statement

P : Two lines intersect at a point or they are parallel.
The component statements of this statement are :
Q : Two lines intersect at a point.
R : Two lines are parallel.
(ii) Consider another statement
P : 45 is a multiple of 4 or 6.
Its component statements are :
Q : 45 is a multiple of 4 .
R : 45 is a multiple of 6.

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Truth table : The statement P Q has the truth value F only when
NOTE
both P and Q have the truth value F, P Q is true if either P is true or
Q is true (or both Pand Q are true). Truth table for disjunction : The connective is not always
the same as the word “or “
because the fact that the
word “or “ in English language
P Q P Q
can be used in two different
senses :
T T T i) Inclusive OR (one or the
other or both) and
T F T ii) Exclusive OR ( one or the
other but not both)
F T T

F F F

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - 3

1. Write the following statements in symbolic form :

(i) Pavan is rich and Raghav is not happy.
(ii) Pavan is not rich and Raghav is happy.
(iii) Naveen is poor but happy.
(iv) Naveen is rich or unhappy
(v) Naveen and Amal are both smart .
(vi) It is not true that Naveen and Amal are both smart
(vii) Naveen is poor or he is both rich and unhappy
(vii) Naveen is neither rich nor happy.

IIIUSTRATION EXAMPLES :

Write the components statements of the following compound

statements and check the compound statement is true or false.
(i) 50 is a multiple of both 2and 5.
(ii) All living things have two legs and two eyes .
(iii) Mumbai is the capital of Gujrat or Maharashtra.
(iv) 2 is a rational number or an irrational
(v) A rectangle is a quadrilatateral or a 5 sided polygon.

Solution : (i) The components statements of the given statement

are
P : 50 is multiple of 2
Q : 50 is multiple of 5
we observe that both P and Q are true statements. Therfore the

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compound statement is true.
(ii) The component statements of the given statement are
P : All living things have two legs.
Q : All living things have two eyes.
we find that both P and Q are false statements. Therefore, the
compound statement is false.
(iii) The components statements of the given statement are
P : Mumbai is the capital of Gujrat.
Q : Mumbai is the capital of Maharashtra.
we find that P is false and Q is true. Therefore, the compound
statement is true.
(iv) The components statement are
P : A rectangle is a quadrilaterl.
Q : A rectangle is a 5 sided polygon.
we observe that P and Q is false . Therefore, the compound statement
is true.
(v) The compound statement are
P : 2 is a rational number..
Q : 2 is an irrational number..
clearly P is false and Q is true, therefore the compound statement is
true.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - 4

1. Write the component statements of the following compound

statements and check the compound statement is true or
false.
(i) Delhi is in India and 2+2=4.
(ii) Delhi is in England and 2+2=4.
(iii) Delhi is in India and 2+2=5 .
(iv) Delhi is in England and 2+2=5.
(v) Square of an integer is positive or negative.
(vi) The sky is blue and the grass is green .
(vii) The earth is round or the sun is cold.
(viiI) All rational numbers are real and all real numbers are
complex.
(ix) 25 is a multiple of 5 and 8.
(x) 125 is a multiple of 7or 8.

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3.4.5 Conditional

If P and Q are any two statements, then the statement P Q read

as “if P , then Q”, is called a conditional statement.

Example Let P : Amulya works hard.

Q : Amulya will pass the examination.
Then P Q : If Amulya works hard, then he will pass the exam.
The statement P is called the antecedent and Q is called the
consequent in P Q. The sign is called the sign of implication.
We will also write P Q for P only if Q.
Truth table for conditional ‘P Q ‘ as follows :

P Q P Q

T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T

we will also write P Q for (i) P only if Q

(ii) Q If P (iii) Q provided that P, (iv) P is sufficient for Q,
(v) Q is necessary conditions for P, (vi) P implies Q,
(vii) Q is implied by P

IIIUSTRATION EXAMPLES :

1. Write each of the following statements in the form “ If--then”

(i) You get job implies that your credentials are good.
(ii) A quadrilateral is a parallogram if its diagonals bisect each
other.
(iii) To get A+ in the class, it is necessary that you do all the
excercisesof the book.
Solution :
(i) we know that “If P, then Q” is equivalent to ”P Q”
Therefore,the given statement can be written as
“If you get a job , then your credentials are good.”

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 (ii) The given statement can be written as-
“If the diagonal of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then it is
parallogrm”.
(iii) The givenstatement can be written as
“If you get A+ in the class, then you do all the exercise of the
books”.
2. Write the components statements of each of the following
statements. Also check whether the statements are true or not.
(i) If a triangle ABC is equilateral , then it is isosceles.
(ii) If a and b are integers , then ab is a rational number.

Solution :
(i) The component statements of the given statement are:
P : The triangle ABC is equilateral.
Q : The triangle ABC is isosceles.
Since an equilateral triangle is isosceles, so the given statement is
true.

(ii) The component statements are :

P : a and b are integers.
Q : ab is a rational number.
Since the product of two integers is an integer and therefore a rational
number. So, the compound statement is true.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - 5

1. Write down the truth value of each of the following implication.

(i) If 3+2=7, then Paris is the capital of india.
(ii) If 3+4=7,then 3 7.
(iii) If 4 5,then 5 6.
(iv) If 7 3, then 6 14.
(v) If two integers a and b are such that a>b, then a-b
is always a positive integer.

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