CHAPTER

Level
13
Level32

Weed management
Copyright © 2014. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved.

Figure 13.1 Hedge bindweed climbing on other plants

The chapter includes the following topics:

• Definition of the term ‘weed’
• Damage caused by weeds
• Life cycles of important weeds and relationship between life cycle and control
• Control methods for limiting the effects of weeds pests on plant growth using
chemical, physical and cultural methods

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 13 Weed management

This chapter, along, with Chapter 14 (pests) and in these vegetative organs enable these species to
Chapter 15 (diseases) describes how plant health emerge quickly from the soil in spring, often from
may be managed for specific important species. considerable depths if they have been ploughed in.
Chapter 16 (plant health management) reviews the The chopping-up of underground organs by cultivation
control measures (physical, cultural, chemical, organic, machinery often enables these species to propagate
biological, integrated, assessed, resistance and vegetatively (see p. 58) and increase their numbers in
legislative) available across the horticultural industry. disturbed soils.
This information builds on knowledge presented in a
companion book (The Principles of Horticulture Level Spread of weeds
2) where a more basic understanding of damaging
species is given. It should be noted that there are at least ten ways
by which weeds may be spread, including explosive
In this chapter, a range of weeds is presented,
discharge (Himalayan balsam, Impatiens glandulifera
showing relevant damage and life-cycle details that
– see p. 264), ‘seed parachutes’ (groundsel, Senecio
explain their success, and a description of a range
vulgaris), sticking to birds’ and mammals’ feet (annual
of control measures available to the professional
meadow grass, Poa annua), seed passage through
horticulturist.
birds’ intestines (dock, Rumex obtusifolius), vegetative
propagation (slender speedwell, Veronica filiformis),
An ephemeral weed is a weed that has several transmission by ants (field speedwell, Veronica
life cycles in a growing season. persica), horizontal movement by underground organs
(couch, Agropyron repens), on cultivation machines
(dandelion, Taraxacum officinale) and as contaminants
An annual weed is a weed that completes its life
of seed stocks (couch, Agropyron repens).
cycle in a growing season.

Other aspects of weed biology

A perennial weed is a weed that lives through
several growing seasons. Soil conditions may favour certain weeds. Sheep’s
sorrel (Rumex acetosella) prefers acid conditions.
Mosses are found in badly drained soils. Knapweed
The range of weed species in horticultural situations
(Centaurea scabiosa) competes well in dry soils.
includes flowering plants, horsetails, ferns, mosses
Common sorrel (Rumex acetosa) survives well on
and liverworts. These species display one or more
phosphate-deficient land. Yorkshire fog grass (Holcus
special features of their life cycle which enable them
lanatus) invades poorly fertilized turf. Nettle (Urtica
to compete as successful weeds against horticultural
dioica) and chickweed (Stellaria media) prefer highly
plants and cause problems for the horticulturist. Some
fertile soils.
special features are mentioned here.
The growth habit of a weed may influence its
Ephemeral weeds such as hairy bitter cress produce
success. Chickweed, creeping buttercup, slender
seeds through much of the year and seeds often
speedwell and creeping cinquefoil produce horizontal
germinate more quickly than crop seeds and thus
(prostrate) stems bearing numerous leaves that
emerge from the soil to crowd out the developing
prevent light reaching emergent crop seedlings or
plants. Their seeds germinate throughout the year.
Copyright © 2014. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved.

turf. Groundsel and fat hen have an upright habit that

Their roots are often quite shallow.
competes less for light in the early period of weed
Annual weeds such as annual meadow grass are growth. Perennial weeds such as bindweed, cleavers
similar to the ephemerals in their all-year-round seed and nightshades are able to grow alongside and climb
production. Their seeds take longer to ripen than up woody plants, such as cane fruit and border shrubs,
those of ephemerals. They may develop deeper roots making control difficult.
than ephemerals.
Perennial weeds with swollen underground organs
Perennial weeds such as couch, docks, plantains, provide the greatest problems to the horticulturist.
bindweed and Japanese knotweed have long-lived This is especially so in long-term crops such as
underground systems that are difficult to control. For soft fruit and turf, where suitable selective active
example, both couch and Japanese knotweed have ingredients against the weed may be difficult to find.
long lateral rhizomes; docks and plantains have deep,
Fragmentation of above-ground parts may be
swollen roots, and bindweed has both underground
important. A lawnmower used on turf which has
stems and roots. The large quantities of food stored
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 13 Weed management

slender speedwell weed growing in it cuts and

spreads the delicate stems that establish (as cuttings)
in other parts of the lawn if conditions are damp.
Seed production may be high in certain species.
A scentless mayweed plant (perennial) may
produce 300,000 seeds: fat hen (annual) 70,000:
and groundsel (annual) 1,000 seeds in a growing
season.
Dormancy (see also p. 109) is seen in the seeds
of many weed species. In this way, weed seed

13
germination commonly continues over a period of
four or five years after seed dispersal, presenting
the grower with a continual problem. Groundsel is
something of an exception, since many of its seeds
germinate in the first year.
Greenhouse production generally suffers less from
weed problems because composts and border soils
are regularly sterilized, but weeds such as sow thistle,
chickweed, groundsel and hairy bitter cress may
become established.

Important horticultural weeds

Hairy bitter cress (Cardamine
Figure 13.2 Hairy bitter cress. Note the pinnate
hirsuta). Plant family – Brassicaceae
leaves, and slender white inflorescence
Damage and location. The annual weed is common
throughout Britain and Ireland. It is often seen in Spread. This is by means of the ‘explosive’ discharge
gardens and is particularly common on bare ground, mechanism which can result in the dispersal of seeds
in greenhouses, at the side of paths (Figure 13.2) and travelling up to a metre away from the mother plant.
on railway embankments. The compost of container- Also, the seeds become sticky when wet and can be
grown plants in garden centres may also contain this spread on tools and clothing.
species (and this is one means by which the weed
Control. As with all annual weeds, it is important
may be introduced into gardens). It is recorded up to
to destroy the plant before seed can be produced.
an altitude of 1,500 m.
Seedlings should be removed by cultural methods
Life cycle. Hairy bitter cress grows as an annual (or such as cultivations and hoeing, among ornamentals or
biennial) plant. It flowers throughout the year but vegetables, preferably when soils are dry. In this way,
peaks from March to August. It is self-pollinated. flowering and seed-release is avoided. Raking-up of
Seed is most commonly released in May and June stems is recommended, as pieces of the stem are
(less often in September–October). A large plant able to re-establish in suitably moist conditions. In
Copyright © 2014. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved.

may release several thousand seeds. Weeding container plants, weed seedlings should be removed
out the plants may encourage this dispersal. High before seed production and dispersal begin. Covering
temperatures dry the dispersed seed and induce the border soil or bare soils with a 15 cm deep mulch (see
ripening process that allows germination. Very few also p. 237) of bark or compost will be effective in
unripe seeds germinate after dispersal. The peak suppressing the emergence of weed.
time of germination is between July and August and
There are several chemical control options for this
between November and December. The seedlings,
weed. For bare soil and the side of paths, a choice of
being frost-tolerant, survive all but the severest of
two contact chemicals, fatty acids and pelargonic
winters. The species is able to complete its life cycle
acid are available. Where weed infestations are
in as little as five weeks. In infertile soils, the life cycle
high, the translocated chemical glyphosate may
may take longer. The dormant seeds of this species in
be used. It is advised that the weed is controlled by
the soil can lead to a relatively persistent ‘seed-bank’
this chemical at the flowering stage in order to have
that emerges over several years.
maximum effect. Extreme care should be taken not

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 13 Weed management

to allow spray to reach garden annuals, or any leaf This weed species can be the host of a number
growth on perennials as this chemical is not selective, of nematode species such as stem nematode
and is capable of killing all plant species Glyphosate (Ditylenchus dipsaci – see p. 214) that attacks a wide
may be sprayed around the base of woody plants range of vegetable and ornamental plants.
so long as there are no emerging suckers visible. Spread. There is no obvious dispersal mechanism.
Glyphosate is almost immediately neutralized when in Most seeds fall around the parent plant and
contact with soils, and therefore normally presents no become incorporated into the soil. Seeds may be
risk to garden species being planted into soil that have carried around on boots and wheels of machinery.
recently been treated by the chemical. Worms may bring seeds to the soil surface in worm
casts.
Annual meadow grass (Poa annua).
Control. This is achieved by a variety of methods.
Plant family – Poaceae (Graminae)
The physical action of hoeing normally controls the
Damage. This species is a quite small annual (or weed especially when it is in the young stage. Deep
short-term perennial) found on a range of digging-in of seedlings and young plants is also usually
ornamental and sports grass surfaces, on paths effective. Mulching is effective against germinating
and in vegetable plots (see Figure 13.3). It is able to weeds in flower beds, and fruit areas.
establish quickly on bare ground. It does not thrive Glyphosate may be used for total chemical control,
on acid soils or those low in phosphates. Despite its but should never be sprayed in the near vicinity of
relatively small size, it often emerges in sufficient growing crops. Care should be taken not to walk on
quantities to smother crop seedlings. Its seed may grass immediately after application of the chemical.
be present as an impurity in commercial grass seed. Chlorpropham may be used as a residual soil-applied
(It should be noted that special selections of this chemical on crops such as lettuce, spinach, bulb
species are used in commercial seed mixtures for onions, salad onions and ornamentals.
lawns.)
Obviously, no weed killer can be used to control this
Life cycle. Flowers can occur at any time of year and grass weed on turf.
are usually self-pollinated. About 2,000 seeds per plant
are produced from April to September. Plants will Couch grass (Elymus repens).
flower and seed even when mown regularly. Seeds Plant family – Poaceae (Graminae)
germinate from February to November with the main
peaks in early spring and in autumn. Some seed will Damage. This grass, sometimes called ‘twitch’, is
germinate soon after their release; others can remain a widely distributed and important perennial weed
viable in soil for at least four years. found at altitudes up to 500 m. It is able to quite
rapidly take over plots growing ornamentals, vegetable
or fruit.
Life cycle. This dull-green plant may reach a metre in
height and often grows in clumps. Flowering heads
produced from May to October resemble perennial
ryegrass, but, unlike ryegrass, the flat flower spikelets
are positioned at right angles to the main flower
stem in couch. Seeds (9 mm long) are produced only
Copyright © 2014. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved.

after cross fertilization between different strains of

the species, and the importance of the seed stage,
therefore, varies from field to field. The seed may
survive deep in the soil for up to 10 years.
From May to October, stimulated by high light
intensity, over-wintered plants produce horizontal
rhizomes (see Figure 13.4) just under the soil; these
white rhizomes may spread 15 cm per year in heavy
soils, 30 cm in sandy soils. They bear scale leaves
on nodes that, under apical dominance (see p. 107),
remain suppressed during the growing period. In the
autumn, rhizomes attached to the mother plant often
Figure 13.3 Annual meadow grass adult grow above ground to produce new plants that survive

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 13 Weed management

the winter. If the rhizome is cut by cultivations such as a conspicuous branched inflorescence of small
digging or ploughing, fragments containing a node and green flowers from June to October. The seed
several centimetres of rhizome are able to grow into represents an important stage in this perennial weed’s
new plants. The rapid growth and extension of couch life cycle, surviving many years in the soil, and most
plants provides severe competition for light, water and commonly germinating in spring. Like most Rumex
nutrients in any infested crop. spp., the seedling develops a stout, branched taproot
Spread. Couch seeds may be carried in grass seed that may penetrate the soil down to 1 m in the mature
batches over long distances. plant, but most commonly reaches 25 cm. Segments
of the taproot, chopped by cultivation implements, are
Control. This is achieved by a combination of physical
capable of producing new plants.
and chemical methods. In fallow soil, deep digging

13
or ploughing (especially in heavy land) exposes the Spread. The numerous plate-like fruits (3 mm long)
rhizomes to drying. Further control by rotavating the may fall to the ground or be dispersed by seed-eating
weed when it reaches the one- or two-leaf stage birds such as finches. They are sometimes found in
disturbs the plant at its weakest point, and repeated batches of seed stocks.
rotavating will eventually cut up couch rhizomes Control. High levels of seed production, a tough
into such small fragments that nodes are unable to taproot, and a resistance to most herbicides present
propagate. a problem in the control of this weed. Attempts in
A total, translocated herbicide such as glyphosate, fallow soils to exhaust the root system by repeated
sprayed onto couch in fallow soils during active weed ploughing and rotavating have proved useful. In
vegetative growth, kills most of the underground bare soil, the weed’s tap root may be killed off by
rhizomes. Glufosinate-ammonium, a non-selective glyphosate’s translocated action. In turf, young
ingredient, is often used in top and cane fruit seedlings are easily controlled by 2,4-D. The mature
situations, and in nursery stock areas. plant is resistant to many chemicals, but fluroxypyr is
used on top fruit. Fluroxypyr plus 2,4-D plus dicamba
Broadleaved dock (Rumex is a herbicide used on amenity grassland and fine turf.
obtusifolius). Plant family
– Polygonaceae
Damage. This is a common perennial weed of arable
land, grassland and fallow soil.
Life cycle. The seedling cotyledons are narrow, but
the first true leaves are ovate, and are often crimson
coloured. The mature plant is readily identified
by its long (up to 25 cm) shiny green leaves (see
Figure 13.5), known to many as an antidote to
‘nettle rash’. The plant may grow 1 m tall, producing
Copyright © 2014. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved.

Figure 13.4 Couch grass plant showing rhizomes Figure 13.5 Broadleaved dock

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 13 Weed management

Plantain (Plantago major). Plant a dense turf growth and maintain regular irrigation
family – Plantaginaceae on lawns, as plantains thrive under drier conditions.
Aeration of lawns and top dressing with compost
This is a perennial weed found throughout Britain and helps reduce the compaction mentioned above.
Ireland on a range of soils up to an altitude of 500 m. The relatively shallow plantain root system can be
It may be an important weed on sports turf and on removed, in non-turf area, by carefully digging or
lawns. hoeing, preferably in slightly damp soil conditions, thus
Life cycle. Plants develop a thick root system with lessening the possibility of root fragments remaining
several lateral roots. In situations where the weed is in the soil and regenerating. Cutting off plantain
walked on (such as heavily used turf areas), plants inflorescences before they produce seed reduces the
have quite small prostrate leaves and a growing point chances of seed dispersal.
at or below the soil surface. On untrodden ground the Chemical controls. When a large number of weeds
leaves are almost erect and the growing point is at soil are found (and where cultural control of individual
level. weeds mentioned above is not practicable), there may
Flowering occurs from May to September. The be a need for chemical weed control. This species is
wind-pollinated flowers are often self fertilized. Seed killed on lawns by a number of selective herbicides
develops within about three weeks of fertilization but in various mixtures such as fluroxypyr, clopyralid
may be retained on the plant until the following spring. and florasulam, or MCPA and mecoprop-P. These
A large plant may produce 30,000 seeds per year. selective weed killers are most effectively used
Summer- and autumn-dispersed seed usually does not between April and October, and when the turf is not
germinate until the following spring. Most of the seed subjected to drought stress.
germination occurs between April and August.
Persistence and spread. Although this species Bindweeds (Calystegia sepium and
has no outstanding dispersal method or means of Convolvulus arvensis). Plant family
vegetative propagation, its seeds’ ability to lie dormant – Convolvulaceae
for over five years in soils help to explain its status as
Damage. Bellbind or hedge bindweed (C. sepium)
an important weed. In addition, its seed is sometimes
has pure white trumpet flowers (see Figure 13.1). It is
a contaminant in turf grass, cereal and clover seed.
quite often seen in gardens where it grows up border
Plantain seeds become sticky when moist, allowing
plants and shrubs. Field bindweed (C. arvensis – see
them to attach to animal fur and be spread in this way.
Figure 13.7) has smaller white (or pink flowers) and
The seeds are also able to survive in the digestive
while it may climb up perennials and shrubs, it also
systems of cattle, horses and goats, several wild bird
invades bare soil and long grass. The deep roots and
species and earthworms, and thus spread in this way.
the underground stems (rhizomes) of both species
Cultural controls. Only clean crop seed should be produce a mass of slender stems that smother other
used. For turf areas, avoid compacting soil, maintain plants.
Life cycle and spread:
X The roots of bellbind may penetrate 5 m deep into
the soil and spread laterally. The greater spread,
however, is achieved by the shallow, white fleshy
Copyright © 2014. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved.

underground stems (rhizomes) that can grow as

much as 2 m in a year.
X Even very small sections of rhizome can lead to
new shoot growth, and these can arrive in gardens
mixed with other plant roots, and in manures or
soils.
X Bellbind occasionally produces seeds that can
survive in the soil for many years.
X The roots of field bindweed are also deep-rooted,
with rhizomes arising from the roots. Growth
outwards by 2 m may be achieved each year. Field
bindweed produces many seeds that can survive in
the soil for several years.
Figure 13.6 Greater plantain

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 13 Weed management

13
(a) (b)

Figure 13.7 a) Bindweed emerging from under a wooden plot support; b) field bindweed

Cultural control. This form of control is often difficult competition with other plants at this time is most
because the roots of both species reach deep down apparent.
into the soil. Persistent hoeing and patient, persistent Because this active ingredient has a non-selective
forking and digging slowly bring success. Forking out (total) action, great care is needed that direct spray
the white roots in autumn and winter often proves (and spray drift) does not reach desirable plants.
effective if every attempt is made to remove all roots. When the stems of the weed begin to grow up
Similarly, in spring, digging out emerging shoots shrubs and cane fruit, the slender weed stems may
bearing the characteristic heart-shaped leaves reduces be laid on the ground before being sprayed. A sheet
the weed numbers. Successful cultural control of of semi-rigid plastic may be placed between the
these weeds may take several years to achieve weed and horticultural plant to prevent spray contact.
complete control. Alternatively, a cane can be temporarily placed in
Physical control. Some gardeners regard these spring alongside the plant, and the weed encouraged
weeds as serious enough to place 45 cm-deep plastic to twine itself around the cane in a suitable place for
or wooden barriers into the soil to deter invading glyphosate spot-treatment.
weeds coming in from adjoining gardens. Patience is needed in this form of control. It may take
Chemical control. Glyphosate can be used. Its several years to exhaust the root reserves of this
translocated action enables it to reach down to weed.
all parts of the root system. Against this weed, it A more residual annual control is available in non-
is advisable to search for a formulation that has a growing situations areas such as patios and parking
higher concentration of active ingredient, suitable places, and also under established trees and rose
for control of ‘difficult’ perennial weeds such as bushes. Products containing several active ingredients
bindweeds. A good leaf coverage will help lead to (such as glyphosate/flufenacet/metosulam) may be
Copyright © 2014. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved.

an effective concentration of the ingredient inside used. The combined action of the active ingredients
the extensive bindweed root system. Research has allows the killing of a wide range of weeds, while
shown that spraying in the evening gives better leaving the woody horticultural plants unaffected.
results than a daytime application. Two periods Care, however, is needed that instructions on the
of the year are recommended for spraying. The packet are closely followed to avoid damage to garden
most effective time is during the autumn period plant roots.
(when movement of sugars, and other chemicals,
In lawns, both bindweed species can be persistent.
is directed towards the root system). A second
Regular mowing helps, although both species are
time is when the weed is flowering. Although this
able to grow horizontally close to the soil surface.
spring-time spray does not generally result in the
Persistent use of lawn weed killers, such as a mixture
best control (sugars and other chemicals are mainly
containing 2,4-D, dicamba and fluroxypyr, will
moving upwards at this time), many gardeners
eventually eliminate the plants by reaching down to
spray at this time as the weed appears, and as
the deepest rhizomes and roots.
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 13 Weed management

In cane fruit, the weed is well controlled by the British Crop Protection Enterprises (ed. Naylor, R.E.L.)
residual and contact ingredient, oxadiazon. (2002) Weed Management Handbook. 9th Edn.
Japanese Knotweed (Fallopia japonica), a serious Blackwell Science.
perennial weed in Britain, is described in the Brown, L.V. (2008) Applied Principles of Horticulture.
‘biosecurity’ section of Chapter 16 (see p. 265). 3rd Edn. Butterworth Heinemann.
Ingram, D.S. et al. (2008) Science and the Garden
Edn. Blackwell Science.
Further reading
Adams, C.R., Early, M.P., Brook, J.E. and Bamford, Websites
K.M. (2015) The Principles of Horticulture: Level 2. www.pesticides.gov.uk
Routledge. www.environment-agency.gov.uk/static/documents/
Blamey, M., Fitter, R. and Fitter, A. (2013) Wild Leisure/Knotweed
Flowers of Britain and Ireland. Bloomsbury. web.adas.co.uk/WeedManager/
British Crop Protection Council (2014) UK Pesticide www.rhs.org./media/pdfs/advice/
Guide. WeedkillersforGardeners
Copyright © 2014. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved.

Please visit the companion website for further information:

www.routledge.com/cw/adams

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