SCX010 reviewer

Lesson 1

Ecosystem- the interactions of these components will give rise to a place where individual life can
function.
Environmental science - deals with the study of interactions among physical, chemical, and biological
components of the environment.
- it also focuses on identifying and giving solutions to environmental problems
that may arise.
Environmental science branches
1. Atmospheric sciences- focuses on earth’s atmosphere with an emphasis upon its
interrelationship to other systems.
2. Environmental sciences- it is the study of the chemical composition and alterations in the
environment.
3. Ecology- the study of the interactions between organisms and their environment.
4. Geosciences/ earth science- this includes environmental geology, environmental soil sciences,
volcanic phenomenon and the evolution of the earth’s crust.
5. Social sciences- in the context of environmental science are most easily defined as specific fields
that deal with the relationship between humans and nature. They are mostly divided into three
larger fields, geography, anthropology, and sociology.
Environment- refers to all things that surround us. It could be divided into two divisions – the physical
environment and the biological environment.

Causes of global warming

1. Greenhouse effect
2. Ozone depletion
3. Deforestation-The exploitation of forests has a major role in climate change. Trees help regulate
the climate by absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere. When they are cut down, this positive effect
is lost, and the carbon stored in the trees is released into the atmosphere.
4. Kaingin system
5. Smoke belching
6. Pollution
7. Fossil fuels-The massive use of fossil fuels is obviously the first source of global warming, as
burning coal, oil and gas produces carbon dioxide - the most important greenhouse gas in the
atmosphere - as well as nitrous oxide.
8. Intense farming- Another cause of global warming is intensive farming, not only with the ever-
increasing livestock, but also with plant protection products and fertilizers. In fact, cattle and
sheep produce large amounts of methane when digesting their food, while fertilizers produce
nitrous oxide emissions.
9. Waste management methods- like landfills and incineration emit greenhouse and toxic gases –
including methane - that are released into the atmosphere, soil and waterways, contributing to
the increase of the greenhouse effect.
10. Mining- Modern life is highly dependent on the mining and metallurgical industry. Metals and
minerals are the raw materials used in the construction, transportation and manufacturing of
goods. From extraction to delivery, this market accounts for 5% of all greenhouse gas emissions.
 11. Overconsumption- also plays a major role in climate change. In fact, it is responsible for the
overexploitation of natural resources and emissions from international freight transport, which
both contribute to global warming.

Lesson 2

All the living things is made up of cells.

Two components of environment

1. Physical environment- is composed of all inanimate factors such as the bodies of
water(hydrosphere)the gaseous layer that envelops the earth(atmosphere), and the rocks and
soil and its derivatives(lithosphere).
2. Biological environment- however is the thin layer in the surface of the earth where all living
things can exist. It is referred to as the “biosphere” or the “world of life”.

In the biosphere we can see varied interactions of living(biotic) and the non-living(abiotic) factors in the
environment.
These biotic and abiotic factors constitute an ecosystem.
Earth- is the only planet in the solar system that is capable of supporting life because of its perfect
distance from the sun, the presence of oxygen and the abundance of water.
Components of ecosystems
1. Abiotic- refers to all non-living things in the ecosystem.
2. Biotic- refers to living things in the ecosystem such as plants, animals and microorganisms.
Characteristic of living organisms
1. Cellular organization- living things exhibit a high level of organization. All multicellular
organisms are composed of cell and cell products. (cells- tissues- organ- system- organism)
2. Homeostasis- it is the maintenance of a constant but dynamic internal environment within the
of organism.
3. Adaptation- it is the ability of the organism to adjust to become fit to the changes in the
environmental condition.
4. Reproduction- is necessary to perpetuate life.
5. Growth and development- all living things increase in size due to cell division.
6. Constant energy requirement- living things need energy to sustain life, hence energy is very
essential to life.
7. Responsiveness/ irritability- the ability of the organisms to respond to the various stimuli from
the environment.
Ecosystem-is composed of the biotic and abiotic factors that are inseparably interconnected through
energy flow and nutrient/ biogeochemical cycles.

Lesson 3

Biogeochemical Cycles
Our biosphere contains all the minerals, water, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and other chemical
materials necessary for life. The biosphere is a closed system. This means nothing leaves the biosphere,
and nothing enters it. The materials in it must be recycled for life to continue. Recycling is the process of
using and reusing materials. It makes it possible for the living things to use materials and then return it to
the biosphere for other living things to use.
 Biogeochemical cycle or nutrient cycle is the cycling of the essential elements from the
protoplasm of the organism to the environment and back to the organism.
Two types of biogeochemical cycles
1. Gaseous type- is where the reservoir of the essential element is in the atmosphere or
hydrosphere.
2. Sedimentary type- is where the reservoir is from the earth’s crust.

If the substance is gaseous such as nitrogen and oxygen it is recycled with relative ease, if it is
non-gaseous, as in the case of phosphorous, local recycling is effective within the community.

The Water Cycle

The water cycle is a way where water moves all around the Earth. It never stops and does not
really have a beginning or an end. It is like a big circle. We will describe it by starting with water that is
on land. For example, water that resides in the ocean or in a lake will evaporate due to heat from the
sun. When it evaporates it turns into vapor water and goes up into the atmosphere. This vapor water
gets together with a lot of other vapor water and turns into clouds. Clouds move about the earth with
the weather and once they become heavy, they drop the water to Earth in some form of precipitation. It
could be rain, snow, sleet, or hail. When the water hits the Earth, it may fall right back into the ocean or
feed a flower or be snow on the top of a mountain. Eventually this water will evaporate and start the
whole cycle again.

The Oxygen Cycle

Plants are the main creators of oxygen in the atmosphere through the process of
photosynthesis. Here the tree uses sunlight and carbon dioxide to produce energy and releases oxygen.
The cow breathes in the oxygen and then breathes out carbon dioxide. The plant can then use this
carbon dioxide and the cycle is complete. The oxygen cycle is the cycle that helps move oxygen through
the three main regions of the Earth, the Atmosphere, the Biosphere, and the Lithosphere.
The Atmosphere is of course the region of gases that lies above the Earth's surface and it is one
of the largest reservoirs of free oxygen on earth. Oxygen is an important element to life on Earth. It is
the most common element of the human body. It makes up about 65% of the mass of the human body.
Most of this is in the form of water (H2O). Oxygen also makes up about 30% of the Earth and 20% of the
atmosphere.

The Carbon Cycle

One of the most important elements to life on planet Earth is carbon. All living organisms have
carbon as the basis for life. It is so important that animals are often called "carbon-based" life forms.
Some carbon atoms are constantly moving around. This is because carbon atoms are used by all sorts of
processes on our planet. Some of these processes put carbon into the atmosphere (air) and some take it
out. The carbon cycle is often very tied in with the oxygen cycle.
Plants obtain carbon dioxide absorbed during the process of photosynthesis and animals obtain
their carbon from plants or other animals they eat. Animals cannot use carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere.

The Nitrogen Cycle

There is abundance of nitrogen in the atmosphere. It makes up 78- 80% of the total volume of
air. Neither plants nor animals can use nitrogen directly from the air. It is the fourth element found in
living things Nitrogen is vital to life it is essential in making proteins. It is a part of amino acids, which are
the building blocks of proteins. Proteins are indicators of the quality of life because most cells are made
up of proteins.
Principal stages of Nitrogen Cycle

• Nitrogen fixation- nitrogen from the atmosphere is changed into nitrate (NO4)
Rhizobium sp. - is an example of nitrogen fixing bacteria that aids in nitrogen fixation.
• Ammonification- decaying organic matter is converted into ammonia.
• Nitrification- The conversion of ammonia to nitrate, soil bacteria convert the ammonia to nitrite
(NO2) and finally to Nitrate (NO3).
• Assimilation- is the process by which nitrogen is converted into protein molecules by plant.
Their waste returns nitrogen to soil as urea (fertilizer) and other compounds that are converted
to ammonia.
• Denitrification- some bacteria cause nitrogen to return to the atmosphere by breaking
down ammonia into soil.

The Phosphorous Cycle

The phosphorus cycle refers to the biogeochemical cycle by which phosphorous moves through
the biosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. The atmosphere doesn’t play a substantial role in the
cycling of phosphorous. This is because phosphorous and phosphorous based compounds cannot be
found in the air in the gas state.
Phosphorous is a crucial nutrient for plants and animals. For instance, it forms an integral
component of genes and also plays a significant role in the Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) energy cycle.
Without phosphorous, you wouldn’t be able to contract your muscles. It is also important in the
formation of bones and teeth. It plays an important role in how the body uses carbohydrates and fats. It
is also needed for the body to make protein for the growth, maintenance, and repair of cells and tissues.

The Sulfur Cycle

Atmospheric sulfur comes from several sources, including volcanoes, the action of soil
microorganisms, and the combustion of fossils such as coal, oil and gas. When fuel that contains sulfur is
burned, oxygen combines with the sulfur to form oxides. When the oxides of sulfur reach the
atmosphere, they combine with rainwater and form sulfuric acid which, in turn falls to the ground as
acid precipitation.
Sulfur is essential to life. It is a minor constituent of fats, body fluids, and skeletal minerals.
Sulfur is a key component in most proteins since it is contained in the amino acids methionine and
cysteine. Sulfur-sulfur interactions are important in determining protein tertiary structure.

Lesson 5

Population ecology- is the study how populations change in a given environment. whether these
changes are long-term or short-term, predictable or unpredictable, changes in growth and distribution
patterns of a population is indispensable.
Four things to be considered while studying populations:
1. The size
2. The density
3. The distribution patterns
4. Age structure
Principles of Population

A population- is defined as a collection of the same species occupying a given area at a particular time.
In human demography, population-refers to the number of people inhabiting a country or region. It has
a trait of its own that differs from those individual species that compose them.
Population-changes in size depending on the birth rates, death rates and immigration.
A. Population Attributes
1. Birth rate(natality)-refers to the production of individuals over a given period of time. If
there are 120 births in a population, the birth rate is 120 per year or 10 individuals per
month.
𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒔
a) Ecological natality= 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒔
b) Maximum natality=
𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
2. Death rate(mortality)- refers to the loss of individuals over a given period of time it can also
be expressed in the same way as in birth rate, if the birth and death rates are equal, then
the population size in stable however, if birth rate exceeds death rate, the population grows
and if death rate exceeds birth rate, the population declines.
3. Biotic potential or intrinsic rate of natural increase- under ideal conditions, unlimited food,
absence of diseases, lack of predators, and so on, the size of the population would increase
indefinitely. Some of the trots that influence whether the biotic potential of a population is
high or low are stated by Richard brewer (1999) as follows:
a) Number of offspring per breeding period
b) Survival up to and through the reproductive age
c) How long the reproductive age of the organism’s lasts
d) Age at which reproduction begins
4. Population density- are often discussed in terms of population density—the number of
organisms per unit of space. For example, if there are 50 nutgrasses in one square meter,
the population density is 50/sq.m.
a) Crude density= # of organisms total space
b) Ecological density= # of organism’s habitable space
5. Spacing or pattern- It refers to the position of members of a population relative to their
neighbors. There are three basic kinds of spacing or pattern in a population according to the
availability of resources:
a) Random
b) Clumped
c) Even
6. Mating Systems- Mating refers to the production of individuals through the union of two
opposite gametes. The three mating systems are monogamy, polygamy and promiscuity.

EXPONENTIAL POPULATION GROWTH MODEL

-In the exponential growth model, population increase
over time is a result of the number of individuals
available to reproduce without regard to resource limits.
In exponential growth, the population size increases at an
exponential rate over time, continuing upward as shown
in this figure.
LOGISTIC POPULATION GROWTH MODEL
-In the logistic growth model, population size levels
off because the limiting resources restrain any
further growth. This model applies to populations
that respond to density-dependent factors. As you
can see in the figure, the logistic growth model
looks like the letter S, which is why it’s often called
an S-curve.
Scientists describe the logistic growth model with
the following equation, which uses the same
symbols as the exponential growth model dN/dt =
rN (1 – N/K)

This equation says that the change (d) in number of individuals (N)
over a change (d) in time (t) equals the rate of increase (r) in
number of individuals where population size (N) is a proportion of
the carrying capacity (K).

Factors Influencing Population Growth

1. Economic development
2. Education
3. Quality of children
4. Welfare payments/State pensions
5. Social and cultural factors
6. Family size closer to the desired level
7. Female labor market participation
8. Death rates
9. Immigration levels
10. Historical factors/war
Lesson 6