DMX7304 - INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION

Introduction to Automation

Lecture#1
Outline
 Course information

 Introduction to automation
 Types of automation
 Industrial & Factory automation
Outline
 Structure of an Industrial/Factory
automation system
 Hierarchy of an industrial
automation system
 Types of industrial plants
 Types of automation technologies
Outline
 Applicability of automation in
industry/factory
Course Information
 Academic Coordinator
BGDA Madhusanka
Contact : 011 2881308
Email : [email protected]


Objective
To provide a exposure to the
technologies that are involved in
Industrial/Factory Automation
Technologies involved in FA
 Sensorics
 Pneumatics
 Electro - pneumatics
 Hydraulics
 Electro - hydraulics
 Electrical
Technologies involved in FA
 Control – PLC, Microprocessors, Fluid
 Actuators
 Identification systems
 Machine vision
 Human machine interface (HMI)
 SCADA
Technologies involved in FA
 Remote control

 Industrial communications
Course content
 Sensorics

 Actuation systems (Electrical &

fluid)
 Control Technologies

 Industrial Communication

 Automated devices such as robots and

CNC machines
Etymology - Automation
From Greek terms ;
“Auto” (self) + “Matos” (moving)
Evolution
Tools Mechanization Automation

Use of tools to Replacement of Replacement of

perform a task human/animal physical human mental labour
labour by by machines
machines/power tools
Think !
Can there be a fully automatic device or
system without the use of electrical or
electronic technology?
YES
Types of Automation
 Product automation

 Office automation
Types of Automation
 Building automation

 Traffic automation
Types of Automation
 Railway automation
Types of Automation

 Industrial automation
Pulp & Paper
Industry
 An industry refers to the production
of an economic good ( either a
product or service) within an
economy.
 It can be also described as a
systematic economic activity
(Manufacture/service/trade)
Industry
 Major key industrial sectors of an
economy :

• Primary sector, which largely involves

raw material industries such as mining

• Secondary sector, involving refining,

manufacturing and construction
Industry
• Tertiary sector, involves with services
and distribution of manufactured goods

• Quaternary sector, involving knowledge

industry focusing on technological
research, design and development such
as computer programming, and
biochemistry
Factory
 A place (a building or a group of
buildings) where a product is
manufactured or produced
 A factory would be a place where
the industry would be put into
practice. For example, A car factory
would the place where cars are
manufactured using raw materials,
machinery and labour, in the car
manufacturing industry
Industry & Factory
 Please note that , Industry is a wider
term, its includes not only the
factory but also the administrative
actions of the firm or company.
Technical Process
A technical process is a process during
which material, energy or information is
altered in its state.

Initial stage of Final stage of

material, energy Technical
material, energy
or information Process
or information

Technical System

Transformation
Technical Process
 Technical process means flow of
material, energy or information

 Technical process will be a result of

the combination of different partial
processes within the technical
system (device, machine or a plant)
Technical Process & System
Actuating Measured
signals signals

Material, energy Material, energy

or info. inflow Technical System or info. outflow
Device, machine
or plant

Process Process
influencing outcome
information information
Process Process
inputs Technical outputs
Process
Technical Process & System
Plant :
Chemical Reactor

Tech. Process :
3 sub-processes
Fill Empty
Reaction
Technical Process & System
Technical Technical
Initial State Final State
Process System

Washing
Dirty laundry Washing Clean laundry
machine

Drilling Parts with a

Parts with out Drilling
machine drill hole
a drill hole

Heating of a Heating
Low temp. Higher temp.
house system
Industrial Automation
 Industrial automation
The automation of the technical
process

 Industrial automation system

The automation of the technical
system with the technical process
Industrial Automation
Industrial automation is a set of
technologies which results in operation
of industrial machines and systems
without significant human intervention
resulting in performance superior to that
of manual operation
Structure of an IA system
Device responsible in
processing information such
Automation Computer as a PLC, micro-controllers
or industrial pc’s

Peripheral Devices
Sensors, actuators and
communication system
comprising of bus systems

Technical system in which a

Plant technical process takes
place
Automation Hierarchy
Management
Level

Planning Level

Supervisory Level

Control Level

Field Level

Communications
Automation Hierarchy - Technology

ERP

MES

SCADA Network

PLC PC PID

Sensors Actuators Hardware

Industrial Communications Systems

Types of Industrial Plants
Continuous Process
 Oil refineries
 Chemical processing plants
 Cement or fertilizer
 Power generation
Types of Industrial Plants
Discrete part manufacturing Plants
 Nut and bolts
 Automobile manufacturing
 Electronic items

Quantity

Variety
 Machinery

 Ship building
Types of Discrete Part M Plants
Product Variety

Job Shop
Production

Batch
Production

Mass
Production

Quantity
Types of Industrial plants
In reality, most of the manufacturing
plants consist of discrete and of continuous
processes. These are called ‘Mixed plants’.
Example : A bottle-filling line is in principle a continuous
process, but each step consists of a sequence of operations.
All parts must de described individually.
Types of Automation in DPMI
 Hard Automation (Fixed Automation)

 Soft Automation (Flexible Automation)

Hard Automation
 The automated process is fixed
by the machine configuration
(eg. Cams)
 Simple operation (movements)
but complex movements can be
archived by integrating several
movements
Hard Automation
 Machines used in hard-automation
applications are usually built on the
building-block, or modular principle

 Because they expensive design

and construct, their economic
use requires mass production of
parts in very large quantities
Hard Automation
 Relatively in-flexible in
accommodating change in product
variety

 Examples for hard automation

are, machining transfer lines,
automated assembly machines
Soft Automation
 Soft automation consists of both
programmable and flexible
automation.
 In soft automation, greater flexibility is
achieved through computer control of
machines and its various
functions, using various programs that
are described in detail for computer
numerical systems.
Soft Automation
 Soft automation can be successfully
applied for batch type or job shop
production
 Examples for soft automation are,
CNC machining centers in the case of
programmable automation and
FMS/FMC in the case of flexible
automation
Soft and Hard Automation
Product Variety

Soft
Programmable Automation
Automation

Flexible
Automation

Hard
Automation

Quantity
Reasons for Automating
 Reduce labour cost
 Mitigate the effect of labour shortages
 To reduce or eliminate routine and
clerical tasks
 Improve worker safety

 Improve product quality

Reasons for Automating
 Reduce manufacturing lead time
 To accomplish processes that cannot
be done manually
 To reduce the high cost of not
automating
 Improve productivity
Think!
Is automation always the way out??

No !

Cases where manual labour is preferred

over automation
 Cheap manual labour

 Task is too difficult to automate

Think!
 Short product life cycle

 Highly customized products

 Risk of product failure

 Unstable demands
 DMX7304 - INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION

Introduction to Control System Hierarchy

Lecture#2
 Types of control & Plants

 Automation hierarchy

 Control system architecture

What is a control system?
A control system is a device or set of devices to
manage, command, direct or regulate the behavior of
other devices or systems

Measure Command Control

 3 temperature
2 4
1 5
open loop: temperature is imprecise,
depends on ambient temperature and
cooking quantity
but time of heating can be modulated.

180
140
200
120 220 + higher closed loop:
- /lower temperature closely controlled,
requires measurement of the output
variable (temperature)

temperature sensor
 open-loop control / command closed-loop control / regulation

keywords: sequential / combinatorial, keywords: feedback, analog variables,

binary variables, discrete processes, continuous processes, "process control"
"batch control", "manufacturing"
set-point (solicited)
control variable
(analog)
binary
output controller output
sequencer + plant
plant
-
error
(deviation) plant
clock plant state state
display display
on/off measurement % measurement
process value
open-loop functions closed-loop functions
Data acquisition and pre-processing Protection and interlocking*

Data transfer between plant and operator Regulation

Display the plant state Process-driven sequential control
Logging and history recording

Simulation and training

Process optimization algorithms the control system acts directly

and autonomously on the plant

Interlocking*: prevent dangerous actions,

such as all lights on green at a crossing
 In spite of wide diversity of applications, the principles
of automation are similar.

There are a few basic types of plants and the same

control system hardware and basic software is shared
by most applications.

Distinction is often question of a point of view,

profession-specific vocabulary and
marketing.
 Continuous control

Discrete control

NOTE: Plants classified according to control actions employed

 Examples: Drives, Ovens, Chemical Reactors

 Continuous plants (processes) have states that can be

described by a continuous (analog) variable (temperature,
voltage, speed,...)

 Between plant input and plant output, there exists a fixed relation
which can be described by a continuous model (transfer
function).

 Continuous plants are mostly reversible and monotone:

This is the condition necessary to control them, i.e. impose the
value of their output.
 The transfer function may be described by a differential equation,
simplified to a Laplace or a z-transform when the system is linear.

The principal control task in relation with a continuous

process is its regulation
(maintain the state on a determined level or trajectory)
 b

 A discrete plant is modeled by well-defined, exhaustive and non-

overlapping states, and by abrupt transitions from one state to
the next caused by events.

 Discrete plants are mainly reversible, but not monotone:

the removal of the stimulus which caused a state transition will
not necessarily bring the plant back to the previous state.

Example: a lift will not go back to the previous floor when releasing the
button that called it.
 Going back to a previous state may require transit through
several other states.

 Discrete plants are described by Finite State Machines,

Petri Net, State transition tables Grafcet, SDL or
Sequential Function Chart diagrams.

The main task of a control system in relation with

discrete plants is their command.
Continuous process

continuous flow of material or energy

e.g. motor control, cement, glass, paper production,

rolling mill for wires, plate or profiles,
printing: 23 m/s, steel wire 90 m/s

Main task of control system: regulation

Batch process

discrete processes with handling of individual elements

e.g. Numerical Controlled machine, packing machines,

Bottle-filling, manufacturing, pharmaceutical and
chemical processes.

Main task of the control system: command

In reality, all plants consist of discrete and of continuous
processes.

Example 1: Motor Control of a cable-car with speed control

and stop at stations

Example 2: A bottle-filling line is in principle a continuous

process, but each step consists of a sequence of operations

All parts must de described individually.

Processes can be described as continuous within a discrete
state or as non-linear, continuous process.

Example: Time-triggered set-point of an oven temperature.

Mixed Plants are the normal case - a question of point of view.

All processes have some continuous and some

discrete behavior
 Automotive Manufacturing
Electronics
Machinery
Textiles
discrete
Pharmaceuticals
Fine Chemical
Food & Beverage
Metals & Mining
Water & Waste
Pulp & Paper
continuous Vehicles
Petrochemicals
Oil & Gas
Electrical Power
source: ARC
Industry distinguishes the following categories of applications:

“Process control": continuous processes, associated with

fluids, for instance sewage water treatment, petrochemical
process, cement…

“Batch control": semi-continuous processes, associated with

individual products, for instance chemical, pharmaceutical,
brewery…

“Manufacturing": discrete processes, associated with

transformation of parts, e.g. automobile industry, bottle-
filling, packaging
 Enterprise

Manufacturing Execution

Supervision (SCADA)

Group Control

Individual Control

Field

Primary technology
Although applications differ widely, there is little difference in
the overall architecture of their control systems.

Why the control system of a power plant is not sold also for
automating a brewery depends largely on small differences
(e.g. explosion-proof), on regulations (e.g. Food and Drug
Administration) and also tradition, customer relationship.
5 Planning, Statistics, Finances administration

4 Production planning, orders, purchase enterprise

3 Workflow, order tracking, resources (manufacturing) execution

SCADA =
2 Supervisory Supervisory Control
And Data Acquisition

Group control

Unit control
1
Field

Sensors T
& actors A V

0 Primary technology
 Consider a bottoms-up approach,

Field Data acquisition (Sensors & Actuators), data

transmission no processing except measurement
correction and built-in protection.

Unit (Cell) Control (regulation, monitoring and protection)

part of a group (closed loop except for
maintenance)
• Measure: Sampling, scaling, processing,
calibration.
• Control: regulation, set-points and parameters
• Command: sequencing, protection
.
and
interlocking
Group (Area) Controls a well-defined part of the plant
(closed loop, except for intervention of an
operator)
• Coordinate individual subgroups
• Adjust set-points and parameters
• Command several units as a whole

Supervision Supervise the production and site, optimize,

execute operations visualize plants, store
process data, log operations, history (open
.
loop
Manufacturing Manages execution, resources,
workflow, quality supervision,
production scheduling, maintenance.

Enterprise Set production goals, plans enterprise

and resources, coordinate different
sites, manage orders

Administration Finances, human resources,

documentation, long-term
. planning
The field level is in direct
interaction with the plant's
hardware (Primary technology)
unit controllers  The group level coordinates the
activities of several unit controls

 The group control is often

hierarchical, can be also be
peer-to-peer (from group control
to group control = distributed
control system)

Note: "Distributed Control

Systems" (DCS) commonly
refers to a hardware and
software infrastructure to
perform Process Automation
 Sometimes,
the group level has
its own man-
machine interface for
local operation
control
(here: cement
packaging)
 also for
maintenance:
console / emergency
panel
 Control room
(mimic wall)
1970s...

Formerly, all instruments were directly wired to the control room

 (SCADA = Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition)

- Displays the current state of the process (visualization)

- Display the alarms and events (alarm log, logbook)
- Display the trends (historians) and analyse them
- Display handbooks, data sheets, inventory, expert system
(documentation)
- Allows communication and data synchronization with other centres
 Store the plant and product data for further processing
in a secure way (historian), allowing to track processes
and trace products
-> Plant Information Management System (PIMS)

 Make predictions on the future behaviour of the processes

and in particular about the maintenance of the equipment,
track KPI (key performance indicators)
-> Asset Optimisation (AO)
The engineering workplace manages the control system, not the
plant.
The engineer can configure the networks and devices, load the
software, assign authorizations, troubleshoot the control
system,...
The ANS/ISA standard 95 defines terminology and good practices
Level 4
Business Planning & Logistics Enterprise Resource Planning
Plant Production Scheduling
Operational Management, etc.

Level 3 Manufacturing
Operations & Control Manufacturing Execution System
Dispatching Production, Detailed Product
Scheduling, Reliability Assurance,...

Levels
2,1,0
Batch Continuous Discrete Control & Command System
Control Control Control

Source: ANSI/ISA–95.00.01–2000
 Planning ERP
(Enterprise Resource
Level
Planning)

MES
Execution (Manufacturing
Level Execution System)

SCADA
(Supervisory Control
Supervisory and Data Acquisition)
Level
DCS
(Distributed
Control System)
Control
Level PLC
(Programmable
Logic Controller)

ms seconds hours days weeks month years

Higher Levels

 When ascending the control hierarchy, data are reduced:

higher level data are created (e.g. summary information)

 Processing and decisions becomes more complicated

(requires using models).

 Timing requirements are slackened. Historical data are stored

SCADA level

 Presentation of complex data to the human operator,

aid to decisions (expert system) and maintenance.

 Requires a knowledge database in addition to the plant's

database
Lower Levels
 Lowest levels (closest to the plant) are most demanding in
response time.

 Quantity of raw data is very large.

 Processing is trivial (was formerly realized in hardware).

 These levels are today under computer control,

except in emergency situations, for maintenance or
commissioning.
Complexity Reaction Speed
months
ERP

MES days
Command
level minutes
Supervision

Group Control seconds

Individual Control 0.1s

0.1s
Field

Site
Consideration of human intervention breaches this hierarchy.
Normally, the operator is only concerned by the supervisory level,
but exceptionally, operators (and engineers) want to access data
of the lowest levels.

The operator sees the plant through a fast data base, refreshed in
background.

This database is the pivot for logging and simulation.

knowledge base man-machine

communication
operator

history logging process simulation

data base

instructor

maintenance actualization
engineer
process data

plant
The process database is at the centre (example:
Wonderware)
Control System Architecture
 The control system has to suit the plant, not the reverse

 The structure of the control system should reflects that of the

plant

 Ideally, each unit of the plant should have its own controller,
interacting with the controllers of the other, related units,
mirroring their physical interaction.

Example: Airbus: a wing is delivered with its own computers.

 instrument bus
(mimic board)
open network, WAN
Operator panel
disk Mimic board
Process pictures

Process Data Base workstation bus

Logging station station

plant bus (500m .. 3 km)

pool P P P C P P C P
PLC nodes
node bus
(multi-processors)
I/O MEM I/O MEM BC
fieldbus (30m..2 km)

directly coupled
control backplane bus
input/
stations
output
sensor bus sensor bus (0,5.. 30 m)

transducers

M plant (Werk, usine)

valve thermo-couple position motor
 production
planning
Enterprise network

scheduling maintenance quality control

Plant network

transportation cell manufacturing

cell control cell control

Floor network
robot milling
controller machine

rail-guided
vehicle
Control systems look similar
Honeywell Total Plant (2003 same structure)
 Programmable Desktop PC
Device with excel
Support PC

EtherNet / IP

Controller and Bridge

Servo
ControlNet HMI

Linking Device Bridge or Linking Device

Drive

HMI

DeviceNet

Modular
I/O 509 -BOD

Micro
Sensor
24vdc

PLC
Block I/O
 ABB Industrial IT (redundant system)
Plant Network / Intranet

Workplaces Enterprise
(clients) Optimization
(clients) 3rd party
application
Firewall Mobile
server
Operator
Client/server Network

connectivity aspect application engineering

server server server workplace
Control Network

Serial, OPC Programmable

or fieldbus Logic Controller
AC 800C touch-screen
Redundant
AC 800M
Field Bus Field Bus
3rd party
controllers,
servers etc
The internet dimension (example: Alstom)
The wireless dimension (example: Schneider)

No more wires, but

the structure
remains
 A real substation project Global Position to Disturbance Recorder
HP Color
Printer Server 1 Operator's Workstation 1 Engineering Workstation
Laserjet
Operator's W orkstation 2

PTUSK Scope System Central Station Evalution Station

132kV FOX
Alarm and Equipment
Event Printer 1 11kV analog Ether 132kV analog Telephon
LA36W Printer Server 2 Input net Input Modem

Verbindung zu E4

Alarm and o/e

Event Printer 2 LAN-Interface 11kV Modem 132kV Modem
LA36W to LV SCMS
Repeater NSK NSK GPS
Master
Redundant Station LAN TCP-IP Repeater

Front-End Station Front-End Station

Computer 1 Computer 2 Fallback
HP Color

RS232
Switch
Laserjet

Service
Modem Station Alarm Unit Station Alarm Unit
LDCs Interface from Station Computer 2 IEC870-5-101

LDCs Interface from Station Computer 1 IEC870-5-101

Manual
Switch

4 x Star Coupler
RER111 including
redundant
power supply
FO

Fibre optic station bus (LON) in star configuration

Control Protection AVR and tap control

T1 type REGSys Fault Monitoring System
Bay control unit Bay control unit 3Ph and neutral OC Bay control unit Differential protection Bay control unit Analog alarm unit Indactic I650 10 x 132kV
Main 2
BBP/BFP Central unit

REC316*4 REC316*4 SPAJ140C REC316*4 RET316*4 SPAJ110C Tertiary REC316*4 REB500

SACO16A3
Earth fault
Prot.

AVR and tap control

EF and OC T2 type REGSys Analog alarm unit
SPAJ110C SACO16A3
Line distance prot.
REL316*4 500RIO11 , 16DI
SACO16A3 R
SPAJ110C
Stand by
earth fault SPAJ110C Neutral
6 x 500RIO11 DI 4 x 11kV
overcurrent earth fault
Prot.
Main 1 Prot.
10 x BBP/BFP Bay unit
AVR and tap control REB500
SACO64D4 Auxiliary alarm unit
SACO16A3 R SACO16A3 R T3 type REGSys
Phase and
SPAJ140C neutral SPAJ115C Restricted
SPAU140C overcurrent earth fault

Substation Automation System

Synchro-
Prot. Protection
SACO64D4 Auxiliary alarm unit
check

o/e AVR and tap control

SAS570 Advanced
Siemens 7SD610 für T4 type REGSys
E19 Verbindung Earth fault SPAJ115C SACO64D4 Auxiliary alarm unit
Restricted
SPAJ110C

overcurrent
Prot. earth fault 1 x 500RIO11 DO
Protection
1 x spare

B69
Überstrom 132kV Side SACO64D4 Auxiliary alarm unit
Bay control unit Bay control unit
11kV Side

Coaxial cable
Pilot wire diff. prot.
(loose delivery) SOLKOR R/Rf. (loose delivery) (loose delivery) (loose delivery) (loose delivery)
4 x 132kV Cable Line 1 x 132kV Bus Coupler 4 x 132/11kV Transformer Feeder Trafo Interlocking AVR & Tap Control 132kV BBP / BFP 132kV Common Alarm FMS Fault Monitoring System
Centralized Control Architecture (classical)

Central Computer
(Mainframe)

Group Group Group

PLCs
Control Control Control

Sensors, Actors plant

Classical, hierarchical, centralized architecture.

The central computer only monitors and forwards commands to
the PLCs
Decentralized Control System (DCS)

engineering operator
data logger
workstation workstation

Plant bus

controller controller controller controller

Field bus

plant

All controllers can communicate as peers (without going through a

central master), restricted only by throughput and modularity
considerations.
Note: Honeywell's "DCS™" stands for "Distributed Control System", it is not a
decentralized control system, but a control system for the process industry.
DMX7304 - FACTORY AUTOMATION

Introduction to Sensors

Lecture#3
 Introduction to sensors & transducers

 Sensor classification

 Sensor selection

 Performance characteristics
 In factory automation, extraction of
information/data plays a major role in
monitoring and controlling the plant
 This is accomplished by the
instrumentation/measuring/data acquisition
system of the plant
  A typical measuring/data acquisition device

Measurand (Typically an Transmittable

analog signal from plant) signal
Sensor Transducer

Measuring Device

 Measurand
o The quantity/parameter being measured
  A typical measuring/data acquisition system

Signal To
From plant conditioning controller/
Sensor Transducer
& display
modification

Measuring System
  A typical measuring/data acquisition system for
controlling

Input
Outputs
signal
Signal Control
Hardware Actuator Plant
conditioning

Signal
Transducer Sensor
conditioning

Measuring System
 Sensor
o A device that sense the measurand
o Acquires information from the real world
 Transducer
o A device that converts a primary form of energy into
a corresponding signal with a different form of
energy
o In other words, in a measuring device, a transducer
converts information supplied by a sensor into a
standardized signal which can be processed
o Primary forms of energy
• Mechanical
• Thermal
• Electro-magnetic
• Chemical
• Optical

o Sensors and actuators are examples for transducers

 Some important notes on sensors and
transducers
o Almost any physical property of a material that
changes in response to some excitation can be used
as a sensor
o Physical properties used by some commonly
available sensors
• Resistive • Piezoelectric • Magnetosrtictive
• Inductive • Thermal • Elastic
• Capacitive • Photoresistive
 Some important notes on sensors and
transducers (Cont..)
o Most sensors will come with a transducer coupled
to it

Strain Gauge

Deflection Strain Voltage Electrical Signal

Generation Generation
 Importance of sensing in industrial automation
o Manufacturing process control
o Process monitoring and supervision
o Product quality control
  Classification of sensors can be done on
several basis
SENSORS

SIGNAL POWER MODE OF SUBJECT OF

CHARACTERISTICS SUPPLY OPERATION MEASUREMENT

o Analogue o Active o Null type

o Digital o Passive o Deflection type
 Analogue
o Analogue mainly refers to continuous unbroken
series of events

o Therefore, they are used for measurement of

continuous process variables such as,
• Speed • Strain
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Flow
 Analogue
o These sensors typically producers a continues
output signal (Voltage) that is generally
proportional to the measurand
o The output signal is usually slow changing and small
in value, thus some kind of amplification may be
necessary
o The typical voltage range after amplification is 0 -5V
 Analogue
o The output will usually pass through a A/D
converter before entering the controller/display
o Examples:
• Potentiometer
• Thermo-couple
• LVDT
• Pressure sensors
 Analogue
 Digital
o Digital mainly refers to a sequence of discrete
events
o These sensors produces a discrete output signal or
voltage that is a digital representation of the
quantity being measured
 Digital
o It produces a binary output signal in the form of a
logic "1" or a logic "0", ("ON" or "OFF") which
means that a digital signal only produces discrete
(non-continuous) values which may be outputted as
a single "bit", (serial transmission) or by combining
the bits to produce a single "byte" output (parallel
transmission).
o Since the output from these sensors are digital,
these will not require any conversion modules
before entering the controller/display
 Digital
o Examples
• Limit switch
• Optical encoder
• Ultrasonic ranger
• Photosensitive semiconductor (Photo sensors)
– CCD
– CMOS
 Active
o The output (most of it) is produced by an external
power source

o Examples
• Ultra-sonic sensors
• Radar
 Passive
o In passive sensors the output is generated only from
the input parameter (input energy) they are sensing
o That is, no additional power source is not required
to generate an output signal
o However, the generated output signal can be very
small or weak, hence it may be necessary to amplify
the output signals by using active devices such as
OP amps
 Passive
o Examples
• Strain gauges
• LVDT’s
• Thermo-couples
• Piezoelectric sensors
 Deflection type
o These sensors are used in a physical setup where
the output is proportional to the measurand

o More convenient than null type. (Ease of reading

and operation)

o In terms of accuracy, it will be less than that of a

null type sensor
o Example would be the pressure gauge
 Null type
o In null type sensors, any deflection due to the
measurand is balanced by the opposing calibrated
force so that any imbalances are detected
o These are more accurate than the deflection types
sensing equipment
 In this classification, the types will depend on
the parameter or subject being measured
o For example
• Acoustic
• Biological
• Electrical
• Mechanical
• Thermal
• Optical
 Selection of a sensor for a particular application
depends on:
o Performance characteristics
o Durability and ruggedness
o Maintenance
o Cost
 Performance characteristics/parameters of a
sensor can be broadly categorized under two
main headings
o Static characteristics
• Parameters that are constant in time or vary
slowly with time
o Dynamic characteristics
• Parameters that vary with time
 Static characteristics
o Accuracy
o Precision
o Repeatability
o Range/Span
o Dead band/dead space
o Hysteresis
o Tolerance
o Threshold
 Static characteristics (Cont..)
o Sensitivity
o Resolution
o Linearity
o Impedance/loading effects
 Dynamic characteristics
o Useful frequency range
o Bandwidth
o Dynamic range
 Accuracy
o The closeness of the measured value to the
true value
o Depends on the inherent instrument
limitations

Low accuracy High accuracy

 Precision
o The ability of an instrument to reproduce a
certain set of readings within a given accuracy
and a minimum dispersion
o That is, if a large number of readings are taken
of the same quantity by a high precision
instrument, then the spread of readings will be
very small
o Precision depends on the reliability of the
instrument
 Precision

High precision Low precision

 Repeatability
o The closeness of output readings when the same
input is applied repetitively over a short period of
time, with the same measurement conditions, same
instrument and observer, same location and same
conditions of use, maintained throughout
o In other words, it is the ability to reproduce the
output signal exactly when the same measurand is
applied repeatedly under the same environmental
conditions
o The degree of repeatability is an alternate way of
expressing precision
 Range
o The range/span of an instrument is defined as
the minimum and the maximum values it is
designed to measure

 Dead space/dead band

o This is the range of different input values over

which there is no change in the output values
 Threshold
o If an input to a instrument is gradually
increased from zero, the input will have to
reach a certain minimum level before the
change in the instrument output reading is of a
large enough magnitude to be detectable. This
minimum level of input is defined as the
threshold
 Linearity
o This is simply the property of the instrument
where the output is a linear function of the
input
o However, 100% linearity is rarely achieved and
the deviations from the ideal are termed
‘linearity tolerances’
o Linearity is expressed as the percentage of
departure from the linear value ( i.e. maximum
deviation of the output curve from the best fit
straight line during a calibration cycle)
 Linearity

o The closeness of the static calibration curve (curve of

output amplitude vs input amplitude under static
conditions within the dynamic range) to a straight
line measures the degree of linearity
 Linearity
o The non-linearity is normally caused by non-
linear elements such as mechanical hysteresis,
viscous flow, creep and electronic amplifiers
 Zero drift
o Defined as the drift from the null reading of the
instrument when the measurand is maintained
at steady for a long period of time. Similarly,
full-scale drift is defined with respect to full
scale reading

o Caused by instrument instability, ambient changes,

changes in power supply, non-linearaties etc,
 Hysteresis effects
o If the input measured
quantity to the
instrument is steadily
increased from a
negative value, the
output variation is
shown as curve A. Then
if the input is steadily
decreased, the output
curve is as depicted as
in curve B
 Hysteresis effects

o The previous figure depicts the output

characteristics of a instrument which exhibits a
typical hysteresis
o Two quantities, maximum input hysteresis and
maximum output hysteresis can be defined
according to the diagram. These are normally
expressed as a percentage of the full scale input or
output reading respectively
 Sensitivity

o Sensitivity is measured by the magnitude (peak,

rms value, etc.) of the output signal corresponding
to a unit input of the measurand
o In other words, it is the ability of the instrument to
respond to the changes in the measurand
o It can also be expressed as the ratio of change of
output to the change of the input
 Sensitivity

o Example
• If a movement of 0.001mm causes an output
voltage change of 0.02V in a particular electrical
sensor, what would be its sensitivity?

0.02
• Sensitivity = = 20 V
0.001 mm
 Sensitivity
o In the case of vectorial or tensorial signals
(displacement, velocity etc.,) the direction of the
sensitivity should be specified
o Cross-sensitivity is the sensitivity along directions
that are orthogonal to the direction of sensitivity
and often expressed as a percentage of direct
sensitivity

o Usually sensitivity to parameter changes and noise

should be minimum (low)
 Resolution

o Resolution is the smallest increment in the

measured value that is possible to detect
accurately
o It is also known as the degree of fineness with
which measurements can be made
o It can be expressed as a percentage of the
maximum range of the instrument or as the inverse
of the dynamic ratio
 Resolution

o A sensor has a digital output of 12bits. What is it’s

digital resolution?
• The smallest possible increment will be the
change in the LSB (Least significant bit)

• Therefore, the resolution = 1

 Useful frequency range
o This corresponds to a flat gain curve and a zero
phase curve in the frequency response
characteristics of an instrument.
o The maximum frequency in this band is typically
less than half ( around one-fifth) of the dominant
resonant frequency of the instrument
 Useful frequency range
Gain

UFR

fmax fr Frq. (Hz)

Phase angle
 Bandwidth
o Bandwidth of an instrument determines the
maximum speed or the frequency at which is
capable of operating
o The Bandwidth is normally determined by the
dominant natural frequency or the dominant
resonance frequency of the sensor
o High bandwidth implies faster speed of response
o bandwidth is directly related to the useful
frequency range
 Dynamic range
o Dynamic rage of an instrument is determined by
the allowed lower and upper limits of its inputs or
outputs so as to maintain a required level of
measurement accuracy of an instrument
o Usually expressed as a ratio, in decibels
o In many situations, the lower limit of the dynamic
range is equal to the resolution of the device
 Dynamic range

o A sensor has a digital output of 12bits. What is it’s

dynamic range?
• Let the smallest possible increment to be δy

• Let the smallest possible value to be ymin and the

largest possible value to be ymax

Note that a 12-bit word can have a combination of

212 values
 Dynamic range
• Therefore, the largest value ymax = ymin + (212 -1 ) δy

• There will be 212 values within ymin and ymax,

inclusive of the two end values
Therefore, the dynamic range = ymax - ymin
δy

Dynamic range = (212 -1 ) δy = 212 – 1 = 4905

δy
 Dynamic range

Therefore, the dynamic range = 20 log10 (4095)

Dynamic range of the sensor = 72dB

 It is noteworthy to remember that instrument
manufacturers do not provide all the
performance parameters that we discussed
 The typical rating parameters provided
o Sensitivity o Accuracy
o Dynamic range o Bandwidth
o Resolution o Input/output impedances
o Linearity
o Useful frequency range
o Sensors for position and motion measurements
o Sensors for temperature measurements
o Sensors for force, torque and pressure
measurements
o Sensors for flow measurements
o Sensors for flow measurements
 Introduction to instrumentation/data
acquisition systems
 Definitions for sensors and transducers

 Classification of sensors

 Selection criteria of sensors

 Performance characteristics of sensors

ET4007 - INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION

Industrial Sensors

Lecture#4
OUTLINE

 Basic introduction to types of sensors

used in industry
Binary position measurement
binary sensors

•micro-switch +cheap, -wear, bouncing

•optical sensor +reliable, -dust or liquid sensitive

•magnetic sensor +dust-insensitive, - magnetic

Analog mechanical position

potentiometer
+cheap, -wear, bad resolution

capacitive +cheap, -bad resolution

(LVDT) +reliable, robust - small displacements

strain gauges +reliable, very small displacements

piezo-electric +extremely small displacements

Variable differential transformer (LVTD)
The LVDT is a variable-reluctance device, where a primary center coil establishes a
magnetic flux that is coupled through a mobile armature to a symmetrically-wound
secondary coil on either side of the primary.
Two components comprise the LVDT: the mobile armature and the outer transformer
windings. The secondary coils are series-opposed; wound in series but in opposite
directions.

When the moving armature is centered between the two series-opposed secondaries, equal magnetic
flux couples into both secondaries; the voltage induced in one half of the secondary winding is 180
degrees out-of-phase with the voltage induced in the other half of the secondary winding.
When the armature is moved out of that position, a voltage proportional to the displacement appears
source: www.sensorland.com
Capacitive angle or position measurement

A
C= ≈
d
movable

capacitance is evaluated
modifying the frequency of
 an oscillator
fixed
 Small position measurement: strain
gauges
Principle: the resistance of a wire increases when this wire is stretched:

A
'  2
R   ≈ 2
A V
" volume = constant, = constant

measurement in bridge
R1 R3 (if U0 = 0: R1R4 = R2R3)
measure

Uo
U temperature compensation
by “dummy” gauges
R2 R4
compensation frequently used in buildings, bridges,
dams for detecting movements.
Piezo-electrical effect
Piezoelectric materials (crystals) change form when an electrical field is applied to them.
Conversely, piezoelectric materials produce an electrical field when deformed.

Quartz transducers exhibit remarkable properties that justify their large

scale use in research, development, production and testing.
They are extremely stable, rugged and compact.
Of the large number of piezoelectric materials available today, quartz is
employed preferentially in transducer designs because of the following
excellent properties:
• high material stress limit, around 100 MPa (~ 14 km water depth)
• temperature resistance (up to 500C)
• very high rigidity, high linearity and negligible hysteresis
• almost constant sensitivity over a wide temperature range
• ultra high insulation resistance (10+14 ohms) allowing low
frequency measurements (<1 Hz)
source: Kistler
Force measurement

Force / Torque / Weight / Pressure is measured by

small displacements (F = k • x):

- piezo-electrical transducers
- strain gauges

Acceleration is measured by way of force /

displacement measurement (F = M • )
Principle of optical encoding

Optical encoders operate by means of a grating that moves between a light source and a
detector. The detector registers when light passes through the transparent areas of the grating.
For increased resolution, the light source is collimated and a mask is placed between the grating
and the detector. The grating and the mask produce a shuttering effect, so that only when their
transparent sections are in alignment is light allowed to pass to the detector.
An incremental encoder generates a pulse for a given increment of shaft rotation (rotary encoder),
or a pulse for a given linear distance travelled (linear encoder). Total distance travelled or shaft
angular rotation is determined by counting the encoder output pulses.
An absolute encoder has a number of output channels, such that every shaft position may be
described by its own unique code. The higher the resolution the more output channels are
required.
courtesy Parker Motion & Control
Absolute digital position: Grey encoder
straight binary: if all bits were to change at about the same time: glitches
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

LSB

MSB

Grey: only one bit changes at a time: no glitch

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

LSB

courtesy Parker
Motion & Control

MSB

Grey disk (8 bit)

Analog speed measurement: tachometer
angular speed 

analog: 4..20 mA
Ui ~ d / dt, transducer
f~
digital: 010110110

 A simple tachometer is a rotating permanent magnet that

induces a voltage into a stator winding.

 This voltage is converted into an analog voltage or current,

which can later be converted to a digital value, alternatively,
the frequency can be measured to yield directly a digital
value
Temperature measurement
The most frequently measured value in industry

Protection and
head assembly

Extension Assemblies

Thermowell

www.omega.com
Temperature measurement
Thermistance (RTD - resistance temperature detector):
metal whose resistance depends on temperature:
+ cheap, robust, high temperature range ( -180ºC ..600ºC),
- require current source, needs linearization.

Thermistor (NTC - negative temperature coefficient):

semiconductor whose resistance depends on temperature:
+ very cheap, sensible,

- low temperature, imprecise, requires current source, strongly non-linear

Thermo-element (Thermocouple):
pair of dissimilar metals that generate a voltage proportional to the
temperature difference between warm and cold junction (Seebeck effect)
+ high precision, high temperature, punctual measurement
- low voltage, requires cold junction compensation, high amplification, linearization
Temperature measurement

Spectrometer:
measures infrared radiation by photo-sensitive semiconductors
+ highest temperature, measures surfaces, no contact

- highest price

Bimetal
mechanical (yes/no) temperature indicator using the difference in the dilatation
coefficients of two metals, very cheap, widely used (toasters...)
 Thermo-element and Thermo-resistance
Thermo-element
(Thermocouple) 4 2 3
1 extension
two dissimilar wire
Fe Cu 4..20 mA
electrical
conductors U ≈ (2-1)

Constantan Cu
Fe-Const measured temperature reference temperature
also: Pt/Rh - Pt (hot junction) (cold junction)

Platinum (Pt 100)

Thermoresistance
(semiconductor or metal)
4..20 mA
i = constant
one material whose  U≈
resistance is 2,3- or 4-wire connection
temperature-
dependent

2 or 4 wire connection (to compensate voltage drop)

Hydraulic measurements
•Flow
•Mass Flow
•Level
•Pressure
•Conductivity
•pH-Sensor
•Viscosity
•Humidity

special requirements: intrinsic safety = explosive environment, sea floor = high pressure
Level measurement

•pulsed laser

•load cell

•pulsed microwave

•nuclear

•ultrasonic (40-60 kHz)

•low power ultrasonic

F = mg
detector
row
Flow velocity measurement: differential
pressure
piezo-electric
membrane
sensor

fluid of
viscosity 
p2 p1

occultation
(Blende) 1
p2 - p1 =  v2 (Bernoulli effect)
2

flow velocity is proportional to the square root of the pressure difference

Flow measurement

Other means:

Magnetic-dynamic
Coriolis
Ultra-sound
Flow measurement in a plant
Actuators

About 10% of the field elements are actors (that influence the process).
Actors can be binary (on/off) or analog (e.g. variable speed drive)

The most common are:

- electric contactors (relays)
- heating elements
- pneumatic and hydraulic movers (valve, pump)
- electric motors (rotating and linear)
Solenoids,
DC motor
Asynchronous Motors (Induction)
Synchronous motors
Step motors, reluctance motors

Actors are controlled by the same electrical signal levels as sensors use
(4..20mA, 0..10V, 0..24V, etc.) but at higher power levels (e.g. to directly move a
contactor (disjoncteur).
Linear Motors
Hydraulics and fluidics…
Pumps, valves, rods,…
the most widespread actor in industry
(lightweight, reliable, cheap)

fluidic switches

I/P or E/P = electro-pneumatic transducers

switchboard ("Ventilinsel")