CEP233 | FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
TO SURVEYING

MODULE 1
DEFINITION, CLASSIFICATION, AND TYPES OF SURVEYS
This module provides a discussion on the concepts, classification, and types of
various surveys method used in the engineering field.

Objectives
• To understand and provide basic knowledge on the concepts,
classification, and definition of various surveys method employed in the
engineering field.

1.1 Surveying

One of the oldest arts practiced by man is surveying. From the earliest times
it has always been necessary to mark boundaries and divide tracts of land.
Through the centuries the uses of surveying have expanded such that today
it is difficult to undertake any type of engineering construction that does
not involve some type of surveying. Planning and design are based on the
results of surveys, and construction is controlled by surveying. Professionals
in the different fields of engineering as well as geologists, architects,
foresters, agriculturists, and geographers are concerned with surveying as
a means of planning and executing their respective projects.

Surveys cover a wide range un scope and complexity, from staking out of
simple structures or the surveying of small parcels of land to the extensive
and difficult surveys required in the construction of subdivisions, bridges,
highways, canals, dams, railroads, wharves, missile and rocket launching
sites, drainage and irrigation systems, or the survey of relatively large
portions of the earth’s surface. Surveying is also required for the laying out
of industrial equipment, preparing forestry and geological maps,
positioning massive and complex machinery, in the construction of ships
and airplanes, as well as in the survey and exploration of extraterrestrial
bodies such as moon and the planets.

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In the training of a technical student the study of surveying is an important

part even though he may never actually use it later in practice. It is one
course which trains students to visualize and think logically, to plan, to work
carefully and accurately, and to arrange the product of these efforts in a
neat and orderly manner for record or presentation. A surveying course will
provide the student a worthwhile general experience and also develop
desirable traits and habits because the nature of the subject with its related
field measurements is such that it will develop habits of accuracy, industry,
and reliability.

In addition, the student will learn a great deal about the relative
importance of measurements. He is trained to decide on how accurate
and precise measurements should be made, and acquire essential habits
of checking numerical calculations, measurements, and observations. All
these attributes are expected to add to the stature and technical
competence of a future professional.

Definition of Surveying

All surveying operations have the same basic characteristics – that of

delineating a portion of the earth’s surface or subsurface or of establishing
the position or boundaries of some object upon it. A host of definitions have
been made by different authors, and the following are listed:

• ”Surveying is the art of determining the positions of points on or near the

earth’s surface by means of measurements in the three elements of space;
namely, distance, direction, and elevation.” – Rayner and Schmidt.

• “Surveying is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances between

objects, of measuring angles between lines, of determining the direction of
lines, and of establishing points by predetermined angular and linear
measurements.” – Davis, Foote, Anderson, and Mikhail.

• “Surveying is the art of making such measurements of the relative positions

of points on the surface of the earth that, on drawing to the scale, natural
and artificial features may be exhibited in their correct horizontal or vertical
relationships.” – Clarke.

• “Surveying is that branch of applied mathematics which teaches the art of

determining the area of any portion of the earth’s surface, the length and
directions of the boundary lines, the contour of the surface, and of
accurately delineating the whole on paper.” – Webster.

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• “Surveying is the science or art of making such measurements as are

necessary to determine the relative position of points above, on, or
beneath the surface of the earth, or to establish such points.” – Breed,
Hosmer, and Bone.

• “Surveying is the science and art of determining relative positions of points

above, on, or beneath the surface of the earth, or establishing such points.”
– Brinker and Wolf.

From different definitions given above, it is obvious that surveying activities

during the earlier part of the decade have only been limited to surveys on
or near the surface of the earth. Times, however, have changed and
modern surveying techniques are now applied to space exploration and in
the mapping of extraterrestrial bodies such as the moon, mars, and in the
near future the other planets, stars, and other heavenly bodies in the
universe.

The author believes that the science of surveying is now much wider and
complex in extent, and feels that is should be redefined more appropriately
as, the art and science of determining angular and linear measurements to
establish the form, extent, and relative position of points, lines, and areas on
or near the surface of the earth or on other extraterrestrial bodies through
applied mathematics and the use of specialized equipment and
techniques.

1.2 Plane and Geodetic Surveying

1. Plane Surveying – is that type of surveying in which the earth is considered

to be a flat surface, and where distances and areas involved are of limited
extent that the exact shape of the earth is disregarded. With regard to
horizontal distances and directions, a level line is considered as
mathematically straight, the direction of the plumb line is assumed to be
the same at all points with the limits of the survey, and all angles are
considered to be plane angles.

Plane surveying is of wide scope and application. The different methods of

plane surveying are employed in various surveys undertaken in engineering,
scientific, commercial, architectural, geographic, navigational, and
exploratory work. Since it is the required degree of accuracy which forms
the controlling factor in most surveys, no definite limit can be assigned for
the area up to which a survey may be considered as plane. Unless extreme
accuracy is required, plane surveying is applicable to areas of some
thousands of square kilometers in extent.

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2. Geodetic Surveying – are surveys of wide extent which takes into

account the spheroidal shape of the earth. These surveys employ principles
of geodesy, are of high precision, and the related calculations involve the
solving of equations derived from advanced mathematics particularly
spherical trigonometry, calculus, and some applications of the theory of
least squares.

Geodetic surveys, which are usually of a national character, are mostly

undertaken by government agencies to serve as a basis for the production
of accurate base and topographic maps. The most refined instruments and
method of observation are employed since these surveys provide
reference framework covering a large area of the earth’s surface. A
number of points of known location and elevation are established to serve
as controls for subordinate surveys of lesser extent which are performed as
plane surveys. Elevations of selected vertical control points are expressed
in terms of vertical distances above or below a reference curved surface
usually mean sea level.

The field measurements for most geodetic surveys are primarily observed
by the use of theodolites, tapes, and electronic distance measuring
devices. Recently, newly devised equipment have been employed such as
doppler and inertial surveying systems. These sophisticated systems are
capable of achieving high degrees of accuracy in short time spans.

1.3 Types of Surveys

1. Cadastral Surveys – are usually closed surveys which are undertaken in

urban and rural locations for the purpose of determining and defining
property lines and boundaries, corners, and areas. These surveys are also
made to fix the boundaries of municipalities, towns, and provincial
jurisdictions.

2. City Surveys – are surveys of the areas in and near a city for the purpose
of planning expansions or improvements, locating property lines, fixing
reference monuments, determining the physical features and configuration
of the land, and preparing maps.

3. Construction Surveys – these are surveys which are undertaken at a

construction site to provide data regarding grades, reference lines,
dimensions, ground configurations, and the location and elevation of
structures which are of concern to engineers, architects, and builders.

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4. Forestry Surveys – A type of survey executed in connection with forest

management and mensuration, and the production and conservation of
forest lands.

5. Hydrographic Surveys – Refer to surveying streams, lakes, reservoirs,

harbors, oceans, and other bodies of water. These surveys are made to
map shore lines, chart the shape of areas underlying water surfaces, and
measure the flow of streams. They are of general importance in connection
with navigation, development of water supply, and resources, flood
control, irrigation, production of hydroelectric power, subaqueous
constructions, and recreation.

6. Industrial Surveys – sometimes known as optical tooling. It refers to the

use of surveying techniques in ship building, construction and assembly of
aircraft, layout and installation of heavy and complex machinery, and in
other industries where very accurate dimensional layouts are required.

7. Mine Surveys – are surveys which are performed to determine the position
of all underground excavations and surface mine structures, to fix surface
boundaries of mining claims, determine the geological formations, to
calculate excavated volumes, and establish lines and grades for other
related mining work.

8. Photogrammetric Surveys – a type of survey which makes use of

photographs taken with specially designed cameras either form airplanes
or ground stations. Measurements are obtained from the photographs
which are used in conjunction with limited ground surveys.

9. Route Surveys – Involves the determination of alignment, grades,

earthwork quantities, location of natural and artificial objects in connection
with the planning, design, and construction of highways, railroads,
pipelines, canals, transmission lines, and other linear projects.

10. Topographic Surveys – are those surveys made for determining the
shape of the ground, and the location and elevation of natural and
artificial features upon it. The features shown include such natural objects
as hills, mountains, rivers, lakes, relief of the ground surface, etc; and works
of man, such as roads, buildings, ports, towns, municipalities, and bridges.

1.4 Surveying Instruments

Surveying instruments were developed gradually. It is believed that, an

extensive use of surveying instruments came about during the early days of
the Roman Empire. This remarkable engineering ability of Romans is clearly
demonstrated by their extensive construction of structures and buildings

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which continue to exist even up to this modern era. It will be noted that
many surveying instruments and devices evolved from those which were
earlier used in astronomy. The following instruments were early forerunners
of our present-day surveying instruments.

1. Astrolabe – The astrolabe of Hipparchus is considered to be one of the

best known of the measuring instruments that have come down from
ancient times. It was developed sometime in 140 B.C., and further improved
by Ptolomey. The instrument had a metal circle with a pointer hinged at its
center and held by a ring at the top, and a cross staff, a wooden rod about
1.25 meters long with an adjustable cross-arm at right angles to it. The
known length of the arms of the cross staff allow distances and angles to
be determined by proportion. It was originally designed for determining the
altitude of stars.

2. Telescope – The invention of the telescope in 1607 is generally accredited

to Lippershey. In 1609, Galileo constructed a refracting telescope for
astronomical observation. However, it was only when cross hairs for fixing
the line of sight were introduced, that the telescope was used in early
surveying instruments.

3. Transit – The invention of the transit is credited to Young and Draper who
worked independently from each other sometime in 1830. Both men were
able to put together in one instrument the essential parts of what has long
been known as the universal surveying instrument.

4. Semicircumferentor – An early surveying instrument which was used to

measure and lay off angles, and establish lines of sight by employing peep
sights.

5. Plane Table – One of the oldest types of surveying instruments used in field
mapping. It consists of a board attached to a tripod in such a way that it
can be leveled or rotated to any desired direction.

6. Dioptra – The dioptra which was perfected by Heron of Alenxadria, was

used in leveling and for measuring horizontal and vertical angles. It consists
essentially of a copper tube supported on a standard and could be rotated
in either horizontal or vertical plane. For measuring horizontal angles, a flat
circular disc with graduations in degrees is sued. An arm containing sighting
apertures at either end could be rotated to any desired position on the disc.

7. Roman Groma – The Roman surveyors used the groma as an instrument

for aligning or sighting points. It consisted basically of cross arms fixed at
right angles and pivoted eccentrically upon a vertical staff. Plumb lines
were suspended from the ends of the arms. By employing the groma two

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lines at right angles to each other could be established on the ground

where it is set up.

8. Libella – The Assyrians and Egyptians are believed to be the first users of
libella. The instrument had an A-frame with a plumb line suspended from its
apex and was used to determine the horizontal. Archeologists are of the
belief that the horizontal foundations of the great pyramids of Egypt were
probably defined by this device.

9. Vernier – The vernier is a short auxiliary scale placed alongside the

graduated scale of an instrument, by means of which fractional parts of the
smallest or least division of the main scale can be determined precisely
without having to interpolate. It was invented in 1631 by a Frenchman
named Pierre Vernier. Surveying instruments employ either a direct or
retrograde vernier.

10. Diopter – An instrument developed by the Greeks sometime in 130 B.C.,

and known to be their most famous surveying instrument. The diopter was
used for leveling, laying off right angles, and for measuring horizontal and
vertical angles. Since the telescope was not yet invented during the time
the diopter was used, peep sights were employed for sighting and in
aligning the device.

11. Compass – The magnetic compass came into wide use during the 13th
century for determining the direction of lines and in calculating angles
between lines. It was first introduced for use in navigation. The compass
consists of a magnetized steel needle mounted on a pivot at the center of
graduated circle. The needle continues to point toward magnetic north
and gives reading which is dependent upon the position of the graduated
circle.

12. Gunter’s Chain – The Gunter’s chain which was invented by Sir Edmund
Gunter in 1620, was the forerunner of instruments used for taping distances.
It is 66 ft long and contains 100 links, so that distances may be recorded in
chains and in decimal parts of the chain. Each part, called a link, is 0.66 ft
or 7.92 inches long.

13. Chorobates – This instrument was designed for leveling work. It consisted
of a horizontal straight-edge about 6 meters long with supporting legs, and
a groove 2.5 cm deep and 1.5 m long on top. Water is poured into the
groove and when the bar is leveled so that water stood evenly in the
groove without spilling, a horizontal lone is established.

14. Merchet – The merchet was device for measuring time and meridian. It
was first used by the Chaldeans in about 4,000 B.C. It consisted of a slotted

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palm leaf through which to sight and a bracket from which a plumb bob
was suspended. By sighting through the slot and past the plumb bob string,
a straight line could be projected.

1.5 Surveying Measurements

A measurement is the process of determining the extent, size, or dimensions

of a particular quantity in comparison to a given standard. In surveying,
measurements are usually concentrated on angles, elevations, times, lines,
areas, and volumes. Making measurements and the subsequent
computations utilizing them are basic and essential tasks of a surveyor. The
surveyor’s role is primarily to design a survey, then plan out and execute the
required field operations. In so doing, he designates the type, extent, and
procedure of measurements to be undertaken. The measurements
obtained are then evaluated and adjusted to obtain the desired results.

Any surveying measurement is always subject to the imperfections of the

instrument used in different errors inherent in the process of obtaining the
measurement. There is no such thing as perfect measuring instrument nor
there is a surveyor whose senses are sufficiently perfect to measure any
quantity exactly. The first thing a student of surveying must learn about
measurement is that no exact value of measured quantity is ever known.
Measurements are never exact and they will always be imperfect no matter
how carefully made. The physical measurements acquired are correct only
within certain limits because errors cannot be totally eliminated.

In surveying, measurements may be made directly or indirectly. To learn

and appreciate the different operations of surveying it is important for the
student to understand the fundamental principles of making measurements
or observations. It is a fact that the best surveyor is not the one who makes
the most accurate and precise measurements, but the one who is able to
choose and apply the required or appropriate degree of precision.

1. Direct Measurements ¬– A direct measurement is a comparison of the

measured quantity with a standard measuring unit or units employed for
measuring a quantity of that kind. Some common examples of direct
measurements are applying a wire or tape to a line, determining a
horizontal or vertical angle with a transit, or fitting a protractor between two
intersecting lines to determine the intersection angle.

2. Indirect Measurements – When it is not possible to apply a measuring

instrument directly to a quantity to be measured an indirect measurement
is made. In this type of measurement, the observed value is determined by
its relationship to some other known values. For example, the total length of

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a line would be an indirectly observed distance if it is determined by a

summation of a series of directly measured short segments. In the stadia
and substense bar method, horizontal and vertical distances are indirectly
obtained since it makes use of optical systems for relating a short known
length to the angle it subtends at the distance to be determined. There are
numerous indirect measurements made in surveying operations such that it
its important for surveyors and students of surveying to have good working
knowledge of trigonometry and geometry.

1.6 Units of Measurement

The Meter

The international unit of linear measure is the meter. This was proposed
sometime in 1789 by French scientists who hoped to establish a system
suitable for all times and all peoples, and which could be based upon
permanent natural standards. Originally, the meter was defined as
1/10,000,000 of the earth’s meridional quadrant.

The growing use of the meter led to demands for an international

organization to insure the uniformity and standardization of its defined
length. Several conferences were convened by the French government for
this particular objective. Finally, in May 20, 1875, a treaty was signed in Paris
by representatives of 18 countries, (13 from Europe, 4 from the American
continent, and 1 from Middle East) which created a permanent
International Bureau of Weights and Measures. As a direct result of this
treaty, the standard for linear measure was established as the International
Meter which was initially based on an iron meter bar standardized in Paris
in 1799. The meter was defined as the distance between two lines engraved
across the surface (near the ends) of a bar with an X-shaped cross-section,
composed of 90 percent platinum and 10 percent iridium, when the
temperature of the bar is 0 degrees Celcius.

The original international meter bar was deposited at the International

Bureau in Serves, near Paris, France. The Bureau took care of the prototype
standards of the meter and was given the task to periodically compare and
calibrate the primary standards of the participating countries which has
grown to 35 members in 1954. The bureau also carried on research to
improve the standards of methods of measurement.

All through the following years the metric standards made of platinum and
iridium served its purpose well, however, many scientists believe that the
system should eventually be based upon the natural standards of even
greater permanence, and possibly of greater precision. Ideas were

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conceived to adopt a natural standard in lieu of the previous man-made

physical standard. Such a standard would have the advantage of being
reproducible and also immune to possible damage by accident or by
hostile act.

In October 1960, the meter was redefined at the 11th General Conference
on Weights and Measures and agreed upon by 36 countries. The meter is
now defined as a length equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the orange-
red lights produced by burning the element krypton (with an atomic weight
of 86) at a specified energy level in the spectrum. This new definition will
enable nations now using the international system of units to make more
accurate measurements with the meter. It will keep them from having to
check and calibrate their meter bars against the international prototype
bar in France since this new defined length presumably can be reproduced
with great accuracy in a well-equipped laboratory.

International System of Units (SI)

A movement is now underway to standardize and simplify units of

measurements throughout the world. The International Bureau of Weights
and Measure promulgated in 1960 International System of Units, generally
known as SI. The ultimate goal is to modernize the metric system by
introducing a coherent and rational worldwide system of units. SI units are
now adopted by most countries in Europe, the Middle East, Africa, and in
Asia. The United States of America has started to adopt the International
System of Units, although with great hesitation.

Effective January 1, 1983 the English System was officially phased out in the
Philippines and only the modern metric system was allowed to be used.
Metric conversion or change-over was signed into law on December 1978
by former President Ferdinand E. Marcos. The metric system prescribed the
use of the International System of Units (SI) as established by the General
Conference on Weights and Measures and modified by the local Metric
System Board to suit Philippine conditions.

Units in SI of major concern to surveying are the meter (m) for linear
measure, the square meter (sq m or m2) for areas, the cubic meter (cu m
or m3) for volumes, and radian (rad) for plane angles. There are certain
units which are not part of SI but are still widely used. Examples are liter,
hectare, knot, day, hour, and minutes. These are still accepted for use in
the Philippines since it is not practical to abandon them yet. For longer
distances the kilometer (km) may be used and for larger areas hectare (ha)
is used. Degrees, minutes, and seconds are also acceptable for plane
angles measured in SI.

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Units of Measurement

The usual surveying type of measurement entail both angular and linear
measurements. When using SI, all linear measurements, as earlier stated, are
based upon the meter. Larger and smaller units are derived from it in
decimal steps, and their names are formed by adding prefixes. In SI a total
set of 18 prefixes are used to form multiples and submultiples of different
units. The following are commonly used prefixes are added to basic names.

Mega 1,000,000
Kilo 1,000
Hector 100
Deca 10
Deci 0.1
Centi 0.01
Milli 0.001
Micro 0.000001
Nano 0.000000001

1. Linear, Area, and Volume Measurements – Using the prefixes, the

following linear units are derived:
1 kilometer (km) 1000 meters
1 meter (m) 1000 millimeters
1 millimeter (mm) 1000 micrometers
1 micrometer (um) 1000 millimicrometers
1 millimicrometers (mu) 1000 million micrometers
1 meter (m) 10 decimeters
1 decimeter (dm) 10 centimeters
1 centimeter (cm) 10 millimeters

The common units for length are the kilometer, meter, centimeter, and the
millimeter. Length may also refer to other linear dimensions such as width,
depth, thickness, height, or distance. The kilometer is used for long distances
and in measuring the sides of large tracts of land. For the measurement of
objects such as buildings, structures, residential lots, height of mountains,
tides, pipes, and cables, the meter is used. The centimeter and millimeter
are not commonly used in surveying. They are suitable for small dimensions
needed in laboratories where very precise but minute measurements are
required.

The unit of area in SI is the square meter. For very small areas, square
millimeters or square centimeters is used. Areas of small tracts of land, floor
areas of buildings and structures are measured in square meters. The
hectare (ha), although not an SI unit, is commonly used for the

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measurement of large tract of land such as cities, provinces, sugar cane

plantations, rice fields, and forests. The square kilometers is the appropriate
SI unit for this purpose. The following are the commonly used relationships:
1 hectare = 10,000 sq m or 100 ares, 1 are = 100 sq m, 1 sq km = 1,000,000 sq
m or 100 hectares.

2. Angular Measurements – The SI unit for plane angles is the radian. The
radian is defined as an angle subtended by an arc of a circle having a
length equal to the radius of the circle. Obviously, 2π rad = 360 deg, 1 rad
= 57 deg 17 min 44.8 sec, or 57.2958 deg, and 0.01745 rad = 1 deg. The
relationship may also be expresses as follows: 1 deg = (3.1416/180) rad. 1
min = (3.1416/10800) rad, and 1 sec = (3.1416/648000) rad.

a) Sexagesimal Units – The sexagesimal units of angular measurement are

the degree, minute, and second. The unit of angle used in surveying is the
degree which is defined as 1/360th of a circle. One degree equals 60
minutes, and 1 minute equals 60 seconds. Division of seconds are given in
tenths, hundredths, and thousandths.

b) Centesimal Units – Many countries in Europe and the Middle East use the
centesimal system where the grad is the angular unit. In this system the
circumference of a circle (360 deg) is divided into 400 grads. The grad is
divided into 100 centesimal minutes or 0.9 degrees, and the minute is
subdivided into 100 centesimal seconds or 0 deg 00 min 32.4 sec. Grads are
usually expressed in decimals. For example, 194g 45c 82cc is expressed as
194.4582 grads.

Significant Figures

In recording results from values obtained by measurements and in making

computations, it is important to determine which should be retained as
significant figures. By definition, the number of significant figures is any value
includes the number of certain digits plus one digit that is estimated and,
therefore, questionable or uncertain. For example, if a line is measured with
a scale graduated in one meter increments and recorded as 3.6 meters,
the value has two significant figures – the 3 that is certain and the 6 which
is estimated. Any further estimation made would not be significant. If the
same line is again measured with a scale graduated in tenths of a meter,
and recorded with three significant figures, as 3.65 meters, the 3 and 6 are
certain, whereas the 5 is estimated or uncertain.

The number of significant figures is often confused with the number of

decimal places. Decimal places may have to be used to maintain the
correct number of significant figures, but in themselves they do not indicate
significant figures, some examples are:

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1. One Significant Figure

100 9 0.001

400 8000 0.000005

2. Two Significant Figures

24 0.020 0.0024

0.24 0.000065 3.6

3. Three Significant Figures

365 3.65 0.000249

12.3 10.1 0.0120

4. Four Significant Figures

7654 0.0742 0.00006712

32.25 15.00 364.0

5. Five Significant Figures

12345 100.00 40.000

0.86740 46.609 155.28

Some general rules regarding significant figures are:

Rule 1 – Zeroes between other significant figures are significant, as, for
example in the following values each of which contains 4 significant figures:
12.03, 35.06, and 4009.

Rule 2 – For values less than one, zeroes immediately to the right of the
decimal are not significant. They merely show the position of the decimals
such as in the following values which contains three significant figures:
0.00325, 0.000468, and 0.0230.

Rule 3 – Zeroes placed at the end of decimal numbers are significant such
as: 169.30, 366.00, and 11.000. These three values all have five significant
figures.

When computations are to be made with values obtained from

measurements, it is important that enough figures be retained to insure that

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the significant figures in the final result are consistent with the precision of
the measurement. Care must also be taken to prevent picking up figures
during computations which lead to final result containing more significant
figures than the precision of the original measurements. Final results from
computations couldn’t be more precise than the precision of the least
precise value used in the computations.

It is also important that data resulting from measurements are recorded with
the correct number of significant figures. If a significant figure is dropped in
recording a value, the time and effort spent in attaining a given precision
is wasted. If data are recorded with more figures than those which are
significant, a false precision is implied.

In surveying measurements the proper number of significant figures should

be recorded for every measured value. If this is done, the precision with
which the measurement was made is clearly indicated. For example, if a
length is determined to the nearest hundredth of a meter as 65.00 m, then
it should be recorded as 65.00 m – not 65.0 m or 65 m. By recording it as 65.0
m, the implication is that the distance was measured only to the nearest
tenth of a meter; if only 65 m is recorded, the implication is that the distance
was measured only to the nearest meter.

The number of significant figures in a directly observed quantity is related to

the precision or refinement employed in the observation. To be consistent
with the theory of errors, it is essential that measured values recorded with
the correct number of significant figures.

Rounding Off Numbers

Rounding off a value is the process of dropping one or more of the final
digits so that the value contains only the significant figures required for
further computations or portraying the final results. The following procedures
of rounding off values are generally accepted.

1. Digit is Less Than 5 – When the digit to be dropped is less than 5, the
number is written without the digit. Thus, 24.244, rounded to nearest
hundredth, becomes 24.24, correspondingly, to further round off 24.24 to
the nearest tenths, the value becomes 24.2

2. Digit is Greater Than 5 – When the digit to be dropped is greater than 5,

the number is written with the preceding is increased by one. Thus, 226.276,
rounded off to the nearest hundredth becomes 226.28, correspondingly,
226.28, rounded off to the nearest tenths would be 226.3.

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3. Digit is Equal to 5 – When the digit to be dropped is exactly 5, the nearest

even number is used for the preceding digit. Thus 26.175, rounded off to the
nearest hundredth becomes 26.18. Also, 156.285 would be 156.28.

The procedure in rounding off values as illustrated 1 and 2 above are

standard practice. Apparently, however many differ when the digit to be
dropped is equal to 5 such as in the process of rounding off 156.285. Some
people always take the next higher hundredth (i.e., 156.29) whereas others
invariably use the next lower hundredth (i.e., 156.28). It should be noted that
using the nearest even digit produces better balanced results in a series of
computations. The so-called “computer rule” in rounding off values should
not be applied to measured quantities. The rule was apparently devised for
non-measured values.

Modular Questions

M1-1 Briefly discuss your understanding on the concepts of surveying.

M1-2 Differentiate Plane Surveying from Geodetic Surveying.

M1-3 Enumerate and discuss at least five (5) types of surveying.

References
La Putt, J.P. (1987). Elementary Surveying (3rd ed.). Baguio City, Philippines:
Baguio Research & Publishing Center

Disclaimer
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have been specifically authorized by the copyright owner. However, this
module was created and made to serve as a tool for educational purposes
only and will be distributed without any profit.

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