CE – 412

Design of Concrete
Structures

September – 2021

Fawad A. Najam
Department of Structural Engineering
NUST Institute of Civil Engineering (NICE)
National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST)
H-12 Islamabad, Pakistan
Cell: 92-334-5192533, Email: [email protected] 1
CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021
 CE – 412 Design of Concrete Structures

Lecture 1:

Introduction to Structures
and Structural Design
Process
September – 2021

Fawad A. Najam
Department of Structural Engineering
NUST Institute of Civil Engineering (NICE)
National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST)
H-12 Islamabad, Pakistan
Cell: 92-334-5192533, Email: [email protected] 2
CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021
 What is Structural Engineering

A branch of civil engineering dealing primarily

with the design and construction of structures
(such as bridges, buildings, dams).

Merriam-Webster Dictionary

3
Structural Engineering is the art of
modelling materials we don’t wholly understand
into shapes we cannot precisely analyze
so as to withstand forces we cannot properly assess

in such a way that the public at large has no reason to

suspect the extent of our ignorance.

- Dr. A R Dykes, British

Institution of Structural
Engineers, 1976 4
 The Goal of

Structural
Engineering

5
The Role of Structural Engineers

• To help in the creation of the safe built environment.

• Nothing can function, if structural engineers do not do their job well.

• Every other professional “Depends” on the role of structural engineers.

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 6

All systems absolutely need structures

• Transportation systems

• Telecommunication systems

• Electricity and power systems

• Water supply, wastewater systems

• Irrigation and agricultural systems

• Mining, oil, gas, offshore platforms

• Industrial plants, piping and process

• Housing, commercial Businesses

• Public Buildings

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 7

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 8
 The beginning of Structural Engineering

recognition of the loads,

and fact that loads have an effect on

members and materials

and that there is a resistance within

materials to resist the loads effects

and that there is some relationship

between them

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 9

The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus The Lighthouse of Alexandria

The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus The Hanging Gardens of Babylon

The Colossus of Rhodes The Statue of Zeus at Olympia

The Great
Pyramids of Egypt
(1643 – 1727)
 From where it all started …

D’Alembert (1717–1783) Joseph-Louis Lagrange (1736 - 1830) Lord Rayleigh (John William Strutt, 1842 - 1919)

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 13

 14 14
CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021
CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 15
 16 16
CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021
CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 18
CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 19
CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 21
 22 22
CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021
World‘s Tallest Buildings
 Top 10 Tall Buildings of World

Height
Rank Building City Country Floors Built
(m)
1 Burj Khalifa Dubai UAE 828 m 163 2010
2 Makkah Royal Clock Tower Hotel Mecca Saudi Arabia 601 m 120 2012
3 Taipei 101 Taipei Taiwan 509 m 101 2004
4 Shanghai World Financial Center Shanghai China 492 m 101 2008
5 International Commerce Centre Hong Kong Hong Kong 484 m 118 2010
6 Petronas Tower 1 Kuala Lumpur Malaysia 452 m 88 1998
7 Petronas Tower 2 Kuala Lumpur Malaysia 452 m 88 1998
8 Zifeng Tower Nanjing China 450 m 89 2010
9 Willis Tower Chicago USA 442 m 108 1973
10 Kingkey 100 Shenzhen China 442 m 100 2011

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 24

 Evolution of High-rise Architecture

Monadnock Building, Woolworth Building, Chrysler Building, Sears Tower,

Chicago New York City New York City Chicago

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 25

 Empire State Building, New York World Trade Center Towers, New York Petronas Towers, Kuala Lumpur

Burj Khalifa, Dubai

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 26

 Development of Tube Approach

Dr. Fazlur Rahman Khan (1929 – 1982)

• A structural engineer and architect, who initiated
important structural systems for skyscrapers.
• Considered the "father of tubular designs" for high-rises,
Khan was also a pioneer in computer-aided design (CAD).
• He was the designer of the Sears Tower, since renamed
Willis Tower, the tallest building in the world from 1973
until 1998 and the 100-story John Hancock Center.

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 27

 Examples of Tube, Framed (Braced) Tube, Tube in Tube and Bundled Tube Systems

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 28

 Current Stage of High-rise Architecture

Bank of China, Hong Kong Jin Mao Tower, Shanghai John Hancock Building, Chicago

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 29

The Other Side of the Picture

30
 Percentage of Urbanized World

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 31

 Rate of Urban Population Growth

www.globalchange.umich.edu

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 32

 World’s Population Urban-to-Rural Ratio

(www.un.org)

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 33

Urbanization
Future Trends

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 34

Source: www.globalchange.umich.edu
 Urbanization → Growing need for built-up space
CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 35
 Kobe Earthquake (1995)
Magnitude = 7.2
Death Toll > 6,000

CE – 416: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2019 36

 Kashmir
Earthquake
(Oct 8, 2005)
Magnitude = 7.7

Death Toll > 70,000

CE – 416: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2019 37

 Balakot, Kashmir Earthquake (2005)

CE – 416: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2019 38

 Yogyakarta
Earthquake
(2006)

Magnitude = 7.0
Death Toll: > 5,600

CE – 416: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2019 39

 Wenchuan Earthquake (2008), China
Magnitude = 8.0

CE – 416: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2019 40

 Haiti Earthquake (2010)
Magnitude = 7.0

Death Toll: 100,000 ~ 200,000

CE – 416: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2019 41

The Goal Challenge of

Structural
Engineering

42
Introduction to Structural Design

43
 Structural Engineering Spectrum

Activity Conception – Analysis – Design – Detailing ...

Structure Buildings – Bridges – Trusses – Shells – Towers ...

Code American – British – European – Japanese ...

Material Concrete – PSC – Steel – Timber ...

Model 2D Frame/Truss – 3D Frame/Truss – Full 3D FEM ....

Analysis Linear Static – NL Static – Linear Dynamic – Large Disp. ....

Solution Equation Solution – Finite Elements – Programming ...

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 44

 Structural Design Office: Activities

Conception
Client Dealing

Analysis
Coordination

Design Structural
Principle Designer
Office
Design

Office
Management

Detailing
Design
Management

Costing

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 45

 CAD in Structural Engineering

Expert Systems Others

Integrated Conception
Detailing

Design

Analysis

Conception Analysis Design Detailing Integrated Expert Systems Others

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 46

Reinforced Concrete Building Elements

Reference: James G. Macgregor

Reinforced Concrete: Mechanics and Design, 3rd Edition.

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 47

Reinforced Concrete Building Elements

Reference: James G. Macgregor

Reinforced Concrete: Mechanics and Design, 3rd Edition.

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 48

The Hierarchy of Structures and its Components

• Physical Structures

• When applied to the physical and the built environment, the term Structure means an assemblage
of physical components and elements, each of which could further be a structure itself, signifying
the complexity of the system

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 49

 Basic Member Types and Forms

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 50

Characterization of Structures

• Based on the member types, the structures can be broadly categorized as

• Cable structures

• Skeletal structural

• Spatial structures

• Solid structures and

• A combination of these

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 51

 The Structural System

STRUCTURE
EXCITATION RESPONSES
Loads Displacements
Vibrations Strains
Settlements Stress
Thermal Changes Stress Resultants

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 52

 The Structural Elements

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 53

 Various Types of Structures:

Special Design Procedures and

Concepts for each type and material

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 54

Member Cross-sections

• Cross-sections are generally associated with line type or beam

type members, where the length is much longer than the other
dimensions.

• The design of a line type member often means the design of its
cross-section, which means the selection of appropriate
dimensions, proportions and materials used at the cross-
section level.

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 55

The Structural Materials

• Concrete
• Reinforcing Steel
• Pre-stressing Steel
• Hot Rolled Structural Steel
• Cold Formed Structural Steel
• Aluminum other metals
• Structural Timber

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 56

The Need for Analysis

• We need to determine the Response of the Structure to

Excitations
Analysis

so that:

• We can ensure that the structure can sustain the excitation

with an acceptable level of response
Design

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 57

 Structural Analysis vs Design

Structural Analysis Structural Design

• Fairly General, Unified (FEM, BEM ...) • Structural Material (RC, PSC, HRS, CFS, timber
... )

• Output: Element/ Member Actions, • Design Code (ACI, BS Codes, EuroCode, JIS
Displacements ... ... )

• Design Approach (working stress, ultimate

strength, limit state ... )

• Structural Members (beams, columns, slabs,

footings ... )

• Local Construction Techniques and Practices

• Output: Element/ Member Cross-section,

Reinforcement ...

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 58

 Analysis of Structure

 xx  yy  zz
+ + + pvx = 0
x y z
Real Structure is governed by “Partial Differential Equations” of various order.

Direct Solution is only Possible for:

• Simple Geometry
• Simple Boundary
• Simple Loading

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 59

 Need for Structural Model

STRUCTURE

EXCITATION RESPONSES
Loads Displacements
Vibrations Strains
Settlements Stress
Thermal Changes Stress Resultants

STRUCTURAL MODEL

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 60

Classification of
Loads

61
Proportioning for Safety

• Prime Concern: “Balance External Actions with Internal Stress Resultants with
adequate margin for safety”

𝑆 ≥ 𝐹𝑂𝑆 × 𝐴

• And Check for

• Deflections, Deformations, Vibrations, Crack Width

• Fire Protections, Permeability, Chemical Attacks

• Ductility and Other special considerations

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 62

 Proportioning for Safety Basic Design Equation

S>A
S
=A S = A  FOS
FOS
S Load Factor Design
Working Strength Design = A  FOS L
FOSs
•Ultimate Strength Design
• A = Actions due to loads •Limit State Design
• S = Strength of member •Partial FOS Design
• FOS = Factor of safety

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 63

Structural Design Philosophy and Process

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 64

 Design Philosophy and Process

“Structural Design is the process of proportioning the structure

to safely resist the applied forces in the most cost effective and
friendly manner”

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 65

 Overall Design Process

• Conception
• Modeling
• Analysis
• Design
• Detailing
• Drafting
• Costing
“Integrated Design Process”

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 66

 Structural Design Process

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 67

 The Response and Design

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 68

 From “Loads” to “Design Actions”

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 69

Structural Analysis vs Design

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 70

 Loads and Stress Resultants

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 71

 Various Methods of Structural Designs

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 72

Various Methods of Structural Design

• Working Stress Design

• Allowable Stress Design (ASD)

• Working Stress Design (WSD)

• Load Factor Design

• Ultimate Strength Design

• Ultimate Strength Design (USD)

• Strength Design (SD)

• Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

• Performance Based Design

• Pushover Analysis

• Capacity Based Design

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 73

 From Serviceability to Performance

Performance
Strength Design
Design
• Ductility
Serviceability
Serviceability considerations
Ability • Material failure
criteria • Deformation
• Section capacity capacity
• Load Capacity at
• Allowable for factored
loads large
material
deformations
• Control on
• Extraordinary
deformation
load
limits for design
considerations
loads

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 74

From Serviceability to Performance

• Satisfying one design level does not ensure that other design levels will be satisfied
• Serviceability design only ensures that deflections and vibrations etc. for service loads are
within limits but says nothing about strength.

• Strength design ensures that a certain factor of safety against overload is available within a
member or a cross-section but says nothing about what happens if load exceeds design
level.

• Performance design ensures that structure as a whole reaches a specified demand level.
Performance design can include, both service and strength design levels.

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 75

 Limit State Design Concept

Types of Limit State Description

• Loss of equilibrium
• Rupture
• Progressive Collapse
Ultimate Limit states
• Formation of plastic mechanism
• Instability
• Fatigue

• Excessive deflections
Serviceability limit states • Excessive crack width
• Undesirable Vibration

Due to abnormal conditions and abnormal loading such as

• Damage or collapse in extreme earthquakes
Special limit states
• Structural effects of fire, explosion
• Corrosion or deterioration

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 76

Limit State Design Concept

• Limit state design involves

• Identification of all potential modes of failure (i.e. identify significant limit states

• Determination of acceptable levels of safety against occurrence of each limit state

• Consideration by the designer of significant limit states

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 77

 Section Design Process
𝛾𝑚

Material safety Factor Member Factor

Characteristic value of Design member
Design Strength
material basic strength capacity
𝛾
𝛾Y𝑚
m
𝑚
𝛾Y𝑏b
𝛾𝑚
Verification
𝛾𝛾Y
𝑚 𝑖i Structure
Factor
Characteristic value of Design member
Design load
𝛾𝛾Y𝑓f 𝛾𝛾𝑚
Load capacity
Y𝑎a
𝑚
Load Factor Structural Analysis Factor

Limit State Design Concept

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 78

Force-based Design
vs. Displacement-
based Design

79
 Force-based Design vs. Displacement-based Design

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 80

Force-based Design
vs. Displacement-
based Design

81
ASD/WSD vs. USD

82
 Ultimate Strength Design (USD)

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 83

 Ultimate Strength Design (USD)

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 84

Ultimate Strength
Design (USD)

85
Ultimate Strength
Design (USD)

86
 Tension and Compression Controlled Sections

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 87

ASD/WSD vs. USD
vs. Plastic Design

88
Building Codes

89
The beginning of Structural Engineering

recognition of the loads,

and fact that loads have an effect on members

and materials

and that there is a resistance within materials to

resist the loads effects

and that there is some relationship between

them

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 90

 Evolution of our Understanding of Structures
Risk integrated based design, and a
more holistic approach towards
consequence based engineering

The introduction of capacity

based design approach
The recognition of the
difference between brittle and
ductile failure modes
Performance based design
and more explicit linkage
between demand and
performance
Formulation of ultimate
strength design approach
Formulation of limit state
design principles

Explicit consideration of
partial factor of safety (FOS)

Limits on the allowable stresses to achieve

in-direct factor of safety (FOS)

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 91

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 92
 Evolution of Structural Design Approaches

Resilience-
based Design
Consequence-
and Risk-based
Performance-
Design
based Design
Code-based
Design
Intuitive Design

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 93

Development of Formal Buildings Codes

1666 CE - “Rebuilding of 1908 CE – The formal 1927 CE - Uniform Building

London Act” after the building code was drafted Code (UBC) [updated every
“Great Fire of London” and adopted 3 years]

1988 CE – ASCE 7 by the

1680 CE - “The Laws of the 1904 CE - A Handbook of
American Society of Civil
Indies” Spanish Crown the Baltimore City
Engineers (ASCE)

1859 CE - In USA, the City

1844 CE - London Building 1997 CE - The International
of Baltimore first building
Act Building Code (IBC) by ICC
code

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2020 94

 Building Codes

• A building code is a properly documented set of rules and guidelines specifying the minimum standards for
constructed facilities.
• The main purpose of building codes is to protect public health, ensure safety and general welfare as they
directly govern the construction and occupancy of buildings and other structures.
• The building code becomes law of a particular jurisdiction when formally enacted by the appropriate governmental or
private authority.
• The complete process of planning, design, construction and operation of buildings are guided by various building
standards, guidelines, codes and design aids.
• Improving the building code quality in terms of addressing real-life problems and enforcement would directly help
cities to improve their environmental sustainability and disaster resilience.

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 95

 Uniform Building Codes (UBC), International Building Codes (IBC)

Common Families of Traditional Building Codes

Guidelines from American Concrete Institute (ACI), American Society of Civil Engineers
(ASCE), American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)

Euro Codes (EC), British Standards (BS)

Building Code of Australia (BCA) & Australian Standards, NZ Codes, etc.

Guidelines from Japanese Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE), Korean Society of Civil
Engineers (KSCE), Chinese and Russian Codes, etc.

Indian Standards (IS), Thailand Codes, Myanmar National Building Code (MNBC),
National Building Code of Philippines (NBCP), Building Code of Pakistan (BCP), etc.

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 96

 Earthquakes and Building Codes (1)

Epicenter
Epicenter
Site
Site
Fault
Fault
Soil
Soil Site
SiteResponse
Response
Ground
Ground motioncan
motion can
bebe amplifiedby
amplified bysoil
soil

Attenuation
Seismic waves lengthen and diminish in strength
as they travel away from the ruptured fault.

Hypocenter
Hypocenter
(Focus) Seismic
SeismicWaves
Waves
(Focus)
Code Guidelines based on Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis (PSHA), Seismic
Deaggregation Analysis, Site Classification and Site Response Analysis

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 97

Earthquakes and Building Codes (2)

Structure
Linear/Nonlinear
Analysis Model

Code Guidelines for Linear and Nonlinear Structural Modeling

Estimation of
Future ground Characterization of
shaking Seismic Ground
Motions

Code Guidelines for Ground Motion Parameters and Spectra

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 98

Earthquakes and Building Codes (3)

Estimation of Estimation and Provision of Required

Linear/Nonlinear Seismic Member Capacities
Demands

• Global-level Responses • Reinforcement

• Inter-story Responses • Cross-section
• Component-level sizes
Responses • Detailing rules

Code Guidelines for Seismic Analysis Procedures Code Guidelines for Seismic Design and Detailing

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 99

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 100
 History of Building Codes in Pakistan

1947 through the

Pre-partition 1970s to 1986 1986 to 2007 2007 to 2020 ???
1975

• Seismic design • British building codes • Trained engineers • Pakistan's first national • After the 2005 Kashmir earthquake,
provisions were added remained in use after began applying building code was Ministry of Housing & Works hired
to the building code of partition. American codes, published in 1986 as "an National Engineering Services
the municipality of • Some government especially the Uniform advisory document" with Pakistan (NESPAK) to develop
Quetta after a damaging agencies continue to Building Code (UBC). seismic provisions seismic hazard maps and
earthquake there in use British codes even • Until the international modeled on earthquake design provisions for a
1935 today, though not Building Code (IBC) contemporary editions thorough update of the 1986 code.
necessarily for replaced it in 2000, the of the UBC. • NESPAK collaborated with a
earthquake design of UBC was the leading • Though perhaps committee of experts convened by
building structures model code throughout intended for adoption by the Pakistan Engineering Council
California and the U.S. local bylaw, the 1986 (PEC), mostly academics, to
west coast. code was not officially produce a consensus document that
• It was updated on a adopted or enforced. became the 2007 Building Code of
three-year cycle through • While sometimes used Pakistan.
its final edition in 1997. as a reference, trained • The provisions of BCP-2007 in
engineers continued to conjunction with its model codes are
use the UBC. used for the structural design of
buildings in Pakistan.

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 101

The Roadmap to
Achieve Disaster Practice and
Education to
Research and Building Code General Public
Construction
Academics of Pakistan and Role of
Resilience in Industry
Media

Pakistan

102
 Governmental
Authorities and
Enforcement

The Roadmap to
Private Sector
Practicing
and Civil
Achieve Disaster Society Engineers

Resilience in
Research and Disaster
Pakistan Development
Preparedness,
Response, and
A well- Mitigation
researched
Building Code

103
Fundamentals of Structural Modelling and Analysis

104
 Solid – Structure - Model

3D SOLIDS
Discretization
Simplification
(geometric)

3D-CONTINUUM MODEL CONTINUOUS MODEL DISCRETE MODEL OF

(Governed by partial OF STRUCTURE STRUCTURE
differential equations) (Governed by either (Governed by algebraic
partial or ordinary equations)
differential equations)

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 105

Continuum vs. Structure

• A continuum extends in all direction, has infinite particles, with continuous variation of material
properties, deformation characteristics and stress states.
• A structure is of finite size and is made up of an assemblage of substructures, components and
members.
• Structures can be categorized in many ways. For modeling and analysis purposes, the overall physical
behavior can be used as basis of categorization.
• Cable or Tension Structures
• Skeletal or Framed Structures
• Surface or Spatial Structures
• Solid Structures
• Mixed Structures

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 106

 Structure Types

• Cable Structures
• Cable Nets
• Cable Stayed

• Bar Structures
• 2D/3D Trusses
• 2D/3D Frames, Grids

• Surface Structures
• Plate, Shell
• In-Plane, Plane Stress

• Solid Structures

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 107

 Structural Idealization

Continuum

Regular Solid
(3D)

y
Plate/Shell (2D) z
x z x Beam (1D)
b h
t<<(x,z)
L>>(b,h)
h
t
z
x L
b

Dimensional Hierarchy of Structural Members

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 108

 From Classical to FEM Solution

Classical Assumptions FEM

Equilibrium
Actual Structure Structural Model

 xx  yy  zz Stress-Strain Law
+
x y z
+ + pvx = 0 𝐾𝑈=𝐹
Compatibility
“Algebraic Equations”
“Partial Differential
Equations”
K = Stiffness
Principle of
Virtual U = Response
F = Loads
Work)

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 109

 The Concept of Stiffness

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 110

 What is Stiffness (K) “made off”?

2 5
𝐾 = 𝑓(𝐸, 𝐴, 𝐼, 𝐿)
A 2D frame element with 3
3 degrees of freedom per node
6
Material Cross-section Member
1 4
Property Properties Property

𝐸𝐴/𝐿 0 0 −𝐸𝐴/𝐿 0 0

0 12𝐸𝐼/𝐿3 6𝐸𝐼/𝐿2 0 −12𝐸𝐼/𝐿3 6𝐸𝐼/𝐿2

0 6𝐸𝐼/𝐿2 4𝐸𝐼/𝐿 0 −6𝐸𝐼/𝐿2 2𝐸𝐼/𝐿

𝐾=
−𝐸𝐴/𝐿 0 0 𝐸𝐴/𝐿 0 0

−12𝐸𝐼/𝐿3 −6𝐸𝐼/𝐿2 0 12𝐸𝐼/𝐿3 −6𝐸𝐼/𝐿2

0 6𝐸𝐼/𝐿2 2𝐸𝐼/𝐿 0 −6𝐸𝐼/𝐿2 4𝐸𝐼/𝐿

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 111

 What Stiffness is made of

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 112

 What is Stiffness (K) “made off”?

• The overall stiffness of the structure is

derived from the overall geometry and The resistance of the
Material Stiffness
connectivity of the members, their material to strain
stiffnesses, and the boundary conditions.
Cross-Section Geometry

• The member stiffness is derived from the The resistance of cross-

Section Stiffness
section to overall strains
cross-section stiffness, and member
geometry. Member Geometry
The resistance of each
Member Stiffness
• The cross-section stiffness is derived from member to local actions

the material stiffness and the cross-section Structure Geometry

geometry.
The overall resistance of the
Structure Stiffness structure to overall loads
• All of these stiffness relationships may be
linear or nonlinear.

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 113

 The Global Structure Stiffness - K

Material Stiffness

Cross-Section Geometry
Linear Section Stiffness

Member Geometry
Non-Linear
Member Stiffness

Structure Geometry

Structure Stiffness

Nonlinear Modeling is
an advanced topic

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 114

 = We provide to the FE software.
Material Modeling or Definition
• Elastic Materials: 𝐸, 𝑣, 𝐺, 𝛼 is required.
Cross-section Definition
• Inelastic Materials: Complete stress-strain
• Elastic Cross-sections: 𝐴, 𝐼, shear areas etc. are required.
curve and hysteretic need to be defined.
• Inelastic Cross-sections: Complete moment-curvature
curve and hysteretic behavior are required.
1 Material Stiffness 2
Member Definition
Cross-Section Geometry • Elastic Members: Lengths and orientations are required. In
several FE software, user can just “draw” members.
Section Stiffness 3
• Inelastic Members: Complete moment-rotation curve and
Member Geometry hysteretic behavior are required.

Member Stiffness 4 Structural Configuration

Structure Geometry • Elastic Structure: Overall structural layout, global geometry

and orientations are required.
Structure Stiffness • In several FE software, user can “draw” the whole structure.

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 115

 Finite Element Modeling, Analysis and Design Process
-1 Idealization

0 Discretization
= Our task; FE software doesn’t help.
1 Materials = We provide to the FE software.
= FE software does for us.
2 Cross-sections
=𝐾
3 Members

4 Structure

5 Loads (𝐹 or 𝐹(𝑡) vector)

6 Run 𝑲 𝑼 = 𝑭 or 𝑴𝑼ሷ 𝒕 + 𝑪𝑼ሶ 𝒕 + 𝑲𝑼 𝒕 = 𝑭(𝒕)

8 Structural Design
7 Post-processing, Local Forces

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 116

 Fundamental Concepts in Structural Design Process

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 117

 Fundamental Concepts in Structural Design Process

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 118

 Fundamental Concepts in Structural Design Process

a) Action-Deformation Relationships: Defining an action-deformation relationship means linking the deformations produced in a
member due to applied actions or linking the restraining actions with applied deformations. These relationships involve the entire
stiffness of the member and may be either linear or nonlinear. One action can produce more than one deformation and one
deformation may be caused by more than one action.
b) Deformation-Strain Relationships: Deformation-Strain relationship means linking deformations with corresponding strains.
Each deformation produces a particular strain pattern or profile on the cross-section. A particular strain may be result of several
deformations. For example, axial strain may be produced due to axial deformation as well as flexural curvature. This relationship
is defined primarily by the cross-section’s stiffness and may be linear or nonlinear.
c) Stress-Strain Relationships: Stress-Strain relationship means linking strain to corresponding stress. Generally, this relationship
is used at material level, indicating material stiffness and its behavior. For example, Hooke’s Law describes the stress-strain
relationship for a linear elastic material but in general, this relationship is nonlinear for most materials.
d) Stress Resultant-Action Relationships: This last relationship is the expression of equilibrium and completes the cycle of all
relationships. In fact, this relationship is the basis for strength design of structural members, which states that “the internal stress
resultants should be in equilibrium with external actions with adequate margin for safety”.

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 119

 Action-Deformation Relationships

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 120

 Deformations for Applied Actions: Flexibility Relationships

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 121

 Deformations for Applied Actions: Flexibility Relationships

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 122

 Restraining Actions for Assumed Deformations

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 123

 The Nonlinearity of Response and Stiffness (Action-Deformation Relationships)

CE – 412: Design of Concrete Structures – Semester: Fall 2021 124