College of Education

Digital Literacies and Learning:

Designing a Path Forward
Friday Institute White Paper Series
Number Five • June 2012
www.fi.ncsu.edu/whitepapers

Hiller A. Spires and Melissa E. Bartlett

North Carolina State University
With Contributions From:

Adam Garry
Dell
Angela H. Quick
NC Department of Public Instruction

The William & Ida Friday Institute for Educational Innovation at the North Carolina State University College of Education
 Table of Contents

Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

What Does it Mean to be Literate in the Digital Age? . . . . . . . . 7

What is Digital Literacy? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Research on Teacher’s Use of Digital Literacies

in North Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Survey Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Focus Group Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Connections Among Digital Literacies, Common Core

Standards and Assessment In North Carolina . . . . . . . . . 16

Recommendations for Teacher Professional Learning . . . . . . . 18

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2 F R I DAY I N S T I T U T E D i g i ta l L i t e r a c i e s and Le a rning: D esig ning a P at h F o r w a r d

 The mission of the Friday Institute is to advance education through innovation in teaching, learning, and leadership.
Bringing together students, teachers, researchers, policy-makers, educational professionals, and other community
members, the Friday Institute is a center for fostering collaboration to improve education.

As we progress into the 21st century, our work focuses on preparing students for success in work, life, and citizenry in
the global, knowledge-based, technology-rich, culturally-diverse, rapidly-changing world in which they will live. This
task requires helping schools become future-oriented organizations that build upon their traditional strengths while
updating curriculum content, teaching practices, management approaches, and technology tools to best serve the
students of today and tomorrow. For more information, visit www.fi.ncsu.edu.

The Friday Institute Issue Papers and Briefs is a series designed to present expert opinions and begin conversations
on topics related to transforming education. For the complete collection of Friday Institute Issue Papers and Briefs,
visit www.fi.ncsu.edu/whitepapers.

Research for this white paper was funded by North Carolina State University’s Strategic Research Fund and the
Friday Institute for Educational Innovation. Special acknowledgement goes to Dr. Chris Moersch for permission to
use the LoTi Survey; and to Erin Lyjak, Jonathan Bartels, and the NC Department for Public Instruction for their
contributions to the research portion of the white paper. Correspondence should be directed to Dr. Hiller A. Spires at
[email protected].

© 2012 Friday Institute for Educational Innovation, North Carolina State University

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 “Today our schools must prepare all students for college and careers--
and do far more to personalize instruction and employ the
smart use of technology.”

Arne Duncan
US Secretary of Education

Executive Summary

Since technological advances are driving much of the change that we

see in information and communication, researchers and educators are
attempting to answer two important questions: What does it mean to be
literate in the 21st century? How do we design instruction that enables
educators to cultivate digital literacies for themselves as well as their stu-
dents? This white paper addresses the redefinition of literacy skills that
enable students to be successful in today’s digital world and the implica-
tions this redefinition holds for their teachers.

Digital literacy should be positioned as an entitlement for students that

supports their full participation in a society in which social, cultural,
political, and financial life are increasingly mediated by digital literacies
(California Technology Assistance Project, 2008). In the same way that
readers must acquire skills in navigating textual and graphic features of
the traditional informational textbook, readers must acquire sophisticated
reading skills with online environments in order to be academically and
professionally competitive.

One way to think about digital literacy is to organize the related cognitive
and social processes into three categories: (a) locating and consuming
digital content; (b) creating digital content; and (c) communicating digital
content. The capacity to evaluate information in terms of its credibility
and reliability is also essential, as is the ability to make judgments about
when and how to apply information to solve problems and share new
knowledge. Teachers are confronted with the challenge of teaching stu-
dents to become productive readers within a constantly evolving digital
environment.

The Friday Institute for Educational Innovation at North Carolina State

University recently examined K-12 teachers’ knowledge of and profes-
sional practices with digital literacies (Spires & Bartels, 2011). Results
from the Levels of Technology Implementation (LoTI) survey indicated
that only 12% of teachers who completed the survey fully integrated
digital tools and resources in a learner-centered approach, placing an
emphasis on student action and higher-level thinking. None of the teach-
ers employed a learner-centered technology approach where there was
no disconnect between instruction and technology in the classroom.
Interestingly, teachers reported that integrating digital literacies and 21st
Century Skills was the highest priority at their school, followed by student
achievement on end of grade tests.

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 To prepare teachers to cultivate their students’ digital literacies, the North
Carolina State Board of Education (NCSBE, 2012) recently adopted the
North Carolina State Literacy Plan that establishes the expectation of
digital literacies for students and their teachers. This plan with its five
priority action steps combined with the Common Core State Standards
Initiative will provide high expectations and a road map for increasing
students’ digital literacy performance. The action steps include:

1. Ensure that implementation of the revised standards includes literacy

strategies in each content area, focuses on digital literacy and that
all Pre K-12 teachers have an in-depth understanding of the K-12
College and Career Readiness Anchor Standards and the Common
Core Literacy Standards for Science, Social Studies, History, and the
Technical Subjects and how they apply to each content area, specific
grade-level content requirements and the 21st Century Skills and
Themes.

2. Continually update the student assessment processes to provide

open-ended and performance assessments. Assessments should
be Internet-based and provide data for teachers to diagnose
and address student literacy problems. Focused interventions
for individualized education should serve as a guide for each student
to receive appropriate assistance.

3. Provide opportunities for leadership development for principals,

central office staff and literacy coaches, using the online blended
model of professional development when appropriate.

4. Enhance preparation and professional development for pre-service

and in-service teachers.

5. Analyze the need(s) for policy revision and development.

Becoming digitally literate is not an option. As a matter of economic de-

velopment, North Carolina needs to ensure that learners of all ages have
the skills needed to navigate in this new literacy landscape.

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 I. Introduction

Since technological advances are driving much of the change that we

see in information and communication, researchers and educators are
attempting to answer two important questions: What does it mean to be
literate in the 21st century? How do we design instruction that enables
educators to cultivate digital literacies for themselves as well as their
students? Contemporary literacy demands and opportunities extend
beyond the traditional practices of reading and writing to incorporate
facility with new genres of media and information technologies. Students
currently use a variety of tools and social media, including Facebook,
Twitter, video games, instant messaging, virtual worlds, wikis, and blogs
to discuss issues and problems, to seek ideas and answers, as well as
to entertain themselves. However, classrooms rarely capitalize on these
resources or help students manage them in ways that promote higher
level thinking.

Linguists use the term deixis (“dike-sis”) for words whose meanings
change quickly depending upon the time or space in which they are
used. Accordingly, Leu et al. (2009) argue that contemporary literacy is
a deictic term since the forms and functions of literacy rapidly change
as technologies for information and communication change. Emerging
technologies require new skills and strategies on the part of the user.
For example, searching for information online requires new kinds of
literacy skills. A learner may be skilled with using search engines but
lack the critical expertise for selecting reliable information from the vast
number of links that are available. In the same way that readers must
acquire skills in navigating textual and graphic features of the traditional
informational textbook, readers must acquire sophisticated reading skills
with online environments in order to be academically and professionally
competitive—not to mention civically engaged. As technology alters the
literacy experience, the task of literacy learners increasingly will become
to learn how to learn effectively while adapting to rapid changes (Coiro,
Knobel, Lankshear, & Leu, 2008; Dede, 2008). The latest statistics
claim that one sixth of the world’s population, 2.3 billion individuals, now
use the Internet to read, write, communicate, learn, and solve important
problems online (Internet World Stats, 2011). By all indications, these
numbers will continue to increase.

As a matter of economic development, North Carolina needs to ensure

that learners of all ages have the skills needed to navigate in this new
literacy landscape. Successful learners will be users of technologies that
foster the creation of content and the sharing of information, thoughts,
and ideas central to active and effective participation in society. An
individual’s ability to read, write, do math, problem-solve, work as part
of a team, think critically, and use information and communications
technologies is essential to education and workforce preparation,
employment success, as well as civic participation. Becoming digitally
literate will not be an option; it will be a necessity.

Digital literacy should be understood as a wide-ranging set of practices

that enable students to create, share, and understand meaning and
knowledge in an increasingly digital age. Fieldhouse and Nicholas

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 (2008) claim that digital literacy requires students to have critical thinking
skills for “determining how credible information is and to contextualize, Digital literacy should be positioned
analyze, and synthesize what is found online” (p. 57). Digital literacy as an entitlement for students that
should be positioned as an entitlement for students that supports
supports their full participation in
their full participation in a society in which social, cultural, political and
financial life are increasingly mediated by digital technologies (California a society in which social, cultural,
Technology Assistance Project, 2009). In a recent Futurelab digital political and financial life are
participation project, the authors asserted that digital literacy: (a) can increasingly mediated by digital
be developed alongside subject knowledge in all classrooms across technologies (California Technology
the curriculum at both primary and secondary levels; and (b) can be Assistance Project, 2009).
important not only in supporting students to become independent, critical
learners but also in narrowing the gap between students’ experiences
inside and outside of school (Hague & Payton, 2010).

II. What Does it Mean to be Literate in the Digital Age?

The Internet is undoubtedly the most important technology of this

generation. In an era where it is possible to “FacebookTM” and “SkypeTM”
friends as well as “GoogleTM” just about any topic imaginable, the Internet
offers both challenges and profound promise for education. There
is an increasing trend in Internet usage, particularly among children
and adolescents. In fact, in the United States the National Center for
Educational Statistics (2009) reports that the percentage of instructional
classrooms with access to the Internet and web-based learning tools has
increased from 51% in 1998 to 94% in 2005. On average, 8- to 18-year-
olds spend a total of 10 hours and 45 minutes in a typical day using
various media forms (e.g., movies, video games, music, audio) (Kaiser
Family Foundation, 2010). In most cases, out-of-school technology
use is outpacing in-school technology use (National School Boards
Association, 2007). These statistics suggest that students are becoming
increasingly dependent on the Web as a primary resource for information
gathering in and out of school settings.

In a recent study conducted in the US with 4000 middle grade students

in a North Carolina statewide after-school program (Spires, Lee, Turner
& Johnson, 2008), students reported high frequency usage of video
and online games, music services, email, instant messaging, and cell
phone services out of school. The main distinctions that emerged
between in and out-of-school technology use related to the intent of the
technology use and the actual devices being used. Outside of school,
students were using technologies for communication and entertainment
purposes. They also were more likely to use smaller handheld and
gaming devices outside of school. Inside of school, students were using
desktop computers for Web-based research, word-processing, and other
productivity purposes. The surveys suggested that students’ technology
use inside school is often less creative and meaningful to them than
their technology use outside of school. The divide between informal
and formal learning environments can be a huge disconnect for today’s
learners. Interestingly, research suggests that while they are frequent
users of technology tools, students typically lack information literacy
skills and their critical thinking skills are often weak (Oblinger & Oblinger,
2005). Contemporary students may be “digital natives” (Prensky, 2007),
but they do not necessarily understand how their use of technologies
affects their ways of learning.

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 Due to the proliferation of the Web, teaching students to become
strategic readers with informational text is becoming increasingly
challenging for educators. The massive explosion of online information
and the increasing reliance on these resources for educational purposes
combine to create a shift in what it means to be literate in today’s global
knowledge-based society. Today’s readers must of course know how
to decode, but they must also know how to effectively comprehend in
complex Web reading environments. In this new digital context, reading
comprehension not only includes skills traditionally associated with
processing print-text, but also includes locating information on the Web,
critically evaluating that information, and synthesizing information for a
desired learning outcome (Goldman, 2004). Additionally, contemporary
readers must expand their understanding of print text to reflect the
characteristics of digital text, which are nonlinear, multimodal, highly
visual, interactive, and possess unclear authority and authorship (Dalton
& Proctor, 2008).

III. What is Digital Literacy?

In order to define digital literacy, we first need a working definition

of literacy. In his book, What Video Games Have to Teach Us About
Learning and Literacy, James Gee defines literacy as the ability to
“recognize (the equivalent of ‘reading’) and produce (the equivalent of
‘writing’) meanings in a domain” (2007, p. 20). In 1997, Paul Gilster
claimed that digital literacy was the “ability to understand and use
information in multiple formats from a wide range of sources when it
is presented via computers” (p. 1). Thus, digital literacy involves any
number of digital “reading” and “writing” techniques across multiple
media forms. These media include words, texts, visual displays, motion
graphics, audio, video, and multimodal forms. In the same way that
literate individuals can negotiate print text through the processes of
reading and writing, literate users of technology are able to consume
and produce digital compositions. As media scholar Henry Jenkins
(2011, para. 9) said: “Traditionally we wouldn’t consider people literate if
they could read but not write. And today we shouldn’t consider people
literate if they can consume but not produce media.” The literacy of the
future rests on the ability to decode and construct meaning from one’s
constantly evolving environment. The capacity to evaluate information
on the issues of credibility and reliability is essential, as is the ability
to make judgments about when and how to apply information to solve
problems.

Terms like “literacy,” “fluency” and “competency” can all be used to

describe the ability to steer a path through digital environments to find,
evaluate, and accommodate information (Fieldhouse & Nicholas, 2008,
p. 50). Literacy theorists Lankshear and Knobel (2006) believe that “the
more a literacy practice privileges participation over publishing, collective
intelligence over individual possessive intelligence, collaboration over
individuated authorship . . . the more we should regard it as a ‘new’

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 literacy” (p. 60). These skills allow working collaboratively within social
networks, pooling knowledge collectively, navigating and negotiating
diverse communities, and critically analyzing and reconciling conflicting
information in order to perform desired tasks. Obviously, the ability to
work differently leads to different social and work practices; thus, we
have distributed teams across the world and more people working from
home.

Complex digital literacy environments present challenges for students

who are shifting to “reading to learn” around third grade (Chall, 1996).
As students progress through school and content demands increase,
literacy demands also increase. Students are expected to read and
write across a wide variety of disciplines, including science, math,
history, and literature. Negotiating texts with increasing sophistication
and perspective is a key marker of academic success and a prominent
feature of the Common Core State Standards Initiative (CCSSI).
Students must be fluent in recognizing technical vocabulary, thinking
critically and evaluatively, monitoring their comprehension, and reading
flexibly for a variety of purposes. Even more importantly, students must
maintain the will and motivation to continue to read, write, and learn
as they progress through school in preparation for college and career
contexts.

One of the intriguing aspects of online reading is that it provides a literal

and physical dimensionality for “constructing” text that previous textual
forms have not afforded. On the Web the reader is literally constructing
a text by the choices he or she makes and thus weakening the authority
of the author and the dominance of the text. There are myriad cognitive
processes at play, along a continuum from consumption to production
when a reader is immersed with digital content as well as with print-text.
The digital context is particularly challenging for the developing reader
due to the fluid nature of the Web and the demand for critical judgments
as the reader makes decisions about how to locate information as well as
the credibility of that same information.

Proposed Definition of Digital Literacy. We offer a simplified way to

think about digital literacy by ordering the cognitive and social processes
into three categories: (a) locating and consuming digital content, (b)
creating digital content, and (c) communicating digital content (see
Figure 1). For purposes of discussion we are separating these practices;
in authentic digital literacy contexts, however, users traverse among
these practices in a recursive manner. Additionally, the learner must
acquire an evaluative stance as he/she navigates digital content, and this
disposition is essential in order to maintain accuracy and integrity within
the process. Without critical evaluation, the learner may become lost in a
sea of information with the technology driving the learner rather than the
learner directing the inquiry.

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 Figure 1. Digital literacy practices involve the ability to locate and
consume, create, and communicate digital content, while simultaneously
employing a process of critical evaluation.

Locating and consuming digital content. Having the mental

models to locate, comprehend and consume digital content makes
navigating the Web easier for users. Effective use of the Web involves
strategically searching for information and evaluating its accuracy and
relevancy (Leu et. al., 2008). There is consensus that effective Web
search skills must be developed for educational success in a digital
society, and instruments such as The Teaching Internet Comprehension
to Adolescents (TICA) checklist can ensure that students have the
necessary prerequisite Web search skills (Leu et al., 2008). However,
there is little consensus with regard to how to incorporate the effective
teaching and development of Web search skills in the classroom
(Moraveji, Morris, Morris, Czerwinski, & Riche, 2011). Nevertheless,
some important skills are considered necessary for locating and using
digital content: domain knowledge, a working knowledge of how to
use search engines, basic literacy skills, and a general knowledge of
resources available on the Web (Moraveji et al., 2011). In addition to
building on the ability to craft productive Web search terms, search
lessons should involve direct modeling of the use of Boolean search
techniques, differentiating between domain names (e.g., .com versus
.org), and querying sites for accuracy and transparency.

Creating digital content. Digital content is easily created by teachers

and students alike through multiple media and a variety of Web 2.0
tools. The implementation of digital content in the classroom may
Although the creation of digital
be an important and effective method of enhancing teacher-learning
content is becoming increasingly (Bakkenes, Vermunt, & Wubbles, 2010), enabling them to embrace
simple, personalization of learning the 21st century skills that students are expected to master. Digital
will require teachers to locate and resources can also free up teachers, allowing them to spend more time
utilize a variety of digital resources facilitating student learning and less time lecturing. Allowing students
to meet the needs of every learner. to create and consume digital content in the classroom may increase
engagement while also encouraging the development of skills needed
for a technological society. Although the creation of digital content is
becoming increasingly simple, personalization of learning will require

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 teachers to locate and utilize a variety of digital resources to meet the
needs of every learner. Personalization will also put a heavier emphasis
on asking students to show mastery of learning by producing digital
content and sharing outside the classroom walls.

Communicating digital content. Digital content must be

communicated effectively in order to be a useful educational medium.
Using social networking sites like Facebook and Twitter is one method
of communicating digital content, because using these sites requires the
ability to understand and use information in multiple formats from a wide
range of sources. Web 2.0 tools are social, participatory, collaborative,
easy to use, and are facilitative in creating online communities. Even
simpler, yet effective means of communicating digital content exist, such
as using email as a means for children to communicate information
digitally to their teachers (Merchant, 2003). The use of e-mail to
communicate in and out of school contexts has been found to enhance
children’s narrative and writing skills by not only enriching their print-
based literacy skills, but also by encouraging students to implement new
and more sophisticated means of writing and communicating to more
diverse audiences (Merchant, 2003).

Being able to communicate digital content using mobile devices such

as cellphones and tablets provides convenience and immediacy to
the communication process for teachers and students. Additionally, it
provides access to an infinite set of people and digital content resources
globally to enrich the learning experience. This type of communication
affords the possibilities of more customization and personalization for
individual learners’ interests and needs, which may in turn optimize
student engagement.

Essential to preparing students for the digital literacy demands of

contemporary society is having a teacher workforce that has the
knowledge and skills to teach accordingly. Effective professional
development is an essential element for supporting the implementation
of digital literacies across the curriculum (Spires, Wiebe, Young,
Hollebrands, & Lee, 2009). As a foundation to designing an appropriate
professional development model for digital literacies across content
areas, it is important to assess what teachers currently know in terms of
digital applications, as well as how they perform using digital literacies.
As technological change transpires at a phenomenal rate, teachers
in the United States are under increasing pressure to integrate new
technologies into their instruction (National Educational Technology
Plan, 2010). It is important for teachers to use the technologies not only
because students expect it, but also because educational systems need
to stay abreast of the changes in online research, communication, and
social media in order for students to be prepared for 21st century work
and citizenship (Trilling, & Fadel, 2009). New teachers entering the
field often are more adept at using technologies since they have grown
up with them; however new teachers still have the challenge of using
technologies in meaningful ways that enhance learning. Meanwhile
teachers who have been in the field for some time confront the dual
challenge of acquiring a disposition that accommodates ongoing change
as well as ‘re-learning’ how to teach using contemporary technologies
(Darling-Hammond, 2010). Understanding where we are with teachers’
use of digital literacies is paramount to devising a plan to move forward.

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 IV. Research on Teachers’ Use of Digital Literacies in North Carolina

“Once you have technology, it’s hard to imagine not teaching with it.”
North Carolina 10th grade teacher

To respond to the need for additional information about teachers’

digital literacies and practices, researchers at the Friday Institute for
Educational Innovation at North Carolina State University recently
examined K-12 teachers’ knowledge of and professional practices with
digital literacies (Spires & Bartels, 2011). The aim of the project was
“Once you have technology, it’s to answer two questions: (a) What are the digital literacy practices of
hard to imagine not teaching with NC teachers? (b) How do teachers view digital literacy? Researchers
it.” utilized an exploratory mixed methods design which enabled the
North Carolina 10th grade teacher. researchers to use qualitative results from focus groups to explain and
build upon initial quantitative survey results, as well as to enhance the
knowledge base for the theoretical framework that guided the study (see
Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2007). The researchers used stratified sampling
to randomly select two school districts from each of North Carolina’s
seven Economic Development Regions for this two-part study.

A total of 452 K-12 teachers (74 males, 378 females) completed the
survey. Approximately 1% of the participants were American Indian,
1% were Asian, 7% were African American, 88% were Caucasian, 1%
were Hispanic and 2% were identified as Other. Roughly 62% of the
participants held bachelor’s degrees, 37% held master’s degrees, and
1% held doctoral degrees. Twenty-one percent of the sample had
taught less than five years at the time of the study, 27% had taught 5- to
9-years, 33% had taught 10- to 20-years, and 19% had taught more than
twenty years.

Participants were asked to complete the online Levels of Teaching

Innovation (LoTi) survey in order to identify teachers’ knowledge levels
pertaining to digital literacies, as well as their practices related to
digital literacies. LoTi, a valid and reliable survey (for original content,
construct, and criterion validity, see Moersch, 1995), provided the
framework for personalized digital-age development profile identification
of specific levels of technology implementation. See Table 1.

Table 1. LoTi levels of technology implementation

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 These levels range from Nonuse (Level 0), Awareness (Level 1),
Exploration (Level 2), Infusion (Level 3), Integration Mechanical (Level
4a), Integration Routine (Level 4b), Expansion (Level 5), to Refinement
(Level 6). Teachers responded to items using a Likert scale. The survey
includes items such as (a) I model and facilitate the effective use of
current and emerging digital tools and resources (e.g., streaming media,
wikis, podcasting) to support teaching and learning in my classroom; and
(b) I promote global awareness in my classroom by providing students
with digital opportunities to collaborate with others of various cultures.

Survey Results

Results indicated that teacher knowledge and professional practices of

digital literacies in the classroom fluctuated within our sample; however,
the majority of teachers indicated that their pedagogical emphasis
was on teacher-directed tasks. Specifically, digital tools were added
to instructional content rather than integrated within it. Based on LoTi
scores, factors such as teachers’ highest level of education, number of
years experience, gender, ethnicity, and urbanity had little impact on
teacher understanding and implementation of technology.

Multiple one-way analyses of variance (ANOVA) were conducted on LoTI

scores. Some factors were found to have a significant association with
LoTI scores, namely grade (F (2, 447) = 4.65, p <.01) and subject taught
(F (8, 442) = 4.7, p < .01). On average, elementary (M= 3.0, SD= 1.0)
grade teachers scored higher on the LoTI scale than both secondary (M=
2.6, SD =1.3) and intermediate teachers (M= 2.7, SD=1.2). Teachers
who taught multiple subjects (M=2.97, SD=1.07) scored higher on the
LoTI than English/Language arts teachers (M =2.52, SD=1.03). No other
pairwise comparisons yielded significant differences. The mean scores
for both grade and subject taught, however, were in level 3 (Infusion),
where classroom instruction was by and large teacher-directed and
digital tools were used in a supplementary fashion.

A frequency analysis was conducted in order to investigate teacher

understanding and implementation of digital literacies in practice. Survey
results indicated that the majority of the teachers in the sample fell
within the range of level 2 (Exploration) and level 3 (Infusion) users.
Level 2 users (29% of teachers) used technology to supplement the
curriculum with lower level thinking activities, whereas level 3 users (32%
of teachers) used technology to complement selected lessons, provide
detailed exposure to content, and to stress higher-level thinking. (See
Figure 2.)

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 Figure 2. Frequency scores by LoTi level.

Level 4a users (15% of the teachers) had shifted to a learner-centered

approach but had not yet fully integrated digital tools and resources in
the classroom. A total of 12% of teachers fully integrated digital tools
and resources in a learner-centered approach (levels 4b – 6), placing
an emphasis on student action and higher-level thinking. None of the
Survey results showed that teachers reached the level of Refinement (level 6), an entirely learner-
digital literacies and integrating centered technology approach where there was no disconnect between
21st Century Skills (32%) were instruction and technology in the classroom.
considered the highest priorities
Teachers were asked to choose what they perceived as their school
for K-12 schools in the upcoming system’s highest priority in the upcoming school year. Those teachers
school year, followed by student who responded as having integrated 21st century skills/themes did not
achievement on high stake tests score differently than those who chose an alternative answer. LoTI
(29%). survey results showed that digital literacies and integrating 21st Century
Skills (32%) were considered the highest priorities for K-12 schools in the
upcoming school year, followed by student achievement on high stake
tests (29%). (See Figure 3.)

Figure 3. Frequency of highest priorities for K-12 schools in the

upcoming school year.

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 Focus Group Results

Using a purposive sampling procedure, researchers targeted the 52

teachers who scored in the upper levels of the LoTI (4b-Integration,
5-Expansion, 6-Refinement). Of the 52 teachers in this subgroup, 13
were randomly selected to participate in a focus-group session. LoTI
levels 4b – 6 indicated that the respondent was: (a) fully integrating
technology, in varying degrees; (b) focusing on applied learning with
authentic issues; (c) collaborating with the community; and (d) shifting to
a more learner-centered approach where the classroom was driven by
student generated questions focusing on problem-solving.

Of the 13 teachers who participated in the focus group, the majority were
female (n = 11). Two participants were elementary teachers, 3 were
English/language arts teachers, 3 were science teachers, and 5 were
social studies teachers. Of these teachers, 3 identified themselves as
early career, 5 as mid-career, and 5 as seasoned professionals.

First, a semi-structured focus group session was conducted to elicit

elaborations and member check understandings of digital literacy
knowledge and practices from the survey. Next, teachers were randomly
placed into two focus groups (one group of 7 teachers and one group of
6 teachers) that were led by two researchers and lasted approximately
one hour each. Both groups followed a semi-structured interview
process that was audio recorded and transcribed for qualitative coding
and analysis. Focus group data from both groups were combined
and aligned based on semi-structured questions. Two researchers
independently read the focus group transcripts and identified initial
topics for coding data based upon the frequency with which teachers
mentioned specific topics. Data was then clustered into relevant themes
based on the research topics and teacher responses that aligned with
the particular theme. Four final themes emerged from the teacher focus
group:
(a) “Our roles as teachers are changing.” Teachers’ viewed their
roles as educators as continuously changing. They felt the need to take
on the role of facilitator and coach by allowing their students to engage
in peer teaching and assessment. One teacher noted that students
sometimes learned better from their peers and suggested that teachers
need to be willing to learn from their students.
(b) “We need technology and sustained professional
development in order to be technology savvy.” Teachers felt it was
essential to have reliable high-speed Internet connections as well as
up-to-date resources and equipment. Teachers expressed the need for
intensive, sustained professional development in order to stay abreast of
the latest trends and practices related to digital literacy and technology
integration. One teacher reflected, “Once a school buys a program, we
are required to learn the program on our own. It would be more helpful if
the content was presented when the technology was introduced.” Others
agreed by stating that programs should be tailored to the subjects they
are teaching and to the programs that work best for the content they are
teaching. Teachers felt that they learned technology best through face-
to-face and hands on training rather than when they were “talked at”
by instructors. Additionally, they expressed a desire to collaborate with
business, which they considered to be “an untapped resource.”

D i g i ta l L i t e r a c i e s and Le a rning: D esig ning a P at h F o r w a r d F R I DAY I N S T I T U T E 15

 (c) “Our students need different skills today.” Teachers
emphasized the need for students to know how to reason and to be
higher order thinkers along with knowing when and how to use different
tools for a variety of purposes. They also noted that students need to (a)
be able to locate information; and (b) know what information is reliable.
One teacher explained, “Students don’t read. They find a picture and
read the caption. If it is not quick or flashing they can’t find it. They need
to know how to read, how to find information on the Internet and to know
if it is valuable or not.” All of the teachers agreed that students must
be able to collaborate and communicate well with others in order to be
successful in future educational and career contexts.
(d) “We have serious challenges to implementing technology in
our classrooms.” The teachers acknowledged two key challenges they
face while implementing technology in the classroom. First, teachers
expressed their need for access to mobile technology (e.g., laptops,
tablets, I-pads, cell phones) and high-speed Internet connections.
Many of the teachers stated their concern over having limited access
to technology resources and related connectivity problems. One
teacher called her computer “a dinosaur” because it was missing keys,
but mentioned that at least it was her computer. One school made
the exception to the school rule by allowing students to bring their cell
phones to class to compensate for the school’s technology limitations.
One teacher commented: “We have used student cell phones for Google
searches, taking pictures and even as a stopwatch because our school
does not have the appropriate equipment.” Second, teachers reported
that too much emphasis was placed upon the current assessment
system. They expressed their concern that mandatory practice testing
encompassed approximately 6 weeks of class time, during which
students needed to memorize material in order to reach optimal test
scores. In general, teachers felt that testing and online/digital literacies
did not coincide and that currently there was no connection between
technology and standardized testing. Meanwhile, teachers indicated
that by using technology, students were in fact better prepared for
standardized tests. The teachers believed that student ability would
be better assessed through project-based tests, allowing resources
for specific applications to be used to demonstrate their performance-
based knowledge. “We use resources in our classroom, just like in the
workforce, but we are prohibited from using resources during testing,”
one teacher explained. Teachers felt strongly that students need to
be able to use digital resources within testing contexts to approximate
authentic use and application of information.

V. Connections Among Digital Literacies, Common Core Standards

and Assessment In North Carolina.

Results of this study clearly indicate that educators must have more
support in making the digital shift and that the support needs to be
systemic throughout the educational enterprise.  The survey and follow
up interview data illustrate the disparity between what is expected of
students and their teachers in terms of mandated curriculum and the
related assessments and what is now understood to be required in 21st
century skills development. The NC Department of Public Instruction is
in the process of addressing this critical gap as it plans for the adoption
of the Common Core Standards.

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 The National Governors Association (NGA) and the Council of Chief
State School Officers (CCSSO) collaborated to form the Common
Core State Standards Initiative (CCSSI) to create a set of standards
specifically focused on addressing the learning needs of students today
(National Governors’ Association, 2009). The Common Core defines
today’s learners as students who:

.... tailor their searches online to acquire useful information

efficiently, and… integrate what they learn using technology
with what they learn offline. They are familiar with the
strengths and limitations of various technological tools and
mediums and can select and use those best suited to their
communication goals (CCCSI, 2011, p. 7).

In addition to the online dispositions needed to accomplish the behaviors

described above, a seamless integration of information is also an
expectation set within the Common Core. This emerging definition
of literacy is not a matter of a digital shift alone, but it also includes
a different approach to consuming and producing information made
possible through new technologies. An example of the new approach is
seen in the Common Core Standards for English Language Arts, which
takes an interdisciplinary stance towards literacy rather than treating it as
an isolated content area. This constitutes a significant curricular change
for teachers and their students as they acquire knowledge through
thematic problem-based inquiry set within a digital landscape that
encourages the fluid exchange of ideas and information.

The expectation that students learn and make new meaning within an
interactive digital landscape presupposes that their teachers also can
function digitally and that measurements of learner outcomes can take
place within a Web 2.0 environment. To further these elements of the
digital shift, North Carolina is participating in the Smarter Balanced
Assessment Consortium to help develop a more balanced assessment
system with a new focus on formative and summative assessment.
Formative assessment is considered an integral part of the curriculum
adoption and will be facilitated as a district and statewide collaboration
of educators using a Web 2.0 based delivery platform. It is believed Effective teaching with technology
that understanding the uses of formative assessment and being able to requires TPACK, or an ability to
design these ongoing learning tools within digital media will create the integrate content, pedagogy and
instruction needed to empower teachers to cultivate digital literacies
technology flexibly during the act of
for themselves as well as for their students. All educators regardless
of their location across the state will be able to receive online formative teaching.
assessment training and learn how to set up virtual professional learning
communities (PLCs) to further their own digital literacies by creating
professional online cohorts of instructors. The PLCs will then use Web
2.0 technologies to collaboratively create formative assessments to
guide and inform their instruction. Having all of the training online is
a significant shift for many educators who have limited experience in
socially constructed information networks and represents a challenge
in professional development delivery for the state. The online formative
assessment training is the signature offering of the NC Formative
Assessment Learning Community’s Online Network (NCFALCON).

D i g i ta l L i t e r a c i e s and Le a rning: D esig ning a P at h F o r w a r d F R I DAY I N S T I T U T E 17

 Although this system is in the early stages of implementation, it has
potential to close the gap between the 20th century world of paper-
and-pencil expectations and the Web 2.0 world of today. The goal of
this system is to enable teachers to learn and grow as professionals
by having them use digital tools similar to those they will be using with
students.

VI. Recommendations for Teacher Professional Learning

Mishra and Koehler’s (2006) technological pedagogical content

knowledge (TPACK) framework (see Figure 4) is one tool that can
be used to support teachers as they develop new digital practices.
Building on Shulman’s (1986) time-honored concept of pedagogical
content knowledge, Mishra and Koehler asserted that effective teaching
requires the ability to integrate content, pedagogy and technology flexibly
during the act of teaching; they describe TPACK as the “thoughtful
interweaving of all three key sources of knowledge” (p. 1029). Ongoing
research using TPACK has demonstrated positive results with in-
service teacher professional development (Harris, Mishra & Koehler,
2009, Spires, Hervey, & Watson, in press). Although TPACK is not a
specific professional development program, it encourages a way of
looking at how technology relates to content and teachers’ pedagogy.
More specifically, TPACK provides a framework for thinking that allows
teachers to design their lessons to appropriately teach digital literacies.
It is imperative to implement a Margaret Niess has suggested “tomorrow’s teachers must be prepared
coherent and sustainable plan for to rethink, unlearn and relearn, change revise and adapt” (2008, p.
teacher professional development 225). TPACK provides one tool to help teachers navigate the new digital
- a multifaceted plan that targets literacies landscape as part of a professional learning community.
student learning and achievement
as its ultimate outcome.

Figure 4. Mishra & Koehler’s (2006) Technological Pedagogical and

Content Knowledge (TPACK). Rights free image from http://tpack.org/

It is also important to clearly define the outcomes of professional

learning communities that help teachers model and incorporate digital
literacy within their disciplinary content and learning environments.
Thinking about teacher professional learning in three phases may be

18 F R I DAY I N S T I T U T E D i g i ta l L i t e r a c i e s and Le a rning: D esig ning a P at h F o r w a r d

 helpful: (a) Experience is the most basic structure with the lowest level
of expectation. This phase provides support when teachers are not
aware of what exists or the new learning that needs to take place; (b)
Training involves the expectation that teachers will change their practice;
and (c) Professional Development/Growth is the most complex type of
professional learning with the expectation to change teacher practices in
order to significantly improve student achievement.

Using the TPACK framework and creating a system of professional

development that allows growth in all three phases would support
teachers in fully implementing the NC State Literacy Plan recently
adopted by the North Carolina State Board of Education (NCSBE, 2012).
The new plan reasserts the State’s goal of ensuring that “all students will
possess the research-based digital and literacy skills necessary to live
and work successfully in a global economy” (p. 29). The plan’s specific
action steps include:

1. Ensure that implementation of the revised standards includes literacy

strategies in each content area, focuses on digital literacy and that
all Pre K-12 teachers have an in-depth understanding of the K-12
College and Career Readiness Anchor Standards and the Common
Core Literacy Standards for Science, Social Studies, History, and the
Technical Subjects and how they apply to each content area, specific
grade-level content requirements and the 21st Century Skills and
Themes.

2. Continually update the student assessment processes to provide

open-ended and performance assessments. Assessments should be
Internet-based and provide data for teachers to diagnose and address
student literacy problems. Focused interventions for individualized
education should serve as a guide for each student to receive
appropriate assistance.

3. Provide opportunities for leadership development for principals,

central office staff and literacy coaches, using the online blended
model of professional development when appropriate.

4. Enhance preparation and professional development for pre-service

and in-service teachers.

• access to high quality, online professional development using the

blended model,
• additional literacy coaches
• consistent emphasis on teaching research-based reading
foundations in all teacher preparation programs.

5. Analyze the need(s) for policy revision and development.

• foundations knowledge for initial and continuing licensure,

• a system of extra help and assistance to struggling readers,
especially middle and high school students,
• revisions in requirements for license renewal,
• K-12 assessment in a balanced assessment system,
• teacher preparation competencies
• the role of education partners and trained volunteers in meeting
professional development needs in reading. (p. 30)

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 The NC State Literacy Plan aligns with the research findings from this
white paper in terms of what it means to be literate in the 21st century.
Clearly, the plan’s definition “literate students use technology and digital
media strategically and capably” (p. 16) must be applied to teachers as
well.

Leveraging Web 2.0 capabilities to establish a networked professional

development platform could be used to provide teachers opportunities
to develop their TPACK within an extended professional online learning
community of practitioners. This would enable teachers to design
instruction to cultivate their own digital literacies with the ultimate goal
of creating instruction that positively impacts student learning and
achievement. Given the research results reported in this white paper on
the current lack of digital practices among NC teachers and the priorities
set through the newly adopted NC State Literacy Plan, it is imperative
to implement a coherent and sustainable plan for teacher professional
development—a multifaceted plan that targets student learning and
achievement as its ultimate outcome.

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 About the Authors

Hiller A. Spires is a Professor of Literacy and Technology in the College of

Education at North Carolina State University. She received her interdisciplinary
M.A. in English education and her Ph.D. in literacy education from the University
of South Carolina. She served as the founding director of the Friday Institute
for Educational Innovation and currently serves as FI Senior Research Fellow.
Dr. Spires’ research focuses on the effects of digital literacies on learning,
including emerging literacies associated with gaming environments and Web 2.0
applications. Dr. Spires received the International Reading Association Award
for Outstanding Writing in the Field of College Reading. She also received NC
State’s Outstanding Alumni Award in Outreach and Service and the Jackson
Rigney International Service Award. Dr. Spires is a co-PI on the NSF-funded
projects, Crystal Island and Narrative Theatre. Her publications have appeared in
Journal of Educational Psychology, Cognition & Instruction, Journal of Adolescent
& Adult Literacy, and Literacy Research & Instruction. She led the development
of the New Literacies & Global Learning master’s program and co-directs the
New Literacies Collaborative (newlit.org).

Melissa E. Bartlett is an experienced educator who holds North Carolina

teaching certifications in K-12 ESL, 6-8 Language Arts, 9-12 English, and
National Board Certification in Early Adolescent Language Arts. Her educational
experience includes community college administration, K-12 system level
administration, and teaching in traditional, charter, and innovative redesign high
schools and middle schools in North Carolina. Bartlett has taught high school
in the U.S. Virgin Islands and in Kenya and Freshman English at the American
University in Cairo. Bartlett was chosen as North Carolina’s 2002-03 Teacher
of the Year and currently serves as an at-large member of the North Carolina
State Board of Education. Bartlett is now pursuing a Ph.D. in Curriculum and
Instruction at North Carolina State University and working as a graduate research
assistant at the Friday Institute.

Adam Garry is Manager of Global Professional Learning for Dell. A former

elementary school teacher, Adam has presented at conferences around the
world, including ISTE, and keynotes in Jamaica and Trinidad. He has published
many articles on technology integration for several education magazines and
authors his own blog. Over the past ten years he has consulted in school districts
across the United States on school reform, professional development, 21st
century skills, technology integration, curriculum and instruction, and leadership.
He was also one of the facilitator for the Partnership for 21st Century Skills
professional development affiliates program and ISTE’s School 2.0 workshops.
In July 2010 his book titled, “Teaching the iGeneration: 5 Ways to Introduce
Essential Skills With Web 2.0 Tools” was published. Adam received a BA in
Elementary Education, a Master’s in Teaching and Learning with a Technology
emphasis, and a Certificate in Administration and Supervision from Johns
Hopkins University.

Angela H. Quick was one of the first North Carolina Teaching Fellows and has
served as a high school biology teacher, and a principal at high schools. She has
experience in school districts in North and South Carolina and in Georgia. Ms.
Quick was honored twice as a school Teacher of the Year and as the Watauga
County School (North Carolina) Principal of the Year in 2007. She was selected
as the Most Outstanding Young Educator of Moore County (North Carolina)
in 1995. Ms. Quick has served on numerous science, math, and engineering
education advisory boards. In addition, she participated in the US-China
Partnership and Exchange in 2006. She is currently the Deputy Chief Academic
Officer with the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, with a B.S. from
Appalachian State University, an M.S. from the University of South Carolina, and
an Ed.S. from Cambridge College in Boston. She is currently completing her
doctoral degree. In her new position, she has been charged with overseeing the
revision of the North Carolina K-12 Standard Course of Study, implementing the
Framework for Change assessment reform of the state’s ABCs accountability
model, and also worked with the committee responsible for North Carolina’s
successful Race to the Top (RttT) Grant application.

D i g i ta l L i t e r a c i e s and Le a rning: D esig ning a P at h F o r w a r d F R I DAY I N S T I T U T E 23

1890 Main Campus Drive • Campus Box 7249 • Raleigh, NC 27695
P (919) 513-8500 • F (919) 851-8599 • [email protected]
www.fi.ncsu.edu