MARINE TOURISM

The sea offers many opportunities for recreation and tourism purposes and
in practical terms it is a source of food and transport. In the past, most of
our marine environment was ‘protected’ from tourist use by its inaccessibility,
safety concerns and the relatively high cost of recreating in the sea. Through
recent decades, significant advances in technology and the increase in
international travel have made marine environments more accessible in both
real and economic terms. Coastal and marine tourism has become a huge
business that forms a significant component of the growing global tourism
industry.

Marine Tourism examines successful and unsuccessful tourism with regard

to the marine environment. Providing an overview of the history and
development of tourism centred on the marine environment, the author moves
on to examine the characteristics of marine tourists and considers the roles
of ‘vendors’ of marine tourism activities and opportunities. The final section
examines the impacts of tourist activities on marine ecosystems and coastal-
based communities and explores management techniques which may be
appropriate in reducing negative impacts and maximising the benefits of
marine tourism.

Mark Orams is Lecturer in the Centre for Tourism Research at Massey

University, Albany, New Zealand.
 MARINE
TOURISM

Development, impacts and

management

Mark Orams

London and New York

 First published 1999
by Routledge
11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada

by Routledge
29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2002.

© 1999 Mark Orams

The right of Mark Orams to be identified as the Author of this Work has been asserted by
him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Orams, Mark
Marine Tourism: development, impacts and management/Mark Orams.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Tourist trade—Environmental aspects. 2. Tourist trade—Environmental aspects—Case
studies. 3. Coastal zone management—Environmental aspects. 4. Coastal zone
management—Environmental aspects—Case studies. I. Title.
G155.A1065 1998
333.78–dc21 98–18191
CIP

ISBN 0-415-19572-1 (hbk)

ISBN 0-415-13938-4 (pbk)
ISBN 0-203-19711-9 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN 0-203-19714-3 (Glassbook Format)
For Renée
 CONTENTS

List of illustrations x
List of tables xii
Preface xiii
Acknowledgements xvi

1 Introduction 1
What is the marine tourism industry? 2
Why study marine tourism? 3
‘Gaia’ and marine tourism 4
The issue of access and impacts 5
The structure of the book 7
Review questions 7

2 The history and development of marine tourism 8

Introduction 8
Early marine recreation 11
Case study: Brighton, England 13
The influence of technology 14
Case study: Atlantis Submarines 19
The diversity of marine recreational activities 20
The growth and importance of marine tourism 22
Case study: the cruise-ship industry 24
Wildlife and marine tourism 25
Case study: whale watching 27
Summary 29
Review questions 30

vii
 CONTENTS

3 Who are marine tourists? 31

Introduction 31
Motivations 31
Characteristics of marine tourists 35
Demand 37
Summary 40
Review questions 42

4 The supply of marine tourism opportunities 43

Introduction 43
The spectrum of marine recreation opportunities 44
Activity-based marine tourism 46
Case study: personal watercraft 46
Nature-based marine tourism 48
Case study: Heron Island 48
Social and cultural attractions 50
Case study: maritime museums and historical festivals 51
Special events 52
Case study: the America’s Cup 53
Summary 54
Review questions 55

5 Impacts of marine tourism 56

Introduction 56
Environmental impacts 57
Case study: Hawaii’s Hanauma Bay 60
Socio-cultural impacts 63
Case study: the islands of the Caribbean 65
Economic impacts 66
Case study: Kaikoura, New Zealand 67
Summary 69
Review questions 70

6 Management approaches 71
Introduction 71
Strategies used to manage marine tourism 72
Case study: the reefs of the Florida Keys 79
Marine parks 80
Case study: the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park 81
Marine tourism and sustainability 83
Case study: the dolphins of Tangalooma 87

viii
 CONTENTS

Measuring the impacts of management 89

A conceptual model for the management of marine tourism 91
Summary 93
Review questions 93

7 The future 94
Problems and challenges 94
Potential solutions and areas for research 96
Summary 97
Review questions 98

Bibliography 99
Index 110

ix
 ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATES
1.1 &The marine tourism industry is as diverse as an individual
1.2 windsurfing or people holidaying on a cruise ship. 3
2.1 Defining marine tourism is difficult. These surfers are marine
tourists, but what about the cyclist on the beach? 9
2.2 These tourists watching seals on the rocks below are marine
tourists because their focus is on the marine environment. 10
2.3 Even remote areas are now accessible as a result of changes
in technology, particularly in transport. 21
2.4 Marine mammals and other charismatic wildlife are powerful
images used to attract marine tourists. 26
2.5 Watching whales has become big business world-wide. 29
4.1 Special events such as the Whitbread Round the World
Yacht Race have become significant tourist attractions. 53
5.1 A New Zealand fur seal pup killed as a result of entanglement
in a fishing net. Examples of human impacts on the marine
environment like this one are widespread. 59
5.2 Massive coastal developments for tourism, such as this one
in the Bahamas, have major impacts on small local
communities. 62
5.3 Tourists line up for one of four daily whale-watch trips
at Kaikoura. 68
6.1 The nightly feeding of the dolphins at Tangalooma has
become a popular tourist attraction. 88
7.1 Opportunities for marine tourism experiences in high-
quality natural environments may become scarce in the future. 94

x
 I L L U S T R AT I O N S

FIGURES
5.1 Possible stages in the development of marine tourism
attractions 60
5.2 Possible stages in the development of marine tourism
attractions and associated community reactions 64
5.3 Possible stages in the development of whale-watching
locations and associated operator reactions 64
6.1 Objectives of marine tourism management strategies 87
6.2 Outcome indicators 89
6.3 A conceptual model for the management of marine tourism 92

xi
 TABLES

2.1 Forecast for organised watersports-based tours worldwide

1994–2000 23
3.1 Demographics of cruise passengers from North America
1994 36
3.2 United States cruise passenger growth 1989–1994 40
3.3 Cruise ships under construction 1995–1998 41
4.1 The Spectrum of Marine Recreation Opportunities 45
6.1 Techniques for managing marine tourism 73

xii
 PREFACE

As a preliminary to this book, it is important for me to identify for the reader

my paradigm of the marine environment. All writers are inevitably influenced
by their experiences and training, and I am no exception. I am unashamedly
a marine conservation advocate. It is obvious to me that the future health
of our planet and all things that live on it is totally dependent on the sea.
That is to say, the health of our world’s oceans is critical to the health of our
planet. What concerns me, therefore, when looking at the rapid growth of
tourism based upon marine resources is the impacts of those tourists’ activities
and the associated infrastructural developments.
I am strongly influenced by writers such as Sylvia Earle, who expresses
the critical importance of our marine environments so well:

It doesn’t matter where on Earth you live, everyone is utterly

dependent on the existence of that lovely, living saltwater soup.
There’s plenty of water in the universe without life, but nowhere
is there life without water…
The living ocean drives planetary chemistry, governs climate and
weather, and otherwise provides the cornerstone of the life-
support system for all creatures on our planet, from deep sea
starfish to desert sagebrush. That’s why the ocean matters. If the
sea is sick, we’ll feel it. If it dies, we die. Our future and the state
of the oceans are one.
(Earle, 1995:30)

Thus, I believe that the basis for analysing and managing marine recreational
activities, including tourism, must be ensuring the sustainability of the
resource upon which depend, not only the recreation, but the health of all
living things. This may seem to be somewhat of an over-reaction. The sea is
vast and by far the great majority of marine-based tourism occurs in but a
small portion of that vastness. How then can recreational activities in the

xiii
 P R E FA C E

sea threaten the survival of the planet? This question is addressed in a

reflection from one of the best-known of ocean explorers, Jacques Cousteau:

But soon I had to face the evidence: the blue waters of the open
sea appeared to be, most of the time, a discouraging desert. Like
deserts on land, it was far from dead, but the live ingredient,
plankton, was thinly spread, like haze, barely visible and
monotonous. Then, exceptionally, areas turned into meeting
places; close to shores and reefs, around floating weeds or wrecks,
fish would gather and make a spectacular display of vitality and
beauty…
The ‘oasis theory’ was to help me to understand that the ocean,
huge as it may be when measured at human scale, is a very thin
layer of water covering most of our planet—a very small world
in fact—extremely fragile and at our mercy.
(Cousteau, 1985:12)

The oceans of our planet are, therefore, not the vast, endless resource
that many humans still perceive them to be. Despite the fact that nearly
70 per cent of our planet is covered by ocean, only small portions of
this area form the basis for most forms of marine life. I am often
reminded of early European pioneering attitudes to land-based
resources. Forests, animals (like the North American bison) and
minerals were thought to be so plentiful that removing as many of them
as we liked or needed would have little impact. We now understand
that those attitudes were selfish, short-sighted and wrong.
Unfortunately, we now appear to be making the same basic mistakes
with marine resources.
Understanding these things is critical if one is to assess adequately
the development and impacts of marine tourism and to design or
advocate management strategies, as is suggested in the subtitle to this
book. My view is, therefore, decidedly conservation oriented, for I
cannot see the marine world from any other perspective. My view is
also solution oriented, for I care about our oceans and the creatures
that live within them; consequently I am motivated to try and find
solutions to the negative impacts that are caused by humans and their
activities. The fact that my glasses are not rose-coloured but marine
blue has undeniably influenced this work. I flag that so that the reader
understands this bias. I believe it to be understandable, defensible and
even desirable; however, I do recognise that others have a different
world view and consequently will have a different slant on this topic.
My hope is that through visiting and enjoying the marine
environment as tourists, many people will come to view the oceans as
worthy of protection. Perhaps in the same way as tourism is now used

xiv
 P R E FA C E

as a legitimate justification for the protection of land-based resources

(as when such resources are protected in a national park), we will see
more marine conservation advocates and marine parks. This hope may
be somewhat naive, for the rapid and widespread development of
marine-based tourism suggests that it may merely be another form of
exploitation of marine resources rather than an agent for marine
conservation. However, there are a number of examples where tourism
has produced positive results for things marine. It can happen and has
happened. This heartens me greatly, for if it can be done once it can be
done again and again. This is the challenge that this book seeks to
address.

xv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

As is the case with all works of this nature a great number of people have
assisted and encouraged me. Staff from the Department of Management and
International Business at Massey University Albany have continued to be
supportive of research and scholarly writing. In particular my colleagues in
the Centre for Tourism Research, Associate Professor Stephen Page, Dr Keith
Dewar and Ms Kaye Thorn, have been extremely helpful and have
encouraged me a great deal. Stephen has been especially important as a
mentor and reviewer of this work; his assistance is much appreciated. My
thanks also go to the staff at Routledge for their patience in waiting for the
manuscript to be completed and for their help with editing and improving
the work.
While marine tourism has not received much specific attention in the
literature, I would like to acknowledge a number of important and influential
thinkers and writers in this area. Dr Jan Auyong, Professor Mark Miller,
Professor Robert Ditton, Dr Paul Forestell, Dr Sylvia Earle, the late Jacques
Cousteau and others have provided much-needed inspiration and have shaped
my thinking through their work and writings.
I would also like to acknowledge the influence of Sir Peter Blake. Working
with Sir Peter has taught me much about determination, organisation and
applying oneself to achieve worthwhile things. I thank him for the
opportunity to be involved in a number of his ‘adventures’ over the years.
A number of students from the Centre for Tourism Research have assisted
in the production of this book. Thanks go to Annette Lewis for editing and
checking references, and particular thanks go to Craig Jones for assistance
in obtaining references and compiling information for case studies, and for
editorial assistance. Students in an experimental marine tourism course at
Florida International University during 1995 also provided useful feedback
and ideas during the initial planning for this book.
At a personal level, my parents, John and Lynnette, my brothers, Brett and
Simon, and my friends here in New Zealand and around the world continue
in their never-ending encouragement and enthusiasm for what I do.
Most of all I must thank my wife, Renée, for her love, for her belief in me
and my abilities, and for sharing life with me.

xvi
 1

INTRODUCTION

Travel for recreational purposes is not a new phenomenon. It has existed for
centuries and dates back to pre-biblical times (Adler, 1989). However, it has
only become a globally significant enterprise in the latter part of the twentieth
century. The growth of tourism has been so dramatic that many claim that
it now constitutes the single largest industry in the world (Miller, 1990; Jenner
and Smith, 1992).
Tourism has become a significant contributing sector of the global economy.
During 1996 the World Tourism Organisation (1997a) estimates that there
were a total of 592 million international tourism arrivals, an increase of 4.5
per cent from 1995. Expenditure from these tourists amounted to around
$US423 billion, a 7.6 per cent increase on the previous year. Predictions for
the future of global tourism are for a continuation of this rapid growth at an
average rate of 4.3 per cent per year, to a total of 1.6 billion international
travellers in the year 2020 spending more than $US5 billion every day. These
predictions estimate that in 2020 there will be three times the number of
international tourists there were in 1995 and they will spend nearly five times
more (World Tourism Organisation, 1997b). In addition, it must be
remembered that many, many more millions of people travel domestically.
Tourism is, therefore, a large and rapidly growing global industry. The growth
of tourism as an activity, and more recently as an industry, has received much
attention in the literature. Organisations such as the United Nations, the World
Conservation Union (IUCN), national governments, large corporations, non-
profit groups and education institutions, as well as researchers, have all
recognised this global phenomenon of travel.
As a result of this interest, a multitude of texts, periodicals and other
publications that focus on the travel and tourism industry have been produced
since the late 1970s. In recent years a number of authors have begun to
examine specialist segments of this large and diverse industry in greater detail.
However, few of these works include specific consideration of marine-based
tourism. There are, for example, only a handful of papers in periodicals that
focus specifically on marine tourism (for example, those by Miller, 1993 and

1
 INTRODUCTION

Miller and Auyong, 1991). There are a number that assess the growth and
impact of tourism on specific marine locations such as the Great Barrier Reef
(Kenchington, 1991; Dinesen, 1995), Korea’s coast (Kim and Kim, 1996) and
islands of the Indian Ocean (Gabbay, 1986). Some specific marine tourism
activities have received attention; for example, a recent issue of the Journal
of Tourism Studies (volume 7, number 2) focuses on the cruise-ship industry.
Probably the most important publication to date on marine tourism is that
of the proceedings of the first international conference on the subject, held in
Hawaii in 1990 (Miller and Auyong, 1990). The proceedings of a conference
held in 1996 have also now been published (Miller and Auyong, 1998).
However, there is currently no university-level text that provides a structured
consideration of the development, the impacts and the management of marine
tourism. While a number of texts consider the management of marine
resources (for example, Kenchington, 1990b), marine parks (for example,
Salm and Clark, 1989) and coastal zones (for example, Jolliffe, Patman and
Smith, 1985), the work contained in this book is the first attempt at an
introductory textbook on the subject of marine tourism itself.

WHAT IS THE MARINE TOURISM INDUSTRY?

A diverse range of businesses forms the marine tourism industry. Those directly
associated with marine tourism include small, one-person operations such as
charter fishing-boat operators, sea-kayak tour guides and scuba-diving
instructors. They also include moderate-sized private companies like whale-
watch cruise operators and charter-yacht companies, and large, multinational
corporations such as cruise-ship companies. An even greater number of
businesses and agencies are indirectly associated with marine tourism.
Examples include boat maintenance shops, coastal resorts, scuba tank-fill
shops, windsurfer rental agencies, fishing equipment suppliers, island ferry
services, souvenir collectors, artists and even rubbish collectors. Government
agencies also have an important role in the monitoring and management of
marine tourism; examples include marine park management authorities,
fisheries control agencies, tourism marketing and promotion bodies, law
enforcement agencies and marine safety organisations. In addition, there are
many non-profit groups that form an important component of the industry,
such as clubs for scuba diving, surf life-saving, yachting, windsurfing, surfing
and fishing. Environmental groups are also important ‘stakeholders’ within
the industry. Thus, it is both large and diverse.
There is no estimate of the value of the marine tourism industry; however,
there is no doubt that the annual turnover is substantial and that it forms a
significant business sector with widespread economic influence. This is
particularly so for island and coastal communities, where marine tourism can
form the single most important economic activity (Miller, 1990).
Because so many businesses, government agencies and other organisations

2
 INTRODUCTION

Plates 1.1 and 1.2 The marine tourism industry is as diverse as an individual
windsurfing or people holidaying on a cruise ship.

(such as sport clubs and environmental groups) are involved in marine tourism
it is difficult to define the industry tightly. The concept of marine tourism is
discussed further and a definition is developed in the next chapter.

WHY STUDY MARINE TOURISM?

Travel to coastal areas for recreation has existed for probably as long as
humans have. The sea has a strong attraction for people, which is not
surprising given its importance as a source of food and transport. This

3
 INTRODUCTION

importance is reflected in the fact that the great majority of the world’s
population resides along the coast (Miller, 1990). Coastal and marine tourism
is, quite simply, a huge business that forms a significant component of the
wider tourism industry. For many island and coastal nations it is the primary
focus of their tourism industries (Miller and Auyong, 1991). Marine tourism
is, therefore, in many situations, the only type of tourism. However, in many
cases, it is merely an integral part of the wider tourism industry.
Why then separate marine tourism out from other types? There are several
good reasons, first because marine tourism is characterised by different
features from other types of tourism. For example, it occurs in an environment
in which we do not live and in which we are dependent on equipment to
survive. Second, it is growing at a faster rate than most of the rest of the
tourism industry. Third, it is having significant negative impacts; and fourth,
it presents special management challenges.

‘GAIA’ AND MARINE TOURISM

The view that our planet is a living organism was originally proposed by James
Lovelock in 1979. The hypothesis arose from a study that focused on
identifying the conditions that would be necessary to sustain life on other
planets. When this same study was applied to our own planet, a new
perspective emerged. This was termed ‘Gaia’, which was defined as:

A complex entity involving the Earth’s biosphere, atmosphere, oceans,

and soil, the totality constituting a ‘feedback’ or ‘cybernetic’ system
which seeks an optimal physical and chemical environment for life
on this planet.
(Lovelock, 1985:100)
Thus, all life, including humans, can be viewed as integral parts of a single
living entity, ‘Gaia’. From a conservation-oriented paradigm the Gaia
hypothesis has value because it recognises the interconnectivity of all living
things. More specifically, Gaia recognises that the alteration of one part of
an ecosystem will cause changes in another. The following description by
Thomas expresses the Gaia idea eloquently:

The most beautiful object I have ever seen in a photograph, in all my

life, is the planet Earth seen from the distance of the moon, hanging
there in space, obviously alive. Although it seems at first glance to be
made up of innumerable separate species of living things, on closer
examination every one of its working parts, including us, is
interdependently connected to all the other working parts. It is, to
put it one way, the only truly closed ecosystem that any of us knows
about. To put it another way, it is an organism.
(Thomas, 1985:258)

4
 INTRODUCTION

Thomas’s ‘world view’ can be taken a step further. The living organism
that is our planet is not ‘Planet Earth’; it is more accurately ‘Planet Water’.
The great majority, around 70 per cent, of our planet’s surface is water.
These oceans and seas contain a greater diversity of life than terrestrial
environments (Earle, 1995). Thus, in terms of Gaia, the functioning of
marine environments is enormously influential and important.
Furthermore, near-shore environments form the most critical component
of the Gaia organism.
Estuaries, wetlands, rocky and coral reefs and protected bays and
sheltered harbours are the life-support system of our oceans. This is
because the most biologically productive marine areas occur in near-shore
environments:

The narrow coastal fringes of the world’s ocean are at once its most
productive and most vulnerable zones. Their shallow waters, saturated
with sunlight and richly supplied with nutrients, provide the basis of
most of our fisheries. Coastal and island ecosystems also serve as a
great meeting ground between land and sea; large numbers of people
live here, whether in traditional fishing communities or in cities…
The four vital ecosystems for humankind and for all marine life-
forms are saltmarshes, mangroves, estuaries and coral reefs.
(Myers, 1985:74)

This fact is what causes the most concern with regard to marine recreation.
The future health of the sea is dependent upon the health of environments
that are the most popular for tourism. While a number of authors are
discussing the development of polar tourism as the ‘final frontier’ of tourism
development (for example, Carvallo, 1994; Hall and Johnston, 1995), a much
larger-scale tourism development with far greater implications has been
occurring since the 1960s. The ‘frontier’, which has traditionally been the
coast, is being expanded, developed and impacted upon on an ever increasing
scale. Marine tourism is massive and growing quickly. From a Gaian
perspective it is tremendously influential.

THE ISSUE OF ACCESS AND IMPACTS

In the past the majority of our planet’s marine environment has been
‘protected’ from tourist use because of its inaccessibility, safety concerns
and the relatively high cost of recreating in the sea. However, since the
1960s a significant number of new inventions has made the marine
environment more accessible in both real and economic terms. Examples
include self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA),
electronic satellite-based navigation and emergency location aids like
global positioning systems (GPS) and emergency position indicator radio

5
 INTRODUCTION

beacons (EPIRBs), massive aluminium high-speed catamarans, personal

watercraft, windsurfers and submarines.
In addition, interest in the marine environment has grown. Television nature
shows, such as those pioneered by Jacques Cousteau, magazines and films
have exposed millions of people to a world that was once unknown, but is
now not only interesting, but also accessible. The resultant increase in demand
for marine activities has added to a tradition of sea, sand and sun holidays,
and consequently millions of people now visit marine environs for recreational
pursuits. There is no doubt that marine tourism is a significant issue with
widespread implications for the next century:

As the 21st century comes into focus, tourism is being revealed as a

major sociocultural force with a potential to destroy, protect, or
otherwise dramatically reconfigure coastal and marine ecosystems and
societies.
(Miller and Auyong, 1991:75)

The causes of this increased amount and diversity of marine tourism

are threefold. First, the world’s population continues to grow at a rapid
rate. There are now twice as many Homo sapiens on the planet as there
were in the late 1970s—we now number around six billion. Our
population will continue to increase and is predicted to reach eight billion
by the year 2118 (Wright, 1990). Because the majority of this population
will reside close to the coast, the use of the marine environment for
recreational and other purposes will show a corresponding increase
(Griffin, 1992). Second, the rapid rise in mass tourism has resulted in more
people travelling away from their places of residence for recreational
purposes. A significant (but as yet unquantified) proportion of this travel
is to coastal areas. Of particular interest is the exposure to areas of the
world that were previously undeveloped and unexposed to high levels of
human use. The rise of tourism has contributed significantly to the
geographical spread of human recreational activities. The third factor that
has had enormous influence on the marine environment has been the
invention and mass production of materials and vehicles that have
improved access to and safety in marine settings. Many hundreds of
machines and a wide variety of equipment now permit safe and relatively
easy access to the sea. The result is an increasingly diverse range of
activities in an increasing number of settings.
As the growth of marine tourism has become widespread, an increasing
number of cases show that significant environmental, social, cultural and even
economic damage results from tourism development and use. The question
arises, therefore, of what it is that makes the difference between successful
and unsuccessful tourism, particularly in the marine environment. The
questions posed by Johnston reflect the concerns of many:

6
 INTRODUCTION

Is tourism development compatible with the ideals of ‘sustainable’

development? Can tourism, an industry that inherently creates
dependency relationships, truly be tailored in a socially responsible
and environmentally viable fashion?
(Johnston, 1990b:2)

These issues, and others, are explored in this book.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE BOOK

The intention of this book is to provide a brief overview of the history and
development of tourism that is based upon the marine environment, to
examine the characteristics of marine tourists, and to consider the providers
of marine tourism activities and opportunities. The book then looks at the
impacts that these activities are having upon marine ecosystems and upon
human societies. Lastly it examines the management techniques which may
be appropriate to reduce the negative impacts and to maximise the benefits
of marine tourism.
This work is not intended to be a comprehensive review of all marine
tourism world-wide. Its purpose is to introduce the reader to a topic that has
received little attention and to identify the important issues. It will, therefore,
be of interest to resource managers who deal with marine environments,
undergraduate students and all those who wish to gain a broader
understanding of the marine tourism area, its problems, potential solutions
and future challenges. It is hoped that this book will be a catalyst for further
thinking and works on tourism that is based on the marine environment, for
there is one thing that appears certain: such tourism will continue to grow.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 Debate whether you think a conservation-based paradigm is
appropriate for a study of marine tourism. What are the likely
advantages and disadvantages of such an approach?
2 Why is marine tourism worthy as a specialist topic for study?
3 Give an explanation of why the issue of access is so critical in
studying marine tourism.

7
 2

THE HISTORY AND

DEVELOPMENT OF MARINE
TOURISM

INTRODUCTION
Marine tourism has similarities with, but also differs from, the wider tourism
industry. As is the case with tourism generally, tourism based upon the sea
has shown a rapid increase in popularity (Miller, 1993). This rapid growth
has produced significant impacts on local, regional and national communities.
However, an important distinction is that marine tourism occurs (for the most
part) on, in and under a medium that is alien to humans. This has a significant
influence over the nature of marine tourism activities because, first, most are
dependent upon equipment (such as boats and other vessels) and, second,
safety issues are of greater importance. It can be argued that marine tourism
is ‘nature-based tourism’. For most marine tourism activities—for example,
scuba diving, surfing, fishing, sailing, water skiing, sea kayaking,
windsurfing—this argument is valid. However, defining some marine activities
as ‘nature based’ is dubious. For example, on most cruise ships, where
thousands of passengers holiday on floating cities, there is little direct contact
with or focus on nature. Thus, when marine tourism is examined it is difficult
to define tightly what it includes and its characteristics.
This chapter begins by offering a definition for marine tourism, for it is
important to differentiate between it and other forms of tourism. The history
and development of marine tourism are then detailed. In particular, the
influence of technology is investigated, as human inventions have had a major
impact on our ability to access and recreate in the marine environment. Finally,
the recent rapid growth in popularity and attraction of marine wildlife is
discussed.

Defining marine tourism

Whenever one attempts to define a term or topic strictly, difficulties inevitably
arise. Marine tourism is no exception to this rule. There are a number of
activities that are obviously within the marine tourism realm; examples include
scuba diving, deep-sea fishing and yacht cruising. However, activities such

8
 T H E H I S T O RY A N D D E V E L O P M E N T O F M A R I N E T O U R I S M

Plate 2.1 Defining marine tourism is difficult. These surfers are marine tourists, but
what about the cyclist on the beach?

as fishing from a pier, exploring inter-tidal rock pools, visiting a large marine
aquarium or whale watching from a headland are problematic. Humans are
land-based creatures and, as a result, many of our activities that are focused
on the marine environment do, in fact, occur on land. Nevertheless, the reason
these activities are undertaken is because of ‘marine attractions’. Thus, if
marine tourism is defined too strictly, many activities which are completely
dependent on things marine (such as surf-cast fishing or beachcombing) would
be excluded. However, if we define marine tourism too liberally—for example,
as if it only needs to be based upon marine attractions—a number of activities
could be included which have little to do with the marine environment. Is
watching a film such as Flipper or Free Willy marine tourism?
Because the majority of tourism focused upon the marine environment is
based in coastal areas rather than actually on, in or under the water, to define
marine tourism too tightly would be to ignore all those activities that are
undoubtedly linked with marine areas. Consequently the following definition
is offered:

Marine tourism includes those recreational activities that involve

travel away from one’s place of residence and which have as their
host or focus the marine environment (where the marine environment
is defined as those waters which are saline and tide-affected).

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Plate 2.2 These tourists watching seals on the rocks below are marine tourists because
their focus is on the marine environment.

This definition attempts to acknowledge the term ‘marine’ in its biological

sense—it does, therefore, exclude freshwater aquatic environments. It could be
argued that sailing on North America’s Great Lakes differs little as a recreational
activity from sailing off the coast of New England. However, it is important to
acknowledge the marine component, for marine tourism does not include
exclusively freshwater-based activities like white-water rafting or stream hiking.
The exclusion of freshwater environments is problematic for those marine
animals which are the focus of tourism but which move between the two. For
example, the West Indian manatee frequently moves from the sea up tidal
estuaries and into freshwater areas. Nevertheless, the marine environment must
be defined as such in order to delimit the scope of the subject of this book. It is
acknowledged that this decision is largely arbitrary; however, it does use the term
‘marine’ in its correct sense as the basis for the definition, whilst acknowledging
that not all marine tourism activities occur on, in or under the water.
This definition is explicit in restricting marine tourism to recreational
activities—it does, therefore, exclude business or work-related activities. Thus
commercial fishing, shipping, oil exploration and scientific research are excluded
from marine tourism. It is important to acknowledge that there are difficulties
in applying these distinctions absolutely; for example, there is, for many
commercial fishers, a significant recreational component to their work.
The definition includes activities which are not only ‘hosted’ by the sea (such
as windsurfing or snorkelling) but also those which have as their ‘focus’ the
marine environment. Consequently, activities such as shore-based fishing,

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land-based whale watching, reef walking or watching a professional surfing

competition are included, as long as they involve travel for the purpose of
the activity and the focus of the activity is the marine environment or activities
based on it.

EARLY MARINE RECREATION

Travel to coastal areas for the purpose of leisure has existed throughout
history. Certainly many subsistence food-gathering practices, such as fishing
and shellfish collection, have been major motivations for people to live in and
visit marine areas. However, recreational activities such as swimming,
exploring, relaxing and social events have been major attractions which have
drawn humans to coastal areas for thousands of years. There are early records
of activities such as sailing for pleasure:

We know that Egyptians used sails at least in 4000 BC. Similarly, sails
were rigged on Chinese junks and Viking boats in very early years.
It was a development, it can be assumed, that occurred not in one
place alone, but whenever man ventured on the surface of the water…
Experiencing the challenge of the wind and the water and all this
meant an adventure, excitement and exhilaration; man must have
acquired a love of sailing for its own sake. Boats once used solely for
utilitarian purposes began to serve man for pleasure.
(Brasch, 1995:27)

There are similar ancient references to swimming and fishing for pleasure
(Brasch, 1995). There is, therefore, evidence that ‘marine tourism’ has existed
throughout history.
One particularly interesting account was contained in a letter by Pliny the
Younger in AD 109 (Morris, 1988). The letter details a friendship which
developed between a young boy from the small town of Hippo in present-
day Tunisia, North Africa, and a dolphin named Simo. The dolphin’s and
boy’s games and tricks became a major attraction, bringing many visitors who
wished to witness the spectacle to the town. The story claims that the town
became so overcrowded with tourists that major shortages of food,
accommodation, water and toilet facilities resulted. Controversy over how
this ‘marine tourism attraction’ should be managed ensued and eventually
the town elders decided to take action—they killed the dolphin! This historical
account illustrates that negative impacts resulting from marine tourism and
debate over the management of such activities are not a recent phenomena,
but have existed from the very beginning.
More detailed records regarding coastal recreation are available from the
eighteenth century onwards. Prior to this time, in European societies at least,
‘coastal scenery, like mountains, was not viewed with any great enthusiasm’

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(Towner, 1996:169). Features that were attractive to tourists during earlier

eras were those locations that featured human structures like palaces,
cathedrals, cities, gardens and holiday spas. ‘Wild’ areas, such as the coast
and sea, were viewed as barren, poverty-stricken, uncivilised places of little
worth and interest (Towner, 1996). In fact bathing was regarded as immoral
prior to the seventeenth century, as illustrated by the punishment issued to
students at Cambridge University:

In 1571 the Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge issued a

decree under which an undergraduate who was guilty of bathing in
any river, pool or other water within the county of Cambridge, was
to be flogged publicly in his college; and if he offended a second time,
he was to be expelled from the university.
(Gilbert, 1953:12)

However, by the early 1700s an interest in and appreciation of natural scenery,

including the sea, became apparent and was reflected in the art and writing
of the time. By the 1800s painters such as Turner and Constable were painting
coastal scenes while French poets such as Saint-Amant were praising seascapes
(Corbin, 1994). An additional influence was the growth of an interest in
scientific investigation of natural phenomena such as coastal geology (Towner,
1996).
The medical profession also played a significant role in prompting the
growth in popularity of coastal holidays. From as early as the mid-eighteenth
century some doctors advised patients to travel to the coast for their health
(Gilbert, 1953). In 1750 Dr Richard Russell published his treatise on the
benefits of sea water in treating diseases of the glands. He prescribed both
bathing in the sea and drinking sea water as treatments for illness. Although
he certainly was not the only medical practitioner to prescribe bathing in the
sea for good health, Russell was the ‘instigator of the seaside mania’ that
transformed English resorts (Gilbert, 1953:12). Associated with an increased
interest in visiting the sea for recreation during the nineteenth century was
the development of transportation infrastructure, particularly rail, which made
access to coastal and other natural environments far easier and more
comfortable.
The growth in interest in and use of the coast during the latter part of the
eighteenth century resulted in a growth of seaside holiday towns throughout
coastal Europe (Towner, 1996). The fashionable elite began to desert
traditional inland spa resorts like Bath in favour of seaside resorts such as
Brighton. While the beginnings of sea-based tourism can be identified in
England in the early part of the century, it did not occur in France until the
1780s, with Belgium, Germany and Holland following in the 1790s and Spain
in the 1820s and 1830s (Walton and Smith, 1995). The United States showed
a similar pattern of development to Europe, and while there are records of

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holiday visits to coastal locations such as Nahant and Cape May from the
late eighteenth century, the development of better-known coastal holiday
locations, such as Newport, Atlantic City and Palm Beach, did not occur until
the mid-nineteenth century (Towner, 1996). However, whilst this growth is
an important feature of the development of tourism during this time, much
of the activity associated with these coastal holidays was not, in fact, based
on the sea. Holidays in these locations were usually dominated by activities
centred on social gatherings, entertainment—theatres and music halls,
amusement arcades, parks and shopping—and for men, in some locations,
public houses, gambling and prostitution (Walton, 1983). Nevertheless, the
sea was a major attraction and activities such as swimming (using a variety
of inventions to aid bathers), walking along the promenade and out on piers,
and watching boat races were common.

Case study: Brighton, England

Brighton is one of the oldest and perhaps best-known seaside resorts
in England. Although the area’s growth as a resort can be traced back
to the early eighteenth century, it was not until the nineteenth century
that Brighton emerged as a key resort in its own right. Much of the
town’s development into a significant marine tourism destination can
be attributed to changing aesthetic tastes, medical trends, geographic
location and advances in transportation.
In 1750 Brighton was just one of seven seaside resorts in England
and Wales (Towner, 1996). The town’s geographic position, only 53
miles from London, gave it a strategic advantage over other resort
locations (Gilbert, 1953; Towner, 1996). Its population increased by 242
per cent between 1801 and 1830, but between 1831 and 1841 the
population growth slowed to only 15 per cent. This decline can in part
be attributed to an ‘inadequate transport capacity’ (Towner, 1996:196).
However, in 1851 Brighton was by far the most populous seaside resort
town, with a population of 65,569, four times larger than that of any
other seaside resort town at the time (Walton, 1983).
The arrival of trains solved the transportation problem but changed
the resort’s mix of clientele. Prior to this Brighton’s visitors were largely
from the upper classes, who had large amounts of leisure time. Trains
gave more working-class people, with few long holidays, the
opportunity to take day excursions to the seaside. The influence of the
rail link was massive. During 1837, stage coaches brought 50,000
visitors to Brighton over the whole year; in 1850 trains brought 73,000
visitors in one week. By 1881 the residential population had grown to
107,546 and by 1911 it was 131,237 (Walton, 1983).

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Brighton, unlike many other seaside resorts, developed fashionable

autumn and winter seasons early in its history (Towner, 1996). This
provided the tourism industry with some degree of revenue generation
over the traditional off-season. As Brighton grew it developed into a
‘regional service centre and residential area with commuter functions
as well as being a tourist resort’ (Towner, 1996:181).This also
contributed to lessening the impact of the off-season. Brighton was
able as well to draw on considerable private-sector investment from
outside the area, to construct such things as hotels and piers in order
to keep the resort competitive (Gilbert, 1953).
By the early twentieth century there were more than 100 seaside
resorts scattered throughout England and Wales, many of which were
in direct competition with Brighton (Walton, 1983). Despite this
competition Brighton maintained its pre-eminence in the domestic
English resort market. Over the first century of its development,
considerable infrastructure was developed at Brighton, so that while
the resort’s initial development and attractions were centred on the sea,
the entertainment and social activities eventually became more
important for visitors.

While the growth of seaside resort towns like Brighton have been important
features in the history of marine tourism, it has been the latter part of the
twentieth century that has seen the greatest change. Prior to World War II
the vast majority of recreational activities associated with the sea were land
based. Coastal resorts, beaches, piers and walkways hosted a limited range
of marine-focused activities, such as swimming, wading, beachcombing,
walking, socialising and generally relaxing, but there were few ways of actually
entering the marine environment directly. Recreational boats were used in
some areas, but for the most part they were expensive and relatively
uncommon. It was difficult to access the sea and as a result marine tourism
was constrained in its supply. However, the invention of a vast variety of
vessels, machines and other technology has completely transformed marine
recreation since the 1950s. The sea is no longer an inaccessible, alien
environment. Humans, as a result of the influence of technology, are no longer
‘land bound’.

THE INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGY

There are a number of inventions that are worth reviewing in detail because
they have had such an enormous influence on human use of the marine world.
These inventions, most of which have been developed since the 1950s, have
spawned a tremendous following, resulting in millions of users and many new
activities.

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Scuba diving
Possibly the single most important invention with regard to marine
tourism has been that of the self-contained underwater breathing
apparatus (SCUBA), not only because it has allowed humans to breath
underwater and has resulted in a multi-billion dollar industry, but more
importantly because it has facilitated a changing of attitudes about the
marine world. Prior to the advent of scuba the undersea world was largely
mysterious and unexplored. This uncertainty and inaccessibility had a
widespread impact on the willingness of people to participate in activities
on the water. The impact of photographs, books and especially television
shows like The Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau has been massive.
This exposure of the marine environment and the things that live within
it to a wide audience would not have been possible without scuba. An
increased understanding of and interest in things marine generated a
demand not only for scuba diving, but for general exploration and
enjoyment of the sea. This demand has, in turn, resulted in the invention
of many more ways of accessing the sea for recreation. Scuba, therefore,
changed the image of the sea from an alien, inhospitable and threatening
location to a fascinating, enjoyable and, most importantly, accessible one.
(For more information see Chapter 3, ‘Demand’.)

Mixed gas diving and rebreathers

The most popular way of visiting the underwater world is by using scuba or
snorkelling. However, traditional scuba diving and even more recent
technology such as mixed-gas-based aqualungs (e.g. those using nitrox)
have been constrained by depth and time. Decompression sickness—‘the
bends’—and nitrogen narcosis restrict the time divers can spend at depth;
consequently most recreational diving occurs less than 30 m below the
surface. The recent invention of computer-controlled, closed circuit
underwater breathing systems known as ‘rebreathers’ has the potential
to revolutionise the use of the underwater environment. The rebreathers
recycle the gas being breathed by the diver, using chemical scrubbers that
cleanse the gas of carbon dioxide. A computer controls the mix of gases
delivered to the diver in order to avoid problems posed by depth and
pressure:

With this technology, dives of up to 120 metres can be safely

made, even in remote locations, without the need for prohibitively
expensive back-up facilities at the surface. Divers can also extend
their stay at shallow stops with a degree of safety previously
unavailable. An added advantage is that rebreathers shed no
bubbles except during ascent.
(Anonymous, 1991:10)

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Rebreathers will provide a much greater level of freedom for divers and
allow the safe exploration of a much greater area underwater than was
previously available. In addition, they are quieter (no bubbles) and
consequently divers will find it easier to approach aquatic animals.

Accommodation
Underwater accommodation is now being offered to tourists visiting Key
Largo in the Florida Keys (Jones, 1993), and a ‘Flotel’ (floating hotel)
which was tried on the Great Barrier Reef (Kelleher, 1990) is now based
in a harbour in Vietnam. Water-based accommodation on a growing
number of boats, including a multitude of small pleasure craft as well as
many large cruise ships, means that tourists are increasingly able to stay
overnight on (and even under) the water.

Passenger-carrying vessels
Changes in technology have also impacted on larger passenger-carrying
vessels, in particular in terms of their speed. Many offshore attractions
such as reefs and islands were, in the past, difficult to access because they
required a long, often uncomfortable trip. In the early 1980s the
introduction of high-speed catamarans capable of cruising at 25–30 knots
brought many offshore locations within reach for day-trip-based tourists.
The impact of such vessels on attractions like Australia’s Great Barrier
Reef has been massive:

Until 1982 only Green Island and two or three other reefs were
within 60 to 90 minutes travelling time of Cairns… For much of
the year that journey was uncomfortable because of prevailing
weather conditions so the Great Barrier Reef was virtually
inaccessible to the majority of tourists. The introduction of
comfortable high speed catamarans brought some 46 reefs within
day trip reach of Cairns or its northern offshoot, Port Douglas,
and generated a major increase in reef visitor numbers.
(Kenchington, 1990a:27)

Boat builders are currently working on ‘surface-tension’-based superfast

boats that will be capable of speeds of 45 knots. The introduction of these
kinds of vessel will, once again, significantly increase the ability of tourists
to access offshore and remote locations. Amphibious land, water and
submersible craft are also in operation and it is likely that additional
advances in these technologies will provide far easier access into, across
and under the water.

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Recreational vessels
Another important influence has been the advent of mass-produced,
relatively cheap, reliable boats. Prior to the 1950s, boats were built mainly
out of wood by experienced craftspeople. A significant amount of time
and money was involved in the production of a vessel, and consequently,
those boats that were used for recreational purposes were predominantly
owned by the wealthy. The invention and use of fibreglass, aluminium,
ferro-cement, inflatable hulls and polyethylene in recreational vessels has
transformed boat ownership. Not only are these boats able to be mass
produced and bought relatively cheaply, they have proved more reliable
and more seaworthy, have greater longevity and require less maintenance
than their earlier wooden counterparts. Wooden boats have also remained
popular because new materials (for example, plywood) and construction
techniques have produced similar advantages. Boat ownership has grown
massively since the late 1960s, and as a result the sea has become more
accessible to a greater number of people.
Boats form the basis for a wide variety of other marine recreational
activities, including fishing, diving, water-skiing, sightseeing, racing and
whale watching. Boats also provide a means of transport to previously
inaccessible islands, reefs, harbours and beaches. Different types of vessel
have added to the options available. Some, such as sea-kayaks, air-boats,
jet-boats, personal watercraft (such as jet-skis) and hovercraft have
allowed access to areas which were previously difficult to get to. Others,
such as sailboards and sail boats, have spawned entire new recreational
and competitive sports. A significant change in the use of powered boats
was the invention of the outboard motor. Lighter, more powerful and
cheaper to run, the outboard motor has allowed an entirely different
approach to boat design. Boats can now be small, light and open decked,
in contrast to the larger, heavier type of vessel needed to house an inboard
engine. Thus, changes in boat-building technology, design and power have
had a significant influence on the rapid development of marine tourism.

Surfboards and sailboards

Surfing has had a massive influence on the image of marine activities, and
forms a world-wide recreational activity participated in by millions. The
exact origins of surfing are not clear. It is likely that it was practised by
many coastal cultures surrounding the Pacific Ocean for many centuries.
Accounts from Captain Cook’s visit to the Hawaiian Islands in 1778
confirm that it was a widespread practice then, and it is thought to have
been practised as far back as the tenth century (Brasch, 1995). Modern
fibreglass boards, films, music, clothing and a professional circuit for top
competitors have helped establish a ‘surfing culture’ which has spread
world-wide since the late 1960s. There are now millions of active surfers.

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A number of coastal locations, such as Oahu’s North Shore in Hawaii,

Tuvalu in Fiji and Jeffereys Bay in South Africa, have developed a
significant tourism industry based upon their attraction as surfing
locations.
In a similar way to surfing, sailboarding or windsurfing has attracted
a growing clientele. The first windsurfer was invented in the 1970s and
since then the sport has expanded and spread to virtually every coastal
area. In a pattern that mimics the popularity of surfing, a sailboarding
‘culture’ has developed and many locations such as Hookipai on Maui,
Hawaii, have become sailboarding tourism destinations.

The submarine
An invention originally conceived for military purposes but now also used
for recreation is the submarine. Although the use of personal submarines
is not yet widespread, a number of locations feature operators who offer
underwater trips to tourists in submersible and semi-submersible craft (see
case study below). It is likely that the use of this invention will increase
and offer yet another means of accessing the underwater environment.

Navigational aids
A further significant recent advancement has been the production of
increasingly accurate navigation, communication and safety equipment
for use at sea. Computers for scuba divers which calculate depth, water
temperature, air remaining, decompression times and navigation
information have been widely available since the late 1980s. Similar
changes in electronics for boats have rendered navigation far easier and
safety far more attainable than ever before. GPS, which now only cost a
few hundred dollars, are able to locate the user to within several metres
almost anywhere on the planet. Similarly, EPIRBs are readily available
and facilitate the quick location and rescue of vessels in distress. Depth
sounders, fish finders, electronic chart plotters and logs, weather faxes,
weather satellite images and many other devices are now commonly used
by people on boats.

The influence of these inventions has been massive. The proliferation of

new equipment which is mass produced and marketed has continued to
increase since the revolution provided by the invention of scuba in the
late 1950s. It is almost certain that this trend towards large numbers of
mechanisms for accessing the marine environment will continue to
increase. Consequently, more people will be using the marine environment
for a greater variety of activities in the future. Many marine-tourism-
based companies have been founded on these new technologies. One such

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company, which illustrates the commercial potential of marine technology,

is Atlantis Submarines.

Case study: Atlantis Submarines

Atlantis Submarines Incorporated was the first company to apply
submarine technology commercially to the tourism field. A
submersible for passengers was tried in Hawaii in the early 1980s
and proved so popular that the company now operates over 15
submarines and several semi-submersibles in Aruba, Grand
Cayman Island, the British Virgin Islands, the Bahamas, St Thomas,
the US Virgin Islands, Cancun (Mexico), Guam and Barbados as
well as in Hawaii.
The success of Atlantis is impressive and is indicative of the
influence of new technology applied to an opportunity for marine-
based tourism. In a little over its first 10 years Atlantis took over
4.5 million tourists on over 200,000 dives. This produces an annual
turnover for the company of around $US75 million. The company
now employs over 500 people and caters to almost a million tourists
each year (O’Halloran, 1996).
The submersibles and semi-submersibles operated by Atlantis have
proved popular because they have made access to the underwater
environment easy, comfortable and dry. Prior to the use of
submersibles the undersea environment was only accessible via scuba
diving or snorkelling, which appeal to a limited market; in glass-bottom
boats, which have limited viewing opportunities as they are restricted
to from-the-surface observations; and in a few underwater
observatories, which do not offer mobility. The submersibles have
proved reliable and are able to be used frequently, and the company
adds in a dive package as part of the entertainment for passengers.
The following account illustrates the type of trip offered:

Twelve dives are undertaken daily and as part of the services

offered there is the unique premium Atlantis Submarine tour
which begins with a close up view of the most scenic areas
around Fresh and Bay Reef and climaxes with a unique and
exhilarating dive show. The live 15 minute interactive dive show
is both dramatic and educational. Atlantis divers, Flash and Ray,
with the use of advanced sub-aquatic technology, communicate
directly with Atlantis and her passengers as they glide with
underwater scooters creating a thrilling underwater choreography.
(Caribbean Weekly—Barbados, October 1995)

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The success of Atlantis is attributed to careful selection of locations

for operating (including both operational and political considerations)
and to a close analysis of market trends in each location and of tourism
cycles globally. In addition, Atlantis has recognised the need to diversify
and offer services additional to their core business of submarine tours.
Boat tours, scuba and snorkelling trips, and sailing cruises are now
also offered in a number of locations. Co-operative marketing
arrangements have also been fostered with coastal resorts and hotels
as well as cruise ship companies (O’Halloran, 1996).
Atlantis has, therefore, utilised new technology to establish and
develop a successful marine tourism business that is now a major
provider of employment, revenue and opportunities for tourists in
Hawaii and the Caribbean.

Marine tourism has, therefore, expanded dramatically over the past decade.
This diverse range of activities occurs in a wide variety of locations for an
equally wide variety of reasons. Technological changes have allowed humans
access to areas of ocean that were previously little used. Within easily
accessible areas many more activities are undertaken.

THE DIVERSITY OF MARINE RECREATIONAL

ACTIVITIES
When the development of marine tourism is traced, the most obvious features
that emerge are, first, that it has become increasingly popular and, second,
related to that popularity, that it has become increasingly diverse. Today there
are more ways and means of accessing the marine world for recreation than
ever before. It appears highly likely that there will continue to be an increase
in this diversity as we invent more ways to go under it, get in it and get on
it. This complex array of activities, some complementary and many not, create
many management challenges as agencies responsible for marine resources
try to reduce conflicts, decrease risks for participants and minimise damage
to natural resources.
Within this trend of increasing diversity and increasing popularity several
important patterns can be identified. First, as one would expect, greater use
tends to occur close to areas of human concentration, namely cities. Despite
the heavy emphasis on analysing long-distance travel in tourism research and
literature, the majority of recreation occurs close to people’s place of residence,
and this is also true of marine recreation. So whilst much of this book
concentrates on the more commercial aspects of marine tourism involving
longer-distance travel away from home, it must always be remem bered that
the great majority of marine recreation is a result of regular ‘day-trip’

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Plate 2.3 Even remote areas are now accessible as a result of changes in technology,
particularly in transport.

recreation from local residents. This point is emphasised in an observation

by Miller:

It should be kept in mind that six out of ten people around the world
reside within 60 kilometres of the coastline and two-thirds of the
world’s cities with populations greater than 2.5 million are located
by tidal estuaries. The population of the coastal zone is projected to
double within the next 20–30 years.
(Miller, 1990:6)

Because much marine recreation occurs in close proximity to urban areas,

the environments upon which the recreation is based are subject to increased
pressure. Marine environments closer to cities receive large amounts of urban
‘run-off’ and other discharges resulting from human activity (sewage, storm-
water, etc.). In addition, these environments are often subject to dredging,
foreshore alteration and reclamation, and dumping of waste products. They
are more frequently fished, and have larger numbers of vessels and navigation
aids. The effect of this higher level of use is that these areas are more vulnerable
to additional pressure such as that produced by recreational activities.
A second main trend that is easily identified with regard to the spatial
distribution of marine recreation is that there is an inverse relationship between
distance from shore and intensity of use. A wider variety of activities and a
greater level of use are associated with near-shore environments. Again, this
pattern is entirely logical, for humans are terrestrial-based animals who find
it difficult to survive in a liquid medium. It is important to recognise the
dilemma this causes. Greater levels of human use occur close to shore and
close to cities, and it is these environments that are the most critical to the
health and long-term survival of the oceans and all that live within them (Earle,

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1995). Marine tourism predominantly occurs, therefore, in those ecosystems

that are most vulnerable to disturbance.
The sum of these aforementioned trends, in crude terms, is a massive
increase in use. Marine tourism has exploded in the past few decades and is
now a significant social and economic force world-wide.

THE GROWTH AND IMPORTANCE OF

MARINE TOURISM
The widespread and rapid growth of tourism generally is well documented
(see above). It is not surprising therefore that marine tourism shares this
trend and is also predicted to increase rapidly (Miller and Kaae, 1993).
It is difficult to separate marine tourism from general tourism data, for
as Miller (1990:1) notes: ‘Unfortunately, government and industry travel
statistics are generally not compiled in a manner which clearly documents
the nature of coastal zone tourism.’ There appears to be, however, a
consensus in the literature that coastal and marine tourism is growing at
an even faster rate than the general tourism sector (Miller, 1990). This
growth reflects not only increasing opportunities for marine recreation
but also a ‘generally increased level of interest in anything to do with
marine environments’ (Shackley, 1996: 111). A limited number of studies
suggest that the growth of marine tourism has been relatively recent. For
example, research on marine tourism businesses in New Zealand revealed
that over 60 per cent of operators (400) had been in business less than
five years (McKegg, Probert, Baird and Bell, 1996). Certainly for many
island nations marine tourism is the mainstay of the local economies. For
example, the Seychelles, a small island nation in the northern Indian
Ocean, derives approximately 70 per cent of its foreign exchange earnings
from tourism (Gabbay, 1986), and this tourism is ‘entirely ocean based’
(Sathiendrakumar and Tisdell, 1990:79). In Bermuda, approximately 40
per cent of public revenue is derived from tourism and tourism businesses
generate over $US 1,225 million (Archer, 1989).
An important indicator of the relative importance of the sea as a tourism
attraction is shown by a recent study on the value of beaches in the United
States. Houston found that:

Beaches are key to U.S. tourism, since they are the leading tourist
destination, with historical sites and parks being second most popular,
and other destination choices minor by comparison. Coastal states
receive about 85 per cent of U.S. tourist-related revenues, largely
because of the tremendous popularity of beaches. For example, a
single beach, Miami Beach, has more annual visits than Yellowstone,
the Grand Canyon, and Yosemite National Parks combined.
(Houston, 1996:24)

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Table 2.1 Forecast for organised watersports-based tours worldwide 1994–2000

1994 1996 1998 2000

Estimate of total
number of
watersports-based
tours 0.75–1 million 1–1.5 million 1.5–2.5 million 2.5–5 million
Relative market share of different activities (%)
1994 1996 1998 2000
Bareboat 40 33 30 25
Flotilla 9 10 10 10
Crewed 3 4 5 5
Diving 14 20 25 30
Shore based 34 33 30 30

Source: Smith and Jenner, 1994

This finding is even more significant when one considers that the United States
is by far the world’s most important tourist destination (Waters, 1990).
Smith and Jenner (1994) estimated that watersports-based ‘package tours’
would increase by between two and a half and five times by the year 2000.
Table 2.1 gives a breakdown of the market share of differing types of water-
based packaged tours and reveals the growing predominance of shore-based
and diving-focused marine tours.
Many nations with significant coastlines are less developed, have small or
insignificant tourism industries and have little infrastructure to support
tourism. However, many of these nations are viewing tourism as a catalyst
for economic and social development (Pattullo, 1996). In particular, a number
of island nations hope to develop tourism based upon their many natural areas
which are undeveloped, unique and ‘unspoilt’, and hence of immense value
and interest (Lockhart and Drakakis-Smith, 1997). Additionally, marine flora
and especially fauna are a major draw for visitors interested in nature-based
attractions. Much of the tourism growth predicted for island nations is,
therefore, likely to be associated with natural environmental features. The
potential for marine tourism is enormous globally.
However, while the general trend for tourism is one of increasing numbers
and increasing influence in coastal and island nations, a number of examples
reveal the fickle nature of the tourism industry. Political unrest, such as the
1987 coup in Fiji, can have a significant influence on tourism—it fell there
by 26 per cent (Waters, 1990). Climatic events, such as Hurricane Hugo in
the Caribbean in 1989, or the loss of a significant carrier, such as the
bankruptcy of Eastern Airlines in the same year, can have a significant negative
influence on tourism arrivals, as it did in the Caribbean in 1989 (Miller, 1990).

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Despite the size and growth of marine tourism, the industry still tends to be
more weather influenced than general land-based activities.

Case study: the cruise-ship industry

During the 1920s cruises were the preferred mode of travel for the
world’s social elite. Sea travel at this time remained the only practical
means of travelling over large expanses of water. Following World War
I America imposed restrictions on the flow of immigrants permitted to
enter the country. Many of the ships that had been used to transport
immigrants were now redundant and as a result were refitted into cruise
ships (Lundberg and Lundberg, 1993). It was not until the arrival of
the passenger aircraft that cruise ships were rendered obsolete as the
primary mode of travel.
In the early 1980s cruise ships again came into vogue, aided by
aggressive marketing campaigns and TV shows such as The Love
Boat. For the first time cruises were pitched at the middle-income
population, not only the very rich. This was achieved by shortening
cruises, introducing fly-cruise options and increasing ship capacities.
As a result cruise passengers have also started getting younger:
approximately half are under 45 years of age, with one third being under
35 (Lundberg and Lundberg, 1993).
Since cruising’s renaissance in the early eighties the industry has
been one of tourism’s leading success stories. It is dominated by three
cruise lines: Carnival, Royal Caribbean and P&O. It is predicted that
in the future these three companies will increase their dominance of
the industry via new ship orders rather than through mergers with other
cruise lines (Peisley, 1995). Advance ship orders indicate that cruise
lines are investing in increasingly larger ships, some of which are
100,000 tonnes (Peisley, 1995). In 1998 at least 28 new ships were
due to be delivered to cruise lines (Pattullo, 1996).
The most popular cruise destination in the world is the Caribbean.
This popularity can be attributed to the region’s ideal cruising
environment and its close proximity to the world’s largest cruise market,
the United States. The port of Miami serves as the major gateway to
the Caribbean and is the largest cruise port in the world. In 1993 the
Caribbean routes were plied by 77 cruise ships with passenger
capacities averaging more than 1,000 each (Pattullo, 1996). The
region’s most popular port of call, the Bahamas, recorded 1.8 million
cruise-ship arrivals in 1994 (Pattullo, 1996). It is predicted that the
Caribbean will maintain its dominance as a cruise destination as many
companies still see an untapped potential in the area. Other significant

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cruising areas include the Mediterranean, the Pacific, Alaska, North

Africa and the South China Sea. Cruise lines often operate their ships
in different regions depending on season.
By the turn of the century it is predicted that the cruise industry will
carry in excess of 8 million passengers annually (Peisley, 1995). This
would make cruising one of the world’s leading tourism industries.

The case of the cruise-ship industry provides further evidence to support

the conclusion that marine tourism is increasing rapidly. (For more
information see Chapter 3, ‘ Demand ’.) An additional segment of marine
tourism which has also shown spectacular growth in the past decade is that
focusing on wildlife.

WILDLIFE AND MARINE TOURISM

People have always been interested in animals, as the fact that domestic pets
have been companions of humans throughout history and across many
cultures illustrates. Actually, knowledge of animals and their behaviour has
probably been a central part of human life, because animals have provided
much of the food supply for most human societies. Today, many indigenous
peoples continue to interact with wildlife for spiritual and cultural reasons
as well as for food. However, the idea of visiting and observing wild animals
for recreational purposes, as a tourist attraction, has been a more recent
phenomenon (Shackley, 1996). Zoological gardens began to appear in the
nineteenth century as European explorers began to bring specimens back from
their travels (for example, Anderson, 1878). Safaris to view and hunt wildlife,
in locations such as Africa, began around the same time (Adler, 1989).
Since the late nineteenth century, the growth of facilities which hold wildlife
captive and the management of locations which protect wildlife have been
widespread (Yale, 1991). Many large cities throughout the world now have
zoos—the 1982 International Zoo Yearbook listed 757 zoos worldwide (Yale,
1991)—and many countries manage national park networks which protect
wildlife and facilitate their observation. This range of opportunities for tourists
to interact with wildlife has continued to increase, and consideration of how
these interactions should best be managed has become a common topic within
the tourism and wildlife management fields (for example, Vickerman, 1988;
Shackley, 1990, 1996; Kerr, 1991; Albert and Bowyer, 1991; Duffus and
Dearden, 1993; Orams, 1995).
Vickerman (1988) proposes that wild fauna are particularly important
tourism attractions, and illustrates this by stating that some $US14 billion is
spent annually on wildlife viewing, photography, travel and feeding. Rockel
and Kealy (1991) report on an earlier study in 1980 that found around 29

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million people took trips specifically to interact with wildlife in the United
States. Wildlife interaction (observing, feeding, touching, photographing or
otherwise experiencing wild animals) occurs in a wide variety of settings and,
in recent years, has become increasingly popular (Duffus and Dearden, 1990;
Clamen and Rossier, 1991; Duffus and Wipond, 1992; Heath, 1992; Muir,
1993; Hammit, Dulin and Wells, 1993). However, we have a poor
understanding of the role of these various interaction opportunities in outdoor
recreation experiences (Shaw, 1984).
There is a similar pattern of interest in marine fauna. McKegg and colleagues
(1996), in a study of marine tourism businesses in New Zealand, found that
animals, particularly sea birds and marine mammals, were the prime attraction
for over 65 per cent of businesses. Similar patterns of interest in marine wildlife
are noted for other locations; for example, Forestell and Kaufman report on
the popularity of whale watching in Hawaii: ‘A survey of major operators
indicates that an estimated 130,000 people actually went whalewatching
during the 1990 season, with approximately 110,000 going whalewatching
from Maui alone’ (Forestell and Kaufman, 1990:401). Another notable
example is the dolphins of Monkey Mia in Western Australia:

The wild bottlenose dolphins have been visiting the beach since at
least 1964 with up to twenty arriving at a time up to six times a day
for handouts of fish. This phenomenon is attracting lots of tourists
with over 100,000 visitors in 1990.
(Dowling, 1992:131)

Plate 2.4 Marine mammals and other charismatic wildlife are powerful images used
to attract marine tourists.

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Interacting with marine animals in natural or ‘wild’ settings is, therefore,

a major tourism attraction. These interactions typically involve greater effort
by the tourist, or, in most situations, by the tourist operator, to view the animal
in its natural setting as opposed to a captive (oceanarium) situation. The most
common locations for these interaction opportunities usually centre on
breeding sites such as the Mon Repos turtle-breeding beaches on the central
Queensland coast in Australia (Cherfus, 1984), along migratory routes like
those used for whale watching in southern Queensland, Australia (Jeffery,
1993) or at feeding sites such as that provided by the continental-shelf-induced
upwelling off the coast of Kaikoura, New Zealand (Baxter, 1993).
There are also a number of situations where animals are manipulated in
some way in order to allow tourists an opportunity for regular or closer
interaction. This is usually done through the feeding of the wildlife at a fixed
location at a regular time. Australian examples include the feeding of dolphins
at Monkey Mia in Western Australia (Connor and Smolker, 1985) and at
Tangalooma on Moreton Island in Queensland (Orams, 1994), and the feeding
of potato cod at Cod Hole on the Great Barrier Reef (Adler, pers. comm.).
There is no doubt that interacting with wildlife, in the wild, has become
extremely popular. The rapid growth of the whale-watching industry is a case
that aptly illustrates the potential of tourism based upon marine wildlife in
its natural environment.

Case study: whale watching

The transition from an industry which was based upon killing cetaceans
(whales, dolphins and porpoises) to one based on observation and
interaction with them is symbolic. For many coastal locations, whale-
watching tourism has proved more economically sustainable than
commercial whaling (Orams and Forestell, 1995). The rapid growth
of the whale-watching industry illustrates the huge attraction provided
by large, charismatic wildlife—alive and in its natural state.
In the early 1980s there were only around a dozen countries which
conducted commercial whale-watching activities. These whale watches
were predominantly based upon taking tourists out to sea in big vessels
to observe larger baleen whales (such as humpbacks, grey and right
whales) when they came to the surface to breathe. Today 295
communities in over 65 countries host whale watching. The growth of
the industry has been spectacular. Data available from the early 1990s
show it has been increasing at around 10 per cent per year. In 1994,
an estimated 5.4 million tourists went whale watching, generating over
$US500 million in revenue (Hoyt, 1996). Watching whales (and
dolphins) is, quite simply, big business. In many cases it has

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transformed small, economically depressed coastal towns into thriving

tourism centres (see case study on Kaikoura, Chapter 5).
As the industry has developed, the number of species targeted has
expanded. Additional cetacean species such as those in the toothed
cetacean group are now the basis of commercial tourism operations.
Examples include sperm whales, orca or killer whales, and bottlenose,
dusky, spinner, common and Hector’s dolphins. Operators have also
started to explore additional possibilities for interaction, no longer
confined to boat-based observation. In some situations shore-based
feeding stations have been established. Swimming with wild dolphins
using snorkel and masks, underwater motorised ‘scooters’ and tow
lines is now popular. Observation now occurs from a greater variety
of vessels including cruise ships, sail boats and sea-kayaks.
As a result of long-term experience with whale watching in Hawaii
(one of the first locations to begin commercial whale watching),
Forestell and Kaufman (1995) suggest that its development follows a
four-stage cycle of discovery, competition, confrontation and
stabilisation. This model is a particularly interesting one to test in other
locations where controversy exists over the management of the
industry.
The development of the whale-watching industry illustrates the
pattern of many sectors of the marine tourism industry. Initially the
industry developed as a result of a recognition of an opportunity
provided by local conditions (in this case, the presence of large whales
in a relatively protected coastal area). The success of early operators
attracted additional investment and expansion as other suitable
locations were identified, and later a significant diversification of the
‘product’ occurred as new ideas and technologies were applied.

In addition to the observation of ‘wild’ marine animals there are a

number of facilities which are ‘captive’. Some have large, fenced-off areas
of water within which marine mammals and other marine wildlife can
be viewed. In some cases, tourists are permitted to swim with them (Doak,
1984). There are also those facilities which are involved in research and/
or rehabilitation of injured, orphaned or sick wildlife and which are open
to the public. A number of these types of operation exist for birds, marine
mammals and other wildlife (Yale, 1991).
There is, therefore, a wide range of opportunities for tourists to interact
with marine animals, and this aspect of marine tourism is proving
extremely popular. In particular, those animals that are unusual and/or
endangered are especially targeted (Shackley, 1996). Concerns are being
expressed about the potential impact of this increasing industry on the

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Plate 2.5 Watching whales has become big business world-wide.

animals. For example, Forestell and Kaufman observe that controversy

has resulted from the rapid growth of humpback whale watching in
Hawaiian waters: ‘Concern has grown in every quarter that the
cumulative effect of this activity may threaten the recovery and survival
of this endangered species’ (Forestell and Kaufman, 1990:401). A number
of authors raise ethical issues regarding the justification of wildlife-based
tourism. For example, Guthier states: ‘While there are many advantages
for humans in the recreational enjoyment of wildlife, I am hard pressed
to conceive of any advantages for the wildlife’ (Guthier, 1993:98).
Consequently, there is a need to establish what impacts result from
marine-wildlife-based tourism (Chapter 5) and a further need to develop
management strategies which mitigate those impacts that are negative and
expand those which are positive.

SUMMARY
This chapter has offered a definition of marine tourism, briefly reviewed its
history and traced its recent development. While there are few data available
on sea-based tourism activities, there are a number of studies which suggest
that it is growing rapidly, at an even faster rate than the general tourism
industry. The case studies on cruise ships and whale watching provide
additional evidence which confirms that the development of marine tourism
has been rapid. One of the major influences producing this growth has been
the invention of new mechanisms for accessing the marine world.

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Technological changes have opened up a range of opportunities for marine

recreation that did not exist 30 years ago. In addition to this expansion on
the supply side (investigated further in Chapter 4) there has also been a rise
in interest in things marine. The implications of this rapidly increasing use of
the sea for recreational purposes are important because much of this tourism
occurs in areas already heavily stressed by human actions. Furthermore, many
marine tourist operations are based in areas or on animals that are endangered
and/or sensitive to disturbance. Consequently a strong case can be made for
the need to investigate marine tourists and marine tourism operators further,
particularly with regard to assessing impacts and the success of various
management strategies. The remainder of this book attempts to do this, first
by outlining what we know about marine tourists (the next chapter) and then
looking at the range of marine tourism opportunities available (supply) and
finally at the impacts and management of the industry.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 Discuss why defining marine tourism is difficult.
2 Explain the influences that changed attitudes about the sea in
seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Europe.
3 Name three important inventions that have had a significant
influence on the development of marine tourism. Explain their
impacts.
4 Why do you think marine wildlife has become such an important
attraction for tourists?
5 What do you think will happen to marine tourism in the future?

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 3

WHO ARE MARINE TOURISTS?

INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter an introduction to the size and scope of the marine
tourism industry was outlined. In this chapter, the characteristics and
qualities of marine tourists themselves are explored. Understandably,
because the types of recreational activity undertaken in the marine
environment are diverse, so are the participants in those activities.
However, there is evidence which shows marine tourists do differ
demographically from the general population, particularly when specific
activities are considered. It can also be argued that the motivations of
marine tourists may be different from those that are detailed for the wider
tourism industry. These motivations, and the experiences that participants
seek, are directly influenced by the medium in which the activities occur,
namely, the sea.

MOTIVATIONS
It is important to understand why individuals undertake certain activities, for
if we are able to understand that, we are far better able to plan for their needs
and to manage their actions. ‘Psychologists agree that a motive is an internal
factor that arouses and directs human behaviour’ (Iso-Ahola, 1989: 248).
Discovering people’s motivations is, of course, extremely difficult. Motivations
cannot be observed, they can only be inferred from observing behaviour. To
discover motivation, subjects must be asked for their reasons for actions, and
these are usually complex and are seldom fully understood by the actors
themselves, so even asking people about their motivations is problematic.
Despite this, the concept of motivation for recreation or leisure has been widely
explored in the literature (Ewert, 1989) and a wide variety of theory has been
developed. There is not, however, one theory or a set of theories which
adequately explains why humans do what they do. Nevertheless, a number
of these theories are worthwhile reviewing as they have relevance to marine
recreation and tourism.

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A number of authors have argued that, at a basic level, humans are

motivated to travel by curiosity (Crompton, 1979). The desire to see what is
‘over the horizon’ (or perhaps in the marine situation what is ‘under the
horizon’) may be an important reason why individuals undertake exploration-
based activities such as sea-kayaking, scuba diving, snorkelling and yacht
cruising. This curiosity motivation was incorporated by Gray (1970) in his
‘wanderlust’-‘sunlust’ theory. Gray contends that the motivation for leisure
travel can be explained by a desire to escape the familiar and experience
different environments, activities and people. Related to this is ‘sunlust’—the
seeking of a setting that is perceived to be better for particular recreational
activities. These two concepts have obvious application to the marine tourism
situation because, first, marine environments are different and offer an
opportunity to escape normal routines and surroundings. Second, marine
recreational activities are setting dependent (that is, you cannot go water-
skiing in your backyard) and heavily influenced by weather conditions. Thus,
the motivation to travel for surfing enthusiasts is to go to a marine location
where they can undertake the activity they have a passion for.
A related theory is that proposed by Iso-Ahola (1982), who argues that
motivation for leisure can be explained by two fundamental forces: seeking
personal and social rewards and escaping from personal and social
environments. Intrinsic rewards are sought in leisure in the sense that
participants derive satisfaction from such things as the challenge or excitement
of the activity, as in, for example, hooking and landing a large bill-fish. What
may also be important is that the activity affords an opportunity to escape
from the regular routines of life, such as the rigours of work. An additional
component recognised in the model is that social factors are also important
motivational influences. It is well recognised that most leisure experiences have
a social component and that these interpersonal aspects are important
influences on participants’ enjoyment (Crandall, Nolan and Morgan, 1980).
What is not often realised is that many leisure activities are undertaken because
they offer the opportunity for participants to escape from social settings or
obligations. The age-old justification for holidays to ‘get away from it all’
therefore includes not only getting away from activities and settings, like home
and work, but also getting away from people, like workmates, families and
other relations.
The application of Iso-Ahola’s approach to marine-based leisure activities
is valid. Activities such as fishing, diving, sailing, surfing and so on are
attractive not only because they are inherently enjoyable for participants but
also because they offer an opportunity to ‘escape’ from other environments,
both physical and social.
Much of the early work on motivation was based on an extension of
humans’ need for physiological balance or ‘homeostasis’. It was proposed that
a person’s actions are motivated by a need to keep a balanced level of
psychological arousal or stimulation, in the same way as the human body is

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driven to maintain a constant body temperature or energy level (Duffy, 1957).

This idea was supported by studies which showed that both understimulation
and overstimulation were psychologically harmful to humans (Hunt, 1969).
Thus, people are motivated to attain stimulation and excitement in their leisure
activities when they are bored or understimulated in their other endeavours
(work, family life, etc.), whereas those who are overworked, stressed and
overstimulated are motivated to find relaxation and passivity in their leisure.
Certainly the variety of marine recreational activities shows varying levels
of relaxation and excitement. Many, in fact, offer both. Fishing, for example,
typically involves long periods of inactivity, affording the opportunity for
relaxation, while also offering periods of excitement when a fish is hooked
and is being landed. While the ‘optimum level of arousal’ idea acknowledges
that ‘the optimum level varies from person to person and from time to time’
(Iso-Ahola, 1989:249), it is inconsistent with the fact that there are a number
of people who appear to need stimulation and action almost constantly, whilst
others appear to need little or no activity at all.
A related idea that has relevance to a number of marine recreational
activities is Csikszentmihalyi’s (1975) ‘optimal experience theory’.
Csikszentmihalyi contends that when participants engage in an activity which
matches their skill level with the challenge provided by the activity, a
psychological state, which he terms being ‘in the flow’, is achieved. This state
is characterised by the participant’s concentration on the task, a loss of a sense
of time, feelings of competency and euphoria. In contrast to the positive
psychological state of being ‘in the flow’, if the skill level of the participant
exceeds the challenge level of the activity, boredom results. Conversely if the
level of challenge provided by the task is higher than the skill level of the
participant, stress and anxiety result. This ‘flow’ state has also been termed
‘peak experience’ and studied in risk recreation (Haddock, 1993). Closely
related is the work of Zuckerman (1971, 1979, 1985) on ‘sensation seeking’
and the early work of White (1959) and Deci (1975), who argued that there
is a basic human need for feeling empowered and capable. The result,
according to these authors, is that humans seek out situations where they can
be challenged and derive a sense of achievement in their mastery of the task
or environment.
These ideas of ‘peak experience’ or being ‘in the flow’ and having a need
for feelings of competence are of interest in the marine situation, because most
marine recreational activities contain an element of challenge and risk and it
is obvious that this is part of the attraction for participants. The work of
Csikszentmihalyi, Iso-Ahola and others helps to explain this desire. Marine
settings and activities provide tourists with an opportunity to be challenged
and to experience this ‘flow’ state that appears to be so beneficial. In addition,
marine activities allow participants to accomplish things that result in feelings
of achievement and competency. Furthermore, marine settings provide an
environment that is different, a situation which many tourists seek. It also

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provides an opportunity to escape from daily routines and commitments.

Many of these motivational theories can be recognised as influential factors
in the following quotation about fishing:

The objectives of recreational fishing are complex but it is clear from

several studies that the experience of attempting to catch fish, the
pleasures of boating, and escape from work and domestic routine are
generally more important than the reality of catching large amounts
of fish. The element of challenge of personal skill and determination
against a cunning adversary in its natural element is important, and
is reflected by the scorn with which anglers greet fish that don’t fight.
(Kenchington, 1990b:26)

An additional relevant issue has been the recognition of humans’ needs for
solitude, peace and closeness to nature (Frigden and Hinkelman, 1977; Hendee
and Roggenbuck, 1984). Wilderness experiences have become increasingly
sought-after features of recreational activities in developed countries like the
United States (Miles, 1990). Early writers on the value of nature-based
wilderness experiences have influenced a conservation movement which has
grown since the nineteenth century. In 1853 Henry David Thoreau expressed
a need with which many millions have identified, when he stated:

I long for wildness, a nature which I cannot put my foot through…

This stillness, solitude, wildness of nature is a kind of
thoroughwort, or boneset, to my intellect. This is what I go out
to seek.
(Thoreau, 1972:18)

Thus, for many, the opportunity to recreate in a natural setting,

uninfluenced by human activity, is extremely important. Scherl (1987)
argues that there are significant psychological benefits that arise from
wilderness experiences. There is no doubt that, for many, wilderness
experiences are provided by marine-based recreation, for it is the sea that
provides one of the few truly wild areas left on our planet. However, the
opportunity for peace, solitude and ‘wildness’ is decreasing, even on the
sea. Aldo Leopold’s comments of half a century ago are even more
relevant today:

Wilderness is a resource which can shrink but not grow. Invasions

can be arrested or modified in a manner to keep an area usable
for recreation, or for science, or for wildlife, but the creation of
new wilderness in the full sense of the word is impossible… One
of the fastest-shrinking categories of wilderness is coastlines.
Cottages and tourist roads have all but annihilated wild coasts…

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No single kind of wilderness is more intimately interwoven with

history, and none nearer the point of complete disappearance.
(Leopold, 1949:194)

The issue for management is clear: wilderness experiences are desired by a

segment of the marine tourism market, but opportunities for such experiences
are decreasing. Resolving such issues is discussed in more detail in Chapter
6.
In summary, it is fair to conclude that humans are complex animals. Their
motives for what they choose to do in the marine environment are equally
complex. However, a number of theories about motivation, including
wanderlust-sunlust, seeking and escaping, optimal level of arousal and peak
experiences, do provide an insight into some of the factors which result in
the demand for marine recreational activities. In addition, solitude and
‘wilderness’ experiences are sought by many visitors to the sea.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MARINE TOURISTS

It is difficult to make generalisations about the characteristics of marine
tourists, because within every marine recreational activity there will be
a diverse range of age groups and peoples represented. However, for
particular activities a number of demographic patterns exist. For example,
most of the activities which are perceived as being more ‘adventurous’
or having higher risk of injury, such as surfing, windsurfing, sailing and
scuba, tend to be dominated by males and younger age groups. Those
activities that are either passive, wildlife based or social tend to be
dominated by older age groups and, in some cases, by females. An
additional generalisation that applies to most marine activities is that they
tend to be patronised, relative to other land-based recreational pursuits,
by upper socio-economic groups. This is understandable given the often
significant cost of equipment associated with marine activities. Examples
include boats, scuba gear, yachts, surfboards and windsurfers. In addition,
coastal areas tend to be the most desired places for homes, resorts and
other development. Consequently they are more often in closer proximity
to those with higher incomes, and often the fees associated with use of
these areas exclude those with lower incomes.
Research on the socio-demographic characteristics of specific marine
recreational activities is scarce. However, a number of studies have been
undertaken. It is clear, for example, that the cruise-ship industry attracts
older and relatively wealthy clients. Data from the North American
market, which forms more than 80 per cent of all cruise-ship passengers,
show that the mean age of passengers is 50 years and the mean income
$US63,000 (Table 3.1) (Peisley, 1995). However, as we noted in Chapter
2, the demographics of cruise passengers is changing:

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Table 3.1 Demographics of cruise passengers from North America 1994

Demographic category %

Sex:
Male 54
Female 46
Age:
25–39 29
40–59 36
60 and over 35
Mean 50 years
Annual income ($US):
20,000–39,000 31
40,000–59,900 30
60,000–99,900 28
100,000 and over 11
Mean $63,000
Marital status:
Married 76
Single 24
Type of household:
Children in household 27
Vacation with children 15
Vacation without children 12
No children in household 72

Source: after Peisley, 1995

Cruising is no longer the preserve of the wealthy elderly. Cruise

passengers are increasingly younger and from more moderate income
groups than in the past. Most (68 per cent) are married and 58 per
cent travel with their spouses. Few (only 6 per cent) travel alone.
(Caribbean Tourism Organisation, 1993:2)

Research on whale watchers shows that they also are predominantly from
higher-income and older age groups and are relatively well educated (Forestell
and Kaufman, 1990; Neil, Orams and Baglioni, 1995). Interestingly, however,
there is a greater proportion of females who participate in whale watching
(Neil, Orams and Baglioni, 1995). This tendency has also been noted with
dolphin swim participants (Amante-Helweg, 1995).
In contrast, scuba diving is dominated by males and younger age groups
(Davis and Tisdell, 1995), as are activities such as sailing, windsurfing and
surfing (personal observation). As would be expected, those activities that
are perceived to be more adventurous and higher risk are patronised mainly
by males (Ewert, 1989).

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 WHO ARE MARINE TOURISTS?

More passive activities, such as wildlife watching, beach walking,

sunbathing and swimming show a much more diverse demographic profile
(Anderson, 1994).

DEMAND
The demand for marine recreation and tourism can be analysed at two levels.
First, specific locations have become popular settings for marine-based
recreation, and second, specific marine recreational activities themselves have
become popular.
Many types of marine setting are popular with tourists, but beaches are by
far the most popular, particularly those in close proximity to urban areas:

The demand for beach and bathing facilities has largely paralleled
the demographic developments… Urban beaches are increasingly seen
as the single most important recreational outlet for a large segment
of the urban population.
(West, 1990:263)

This demand is reflected in the massive numbers who visit beaches; for
example, Miami Beach, Florida, hosts in excess of a million visitors each year.
The popularity of beaches (or regions of beaches) as settings for tourism is also
reflected in popular culture, as represented in music, art, movies, television and
writing. Examples of such regions include Surfer’s Paradise (Queensland,
Australia), Copacabana (Brazil), Waikiki (Hawaii), the Riviera (France), San
Sabastian (Spain), Venice (California), Acapulco (Mexico), the Golden Mile
(Durban, South Africa) and Uluwatu (Bali, Indonesia). Each of these areas hosts
well over a million visitors each year. This pattern of intensive use is repeated
around the world at virtually every beach located close to an urban area.
While beaches are without doubt the most popular marine tourist attractions,
a second important location is islands. Of course these islands also include
beaches; however, they provide a base for many marine activities and have proved
to be immensely popular settings for tourism and associated development,
including resorts, hotels, restaurants and activity providers. Once again, many
of these islands (or groups of islands) have become famous locations for marine
tourism. Examples include Hawaii, Tahiti, Fiji, Bali, Catalina, San Juan’s, Key
West, Martinique, Aruba, Jamaica, Bermuda, Majorca, Mikinos, Cyprus, the
Seychelles, Palau, the Maldives, the Canary Islands and the Galapagos. A number
of smaller islands have become famous as a result of the development of a single
tourist resort. Examples include Heron and Green on the Great Barrier Reef
and Phuket in Thailand.
One of the reasons for this popularity is the strong positive image that small
islands, beaches, coasts and the sea have. For many people the term ‘relaxation’
evokes images of waters gently lapping against sandy beaches. These images
have tremendous power and have been used successfully to influence people’s

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decision making regarding their use of spare time. Thus, at a general level,
locations and their images are important influences on demand.
The mental image of the ‘three Ss’—sun, sand and sea—is automatic for
many when they think of holidays. The fact that there are now more locations,
more activities and more opportunities to experience the three Ss contributes
to the demand for marine recreation, which appears to be widespread and in
part latent. However, the question as to why this demand exists is a difficult
one to answer. Part of the answer is provided by Jones, who claimed: ‘This
increase in interest is fueled by a better educated public, a public that is rapidly
developing an almost insatiable curiosity about the wonders of the sea’ (Jones,
1993:38).
Other environmental settings, mountains for example, offer a similarly
diverse range of recreation opportunities as well as beautiful natural settings.
However, the world-wide use of coastal environments for recreation far
exceeds any other. Why is this the case? The answer lies in the complex number
of influences on demand. Fabbri points out:

that quite often in market-oriented economies, the demand tends to

be a response to the offer. The more pressing the offer, the higher the
demand, and there is no doubt that the offer of recreation and/ or
vacation from coastal areas exceeds by far, both in intensity and
variety, offers from any other place.
(Fabbri, 1990:xiv)

Fabbri’s point is well made. It is important to recognise that demand for

marine recreation and tourism is not a simple function of an inherently desired
setting or activity. Rather it is an outcome of a complex relationship between
opportunity, image, perceived benefit, cost and history. A major influence over
the demand for marine tourism activities has been the invention of new
technology and, through this, the creation of new activities and new locations.
Thus, ‘the offer’ and more specifically the marketing of that ‘offer’ have
created demand for the activity or location.
Specific activities have become attractions, irrespective of the location where
they are undertaken. The invention and marketing of activities such as surfing,
windsurfing, water-skiing, scuba diving and para-sailing have created a
demand for these activities. It is difficult to find any marine recreational
activity that is not experiencing rapid growth. This growth is indicative of
the massive interest in and demand for marine-based recreation. Kenchington
states that: ‘Studies in Australia and elsewhere have demonstrated that fishing
is the most popular participatory recreational activity. The image of leisure
pleasurably anticipated is a day off to go fishing, or retiring to go fishing’
(Kenchington, 1990a:25–26). Whilst this may be true for a proportion of the
population, particularly older males, marine environments have a diverse
appeal for many recreational activities and there are a number of other

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activities that have experienced spectacular growth in participation. A good

example of this is the scuba-diving industry.
Since its invention in the 1950s scuba has spawned an entire new marine
tourism industry. Television programmes, such as Jacques Cousteau’s
Undersea World, helped to stimulate an interest in exploring and enjoying
the underwater environment. Thus, in a pattern often repeated in marine
tourism, the invention of new technology and publicity associated with its
use created a ‘demand’ for the activity.
A number of commentators claim that scuba is amongst the fastest-
growing sports in the world (Tabata, 1990; Dignam, 1990), and whilst
this claim seems to be made by almost all new sports, there is no doubt
that scuba has become an immensely popular activity. Davis and Tisdell
(1995), who review estimates of numbers of scuba divers in Australia,
claim that around 100,000 people learn to scuba dive each year there.
They also point out that, in addition to certified divers, so-called ‘resort
dives’, where non-certified divers are taken out diving under supervision,
are growing rapidly. Davis and Tisdell (1995) estimated that there were
around one million recreational dives undertaken annually off the
Queensland (Australia) coast alone. Data from North America also reveal
the popularity of scuba diving: West (1990) claims that there are between
four and five million certified scuba divers in the United States. The
publication of many dive magazines and dive videos, the memberships
of dive clubs, the operation of ‘live-aboard’ dive vessels, the creation of
dive-oriented resorts such as Heron Island on the Great Barrier Reef, and
the establishment of many dive shops and dive tour operators all attest
to the growth of scuba as a significant marine tourism activity.
A further example, which typifies the demand for marine tourism, is
the cruise-ship industry. Whilst sea cruises have existed for many decades,
they have predominantly been an activity only afforded by the wealthy. It is
only in recent years that the industry has started to target potential customers
with more modest incomes. Again, it is difficult to know whether the demand
for sea cruises existed amongst the wider population anyway or whether the
creation and promotion of cruise opportunities for middle income sectors
created the demand. The result, however, has been spectacular. The number
of cruise-ship berths (North American market) increased from around 56,000
in 1981 to 82,800 in 1990 (Caribbean Tourism Organisation, 1993). World-
wide the growth has been massive:

World demand for cruising has grown from 1.5 million passengers
in 1980 to 3.5 million passengers in 1989. The decade of the 1980s
recorded an average 10.3% passenger growth rate, and
expectations are that the cruise industry will handle a projected
10 million passengers by the year 2000.
(Marti, 1992:360)

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More recent data (Table 3.2) suggest that this estimation is optimistic.
Nevertheless the industry’s recent rapid growth is predicted to continue, even
if at a more modest rate of around 5 per cent annually (Peisley, 1995).
Associated with the forecast demand for cruises is a massive $US9 billion
investment in new cruise ships by every major cruise-ship company (Peisley,
1995) (Table 3.3) including several new ‘mega-ships’, the largest passenger
ships in history, each with capacities of 2,600 passengers (Major, 1995).

Table 3.2 United States cruise passenger growth 1989–1994

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994

Number of passengers (million) 3.3 3.6 4.0 4.1 4.5 4.6

Annual average growth rate 1980–1994: 9.2% 1989–1994: 7.0%

Source: Peisley, 1995

The demand for marine recreation is immense and the growth in patronage
of both locations and activities provides evidence to that effect. However, it
is important to acknowledge the influence of supply, and in particular the
marketing of those supply opportunities in generating that demand. While
massive demand for marine tourism opportunities appears to be widespread,
it is not guaranteed. A number of cases have shown a decline in tourist
popularity. For example, the number of international tourist arrivals declined
in south Florida during the early 1990s, primarily as a result of the negative
image created by several well-publicised murders of tourists in the Miami area
(Schiebler, Crofts and Hollinger, 1996). As noted in Chapter 2, tourist arrivals
to Fiji dropped significantly after the military coup there in 1987 (Miller and
Auyong, 1991), and the devastation caused by Hurricane Hugo, which hit
many Caribbean islands in 1989, resulted in a massive downturn in tourist
numbers. Tourism growth associated with marine attractions is not therefore
universal.

SUMMARY
This chapter has discussed the motivations and characteristics of marine
tourists. In addition, the immense demand for marine recreation, as evidenced
by the massive numbers participating in marine recreational activities, has
been outlined. Because the marine tourism industry is so diverse it is difficult
to encapsulate any of these issues in a text of this nature. However, issues of
curiosity and escape from the familiar as well as a balance between
stimulation/excitement and relaxation appear to be important underlying
influences over marine tourists’ behaviour. In addition, a desire for feelings
of competence and social interaction are also significant in determining what
marine tourists do.

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 WHO ARE MARINE TOURISTS?
Table 3.3 Cruise ships under construction 1995–1998

Line Ship name Tonnage Passenger Cost

capacity ($USm)

1995
P&O Cruises Oriana 69,000 1,975 355
Royal Caribbean Legend of the Sea 70,000 2,068 325
Crystal Cruises Crystal Symphony 48,000 1,010 250
Delta Steamboat American Queen 4,700 430 55
Swedish American Radisson Kungsholm 8,000 232 140
Regency Cruises Regent Sky 50,000 1,400 170
Carnival Imagination 70,300 2,634 330
Celebrity Century 72,000 1,740 317
Princess Cruises Sun Princess 77,000 1,950 295

1996
Carnival Inspiration 70,000 2,040 270
Royal Caribbean Splendour of the Seas 70,000 1,800 330
Holland America Veendam 55,000 1,266 225
Bergen Line Polarlys 480
Bergen Line Nordkapp 490
DSR 38,000 1,250 80
Costa Cruises Costa Victoria 74,000 1,900 377
Celebrity Galaxy 72,000 1,740 317
Carnival Destiny 70,000 2,600 400
Royal Caribbean Grandeur of the Seas 73,000 1,950 312
1997
Royal Caribbean Rhapsody of the Seas 75,000 2,000 270
Princess Cruises Dawn Princess 77,000 1,950 330
DSR 38,000 1,627 225
Bergen Line Nordnorge 490
Royal Caribbean Enchantment of the
Seas 73,000 1,950 80
Princess Cruises Grand Princess 100,000 2,600 377
Holland America 62,000 1,320 317
Costa Cruises Costa Magica 2,100 400
Celebrity 70,000 1,740 317
Silversea 28,000 2,200 312

1998
Carnival 70,000 2,040 320
Royal Caribbean Vision of the Seas 75,000 2,000 275
Carnival 100,000 2,600 400
Disney Cruise Lines 2,400
Disney Cruise Lines 2,400
Carnival 70,000 2,040 310

Total >9,000

Source: after Peisley, 1995; Major, 1995

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Marine tourists are diverse, and their characteristics are determined more
by the nature of the activity in which they are involved than by any other
influential variable. Those activities that are passive and expensive are
dominated by older age groups and, understandably, by upper socio-economic
groups. Activities that are active and involve elements of risk and/or physical
fitness and strength, such as surfing, windsurfing and scuba diving, tend to
be patronised by younger males. Interestingly, there is some evidence to suggest
that wildlife interaction, with the exception of fishing which is male
dominated, is more popular with females. There is little information that
analyses participation in more general marine recreational activities such as
beach walking, sunbathing or swimming.
There is much evidence that the demand for marine tourism is massive. This
is reflected in the almost universal increase in patronage of marine tourism
locations and activities. However, the demand for marine tourism is
significantly influenced by the supply, and more importantly the marketing,
of marine tourism opportunities. This issue is investigated further in the next
chapter.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 Why is it useful to understand the motivations of marine tourists?
2 Select one motivation theory that applies to you. Discuss why it
applies.
3 Why has fishing got little or nothing to do with catching fish?
Discuss this question with regard to the complex range of motives
for marine recreation.
4 Why are cruise-ship companies investing large amounts of money
in building new ships?

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 4

THE SUPPLY OF MARINE

TOURISM OPPORTUNITIES

INTRODUCTION
Whilst the amount of ocean available for marine tourism is limited, the
opportunities for using it for recreation appear limitless. However, what
has become apparent is that there are levels of use beyond which
unacceptable levels of deterioration in resource quality or the quality of
the recreational experience occur. This ‘carrying capacity’ idea has
received much attention in the literature, particularly in the management
of terrestrial park areas (Stankey, 1985). The impacts of marine
recreational activities and the concept of carrying capacity are considered
in the next chapter. This chapter considers the wide range of environments
in which marine tourism occurs, particularly as it relates to features that
attract tourists to marine settings; for while aspects of the marine
environment are important components of the experience, many other
factors are important in the supply of marine tourism experiences.
The ‘supply’ of opportunities for marine recreation can be categorised
as based on activities, nature, cultural or social attractions, or special
events. These categories are dependent on the prime attraction for the
tourist. It is recognised that in many situations a variety of attractions
exists. For example, a surfer may choose to visit Tavarua, Fiji, because
it offers great surf, a beautiful natural environment and an opportunity
to have a holiday with friends. Thus, the distinctions drawn here are
primarily for analysing the supply of opportunities for marine tourism
according to the motivation of the tourist.
Understanding the geographical spread of activities, the experiences
marine tourists seek and the types of environment in which these activities
occur is a confusing task. However, such matters are important if marine
tourism is to be understood better. Consequently, a framework for
analysing marine tourism activities and opportunities is offered in the first
part of this chapter. The diverse range of recreational activities which are
associated with the sea is categorised in a typology. This ‘Spectrum of
Marine Recreation Opportunities’ attempts to clarify the influence of

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distance from shore, the characteristics of the environment and the

experiences sought by marine tourists. The second part of the chapter
considers tourism industries that are based upon specific marine recreational
activities. A third section outlines the attraction of specific marine
environments, and lastly the influence of social and cultural attractions and
special events is considered.

THE SPECTRUM OF MARINE RECREATION

OPPORTUNITIES
In 1979 Roger Clark and George Stankey of the United States Forest Service
proposed a model that could be used to clarify the diverse range of recreational
activities and settings that were available in forests and other large natural
areas. They called this model ‘the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum’ (ROS)
and it has become an extremely popular tool for both describing and planning
for outdoor recreation (Manning, 1986). The authors, however, caution those
who would apply the model as a mechanism for prescribing recreational use
in the outdoors. The model’s attributes lie primarily in its use as a descriptive
and analytical tool. The ROS approach is to divide the natural environment
up into categories based upon its physical characteristics, the recreation
experiences it offers and the degree of human influence on the environment.
The model has proved extremely helpful in analysing large land areas utilised
for recreation (Manning, 1986).
The diverse range of opportunities for tourists to recreate in the marine
environment can also be viewed as a spectrum (the Spectrum of Marine
Recreation Opportunities—SMRO) and can be represented graphically (Table
4.1). The spectrum categorises marine recreation according to its distance from
shore because it is this single factor that most strongly influences the activities
undertaken, the experiences available and the type of environment in which
activities occur. At one extreme of the spectrum, the near-shore environment,
tourists are able to undertake a wide variety of shore-based activities which
are easily accessible, in an environment commonly influenced by human-built
structures. At the other extreme are those activities that occur far from shore,
on the open ocean. These activities are based on ocean-going vessels and are
usually characterised by isolation, closeness to nature and little contact with
others. In between these poles lies a variety of settings and experiences which
show a general pattern of decreasing social contact, decreasing human
influence and decreasing numbers with greater distance from shore.
It is helpful, when analysing recreational activities available in a particular
location, to simplify the wide range of opportunities so that the role of each
is better understood. Consideration of where a particular marine tourism
operation or activity lies in the SMRO clarifies the environmental
characteristics and the experiences available for the wide variety of marine
tourism enterprises.

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Table 4.1 The Spectrum of Marine Recreation Opportunities

Class I Class II Class III Class IV Class V

Characteristics Easily accessible Accessible Less accessible Semi-remote Remote

Experience Much social interaction Often contact with Some contact with Peace and quiet, Solitude
with others others others close to nature Tranquility
High degree of services Safety-rescue Closeness to nature
and support available Self-sufficiency
Usually crowded Occasional contact
with others

Environment Many human influences Human structures/ Few human Evidence of some Isolated
and structures influences visible structures close human activity, e.g. High-quality
Lower-quality natural and close by by—some lights on shore, Few human
environment visible mooring buoys structures/influences

Locations Close to or in urban Intertidal 100 metres Isolated coasts Uninhabited

areas 100 metres offshore 1 km offshore 1–50 kms coastal areas >
Beaches and intertidal area offshore 50 kms offshore

Examples of Sunbathing Swimming Usually boat-based Some scuba diving Offshore sailing
activities People watching Snorkeling Sailing Submarining Live-aboard offshore
Swimming Fishing Fishing Powerboat (offshore fishing
Playing games Jet-skiing Snorkel/scuba diving equipped) Remote coast
Eating Non-powered boating Sailing—larger sea-kayaking
Skimboarding Surfing sailboats
Sightseeing Para-sailing
Windsurfing

Intensity of use

Human impact
 T H E S U P P LY O F M A R I N E T O U R I S M O P P O R T U N I T I E S

ACTIVITY-BASED MARINE TOURISM

There are many activities that have become universally popular in marine
situations. Whilst they are dependent on certain types of marine environment
or condition, the prime attraction for the participants is the activity rather
than the location. Examples include surfing, windsurfing, fishing, scuba diving,
water-skiing and sailing. Each of these activities has millions of regular
participants. With the exception of scuba diving (which does not have a
competitive element), each has both competitive and recreational aspects and
in many situations a professional sporting competition has developed. In
addition, each of these sports has developed an image, or series of images,
and what could be termed a ‘culture’. Surfing, for example, has spawned a
multimillion dollar clothing industry with labels such as Rip-Curl, Billabong,
Stussy, Hang Ten, Ocean Pacific, Lightning Bolt, Bear, Town and Country,
Mambo and Rusty. Popular bands also utilise and contribute to the surfing
image; examples include the Beach Boys, the Hoodoo Gurus, the Butthole
Surfers, Australian Crawl and Mental as Anything. In addition, movies such
as Endless Summer, Big Wednesday and Point Break and television shows
like Bay Watch and Paradise Beach reflect the ‘lifestyle’ that has developed
around the activity of surfing. Thus, marine recreational activities have an
influence that extends far beyond an enthusiasm for the activity itself. For
many participants, and even for non-participants, the image and lifestyle
associated with the activities are attractive and become a part of ‘who they
are’.
The supply of opportunities for participating in these kinds of activities is
largely dependent on the conditions needed for each. For example, water-
skiing is dependent on relatively calm water-surface conditions, while of course
surfing is entirely dependent on the opposite. Many activities, however, have
diverse forms adapted to differing conditions. For example, sailing occurs both
close to shore (SMRO class II) in small vessels, near shore (SMRO class III)
and offshore (SMRO class V). Similarly, fishing occurs in all SMRO classes,
although its occurrence offshore (SMRO class V) is limited.
An excellent example of a rapidly growing marine recreational activity that
has proved controversial is that of personal watercraft.

Case study: personal watercraft

Growth in the use of jet-skis, wet bikes and water scooters, generically
referred to as personal watercraft (PWC), has been spectacular. They
represent one of the fastest-growing marine recreational activities and
their use has resulted in controversy.
The majority of PWC share a number of common features. They
are small in size, contain powerful motors and have a shallow draft

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that allows them to be used in water close to shore. In the early 1990s
it was estimated that there were approximately 400,000 PWC in the
United States and that the annual growth rate was of the order of
100,000 units per year (Cuthbert and Suman, 1995). Other countries
such as New Zealand and Australia also appear to be experiencing
rapid growth rates. However, exact figures are virtually impossible to
establish.
This growth can be attributed to a range of factors. Engine
manufacturers in Japan, such as Suzuki and Kawasaki, are
increasingly diversifying and pursuing new markets in order to increase
profits (Bairstow, 1986). As PWC are being manufactured at increased
rates by such companies they have decreased in price, making them
more affordable. Engine refinements have also made PWC more
powerful, with speeds of over 80 km per hour easily attainable. A further
feature contributing to their popularity is that they are relatively simple
to ride at high speeds. Very little knowledge or training is required to
operate them. However, novice operators have little understanding of
distances, speeds and manoeuvring, and often have poor control of
the craft.
Although PWC are undoubtedly fun for the rider, they have
become increasingly controversial. They are a direct threat to slow-
moving marine life such as turtles and manatees. In Florida,
significant numbers of manatees are struck by small vessels,
including PWC, each year (O’Shea, 1995). The noise from PWC
may also drive nesting birds away from breeding areas (Cuthbert
and Suman, 1995). The shallow draft of PWC allows them to
operate in estuaries and mangrove forests and over sand flats that
are often important feeding and breeding grounds for wildlife.
The impact PWC are having on humans is also becoming
increasingly clear. Conflict has grown between PWC operators and
other marine user groups. Many anglers, for example, are opposed
to PWC because they disturb fish life. Kayakers and sailors are
complaining about the noise pollution emanating from PWC and
the dangerous actions of some riders (Cuthbert and Suman, 1995).
Noise pollution complaints are also voiced by those ashore. As well,
PWC pose a direct threat to the physical safety of other marine
users: these craft have killed kayakers, swimmers and other PWC
riders in New Zealand, Australia and the United States.
PWC have also been identified as a potential threat to tourism,
as they damage the perception of tranquil environment by those
tourists not participating in their use (Cuthbert and Suman, 1995).
Evidence from Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii, suggests that tourists
inexperienced in the use of PWC have difficulty doing even basic
manoeuvres such as turning and stopping (Mattix and Goody,

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1990).This suggests that inexperienced users may be an even greater

danger to themselves and other marine users.

NATURE-BASED MARINE TOURISM

There is widespread agreement that the demand for nature-based tourism is
increasing rapidly (Orams, 1995). An argument can be made that, as a result
of pollution and the destruction of natural ecosystems, the supply of
opportunities for high-quality nature-based recreation is decreasing.
Comparatively, however, the supply of such opportunities in the marine
environment is actually increasing. This is a result of the increasing
accessibility of high-quality marine ecosystems. Evidence has been presented
earlier in this book that new technology and greater marketing of that
technology has greatly expanded the accessibility of the marine environment.
Thus, the availability of high-quality nature-based experiences has increased
for tourists. However, it must be recognised that the actual number of high-
quality marine ecosystems is limited and is decreasing. Consequently, there
will come a time in the future where the possibilities for experiencing such
settings will also decrease.
There are a number of cases where the ‘explorer tourists’ of the marine
world have ‘discovered’ pristine new locations and have provided the impetus
for the development of those locations for tourism. The classic progression
through Butler’s ‘destination life cycle model’ (Butler, 1980) has resulted and
thus the natural qualities of the site have been degraded. The degradation of
natural attractions as a result of tourism is a widespread phenomenon. These
impacts are discussed in more detail in Chapter 5. Here a case study which
indicates the attraction of nature and the impacts of tourism based upon it
is that of Australia’s Heron Island, Queensland.

Case study: Heron Island

Heron Island is located in the southern region of Australia’s Great
Barrier Reef amongst a group of around 13 islands known as the
Capricorn-Bunker Group. Heron is a sand cay located at the western
end of a coral-reef lagoon and is relatively small, at around 800 m long
and 280 m wide at its widest point. The island is an ecologically
important breeding site for birds such as the black noddy (Anous
minutus) and the wedge-tailed shearwater (Puffinus pacificus) and also
for a number of species of sea turtles, especially the green sea turtle
(Chelonia mydas).

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Early human use of the island was based on the harvesting of

turtles, and a turtle-soup factory operated at Heron from 1925 to
1929 (Limpus, Fleay and Guinea, 1984). This factory became a
tourist resort in 1932 (Great Barrier Reef Committee, 1977) and it
has been subsequently bought and developed by P&O. Additional
development on the island includes a research station established
in 1951, now operated by the University of Queensland (Jones,
1967), and a park centre for Heron Island National Park established
in 1983 (Neil, 1993).
Tourist use of Heron Island has changed significantly since the
mid-1980s. Hopley (1988) suggests that two major factors were
responsible. First, the introduction of large, high-speed catamarans
facilitated rapid, relatively comfortable access for tourists. Heron
is now only two hours away from the mainland, whereas prior to
the introduction of the catamarans, boat trips could take up to six
hours. Second, the variety of activities available for tourists has
significantly increased. Scuba diving, snorkelling, semi-
submersibles and glass-bottom boats have all ‘opened up’ the
underwater world for visitors to Heron. The result has been a larger
number of tourists who visit more of the environment surrounding
Heron. The resort is estimated to host about 11,000 tourists
annually. It is, therefore, the second most intensively used coral
cay on the Great Barrier Reef and the most intensively used in the
southern reef region (Heatwole and Walker, 1989).
Heron Island Resort promotes itself as an ‘environmentally
friendly’ nature-based tourist facility:

Whilst the island is an international resort, great care is taken

to make it a ‘live and let live’ situation with nature. The resort
takes up only one corner of the island, with the remainder
belonging to the seabirds and the turtles…
The golden rule of Heron is to enjoy nature, without
disturbing it. This is carried out right through to details like
garbage disposal. Resort waste that is not biodegradable,
such as bottles and cans, is actually shipped back to the
mainland and properly disposed of. Every precaution is taken
so as not to upset the delicate balance of nature.
(Heron Island Resort, 1986:2)

However, despite these ‘green’ sentiments there is no doubt that

the development and operation of the resort at Heron Island has
caused significant detrimental environmental impacts. It should also
be noted that the operation of the University of Queensland

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research station and the national park centre also contributes to

these impacts.
Examples of these impacts include the building of structures
resulting in a reduction in the area available for nesting for both sea
birds and turtles. This is particularly significant for the green sea turtle
and the burrow-nesting wedge-tailed shearwater, both of which are
thought to return to the same site each year for nesting. The lights from
buildings are also thought to confuse hatchlings from both these
species, resulting in increased mortality rates (Gibson, 1976; Hulsman,
1983; Lane, 1991). Tourists who walk around the island have been
observed to collapse the shearwater burrows, killing the nesting bird
and chick (Dyer, 1992). In addition, disturbance of sea birds can cause
them to abandon their nests, and hatchlings can die if the parent does
not return after as little as 15 minutes (Hulsman, 1984).
Of more direct concern with regard to the marine environment is
the dredging and maintenance of the boat channel through the reef
flat to the western side of the island. This channel has significantly
altered the tidal flow around the island and the surrounding reef flat
(Gourlay, 1991), altering the benthic fauna adjacent to the channel
(Neil, 1988) and accelerating beach erosion on the northern and
southern sides of the island (Neil, 1993).
Tourists and their actions also impact on Heron’s ecology. The
common practice of walking over the coral reef flat at low tide at Heron
can significantly reduce the health and abundance of coral (Woodland
and Hooper, 1977). Litter is common on both the inter-tidal areas and
the reef flat (personal observation). Recreational fishing is also likely
to alter the natural composition of reef fish populations.
Heron Island provides an interesting example of a marine tourist
destination that offers and markets itself as a nature-based attraction.
However, despite the best intentions of minimising impacts, they do
still occur. This pattern is common amongst most marine tourism
destinations.

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL ATTRACTIONS

It is well documented that social interactions form an extremely important
part of tourism experiences (Leiper, 1995). Opportunities to holiday and have
fun with friends remain one of the most important motivators for recreational
travel (Leiper, 1995). Consequently, the supply of such opportunities is an
important issue to consider in a discussion about marine tourism. While it
may be contentious to classify an attraction like ‘Muscle Beach’ (a body-
builders’ weight-lifting area) at Venice Beach, California, as a ‘cultural

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attraction’, there is no doubt it is a tourist attraction that focuses on human

diversity. In fact, ‘people watching’ is an extremely important part of most
popular beach areas. Many tourists visit locations such as Miami Beach to
look at scantily clad men and women because they are different from people
at home. For many teenagers around the world, summer-time trips to the
beach are primarily motivated by opportunities to investigate members of the
opposite sex with few clothes on.
Marine settings are also locations that are used for social gatherings and
celebrations. Bonfires on beaches, picnics and barbecues, the ‘rafting up’ of
boats for socialising, parties on cruise boats and beach-based recreational team
sports are all examples of the importance of social interaction in many marine
tourism activities.
In more traditionally ‘cultural’ terms, historical events and museums are
also important marine tourism attractions.

Case study: maritime museums and historical festivals

Maritime museums are found in almost every country that has links
to the sea. These museums not only preserve the socio-cultural
history of a country’s maritime past but also serve as marine
tourism attractions themselves. The vast majority of such museums
are located alongside harbours or waterways. Many of the
attractions themselves, such as the sailing ship Peking at the South
Street Seaport Museum in New York and the Great Britain II in
Bristol, England, are still afloat, being permanently moored as walk-
aboard displays. Other exhibits, such as the ‘coastal traders’ at the
Auckland Maritime Museum in New Zealand, are operational and
take tourists on harbour excursions.
Maritime museums the world over are adopting new strategies
to attract tourists. The Deutsches Schiffahrts museum in
Bremerhaven, Germany, offers guided tours, evening lectures and
educational programmes. In addition, the museum has been
developed to allow tourists to participate in activities such as
manoeuvring scale models by remote control and operating a
submarine periscope (Ellmers, 1991). Increasing numbers of
museums are adopting such interactive approaches to displays.
Other museums, such as the Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde,
Denmark, are entirely devoted to preserving and exhibiting one
period of marine history. This museum, as its name implies,
focuses on Viking ships and artefacts. The museum was
constructed in the late 1960s to house five Viking ships that had
been unearthed in the adjacent fjord. The museum is a ‘living

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workshop’ at which archaeologists continue to undertake

restoration work (Madsen, 1991). This work is often undertaken in
public viewing rooms to allow visitors to understand the restoration
process. In addition, audiovisual displays illustrate the recovery of
the original five Viking ships. The museum has also built replica
Viking ships using traditional methods. These building activities are
on display too (Madsen, 1991).
The South Street Seaport Museum is one of the world’s most
active maritime museums. The museum operates ‘excursion
vessels’ which in the early 1990s were taking more than 300,000
passengers annually around the harbour (Neill, 1991). The two
schooners Lettie G.Howard (1893) and Pioneer (1885) are also
operated as working historic vessels. Tourists allow the boats to
earn the cost of their operation and maintenance while providing
an enjoyable activity (Neill, 1991).The museum is also very active
in organising marine festivals. In 1986, Operation Sail, a festival
to celebrate the Statue of Liberty Centennial, gathered together tall
ships from 23 countries (Neill, 1991). Over the three-day event,
40,000 spectator vessels attended, while on shore 350,000 people
visited the 15 historic ships docked at the museum.

SPECIAL EVENTS
There is a multitude of specific marine-based events that are significant tourist
attractions. Many of these events are regular occurrences, such as those that
are held on an annual basis. Examples include competitive marine sporting
events such as national surf life-saving championships, national yachting
regattas and annual fishing competitions. Others have a recreational focus—
for example, an annual mid-winter swim—or an environmental theme, like
an annual beach clean-up. Many of these events attract tens of thousands of
spectators in addition to the participants. Consequently an event can have
major economic implications for the surrounding community. For example,
a study conducted on the impacts of the 1997 Billabong Pro surfing event
held on Queensland’s Gold Coast, Australia, found that 32,000 spectators
attended the five-day competition and that the net economic impact of the
event was around $A2.3 million (Kavanagh, 1997).
The great majority of special events occur in SMRO class I and II settings.
However, there are some events, usually off-shore yacht races like the
Whitbread Round the World Yacht Race, or the Trans Atlantic, that are
conducted primarily in SMRO class V. Probably the most significant marine
tourism event in terms of longevity, spectator interest and economic influence
is the America’s Cup.

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Plate 4.1 Special events such as the Whitbread Round the World Yacht Race have
become significant tourist attractions.

Case study: the America’s Cup

The America’s Cup is promoted as the oldest international sporting
event. In 1853, after an invitation was extended to the United States
to compete in a yachting regatta off the south coast of England, the
yacht America defeated the entire English sailing fleet. The trophy that
was awarded to the winning crew became known as the America’s Cup.
It has subsequently become a trophy that yacht clubs from different
countries compete for. The cup holder ‘defends’ in a series of races

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against the top international challenger. The winner of this America’s

Cup match is awarded the cup and must defend it against subsequent
challengers.
The unique history of the America’s Cup is that the United States
successfully defended it for over 130 years. Finally, in 1983, the
Australian challenger defeated the US defender 4–3 and the cup went
to Australia. Australia conducted the defence of the America’s Cup in
the city of Fremantle in 1987, where the US challenger Stars and
Stripes defeated the Australian defender Kookabura III 4–0, and the
cup returned to the United States. The United States successfully
defended in 1992 but lost the cup to New Zealand in 1995. The next
America’s Cup will be held on the waters of the Waitemata Harbour in
Auckland New Zealand in the summer of 1999–2000.
The America’s Cup event in New Zealand will include five months
of competition between the challengers (a record 18 challenges have
been received) and over 250 races. The final America’s Cup match
(best of nine races) is predicted to attract over 6,000 spectator vessels,
around 70 helicopters overhead, over 2,000 journalists and around 20
television crews. Over 160 countries will take television coverage of
the event (Thomas, pers. comm.).
Initial studies predict that the America’s Cup event will have
important economic implications for Auckland. The cup is predicted
to increase tourism numbers to the area by 5 per cent (60,000
additional visitors). These additional visitors to the region are expected
to spend over $NZ110 million. Additional expenditure from challenging
syndicates is predicted to exceed $NZ80 million. Further expenditure
in the region will result from infrastructural developments designed to
support the cup event. In total the event is predicted to contribute
around $NZ466 million (Brent Wheeler and Co., 1997).
The America’s Cup is a major marine tourism event that has a long
history and has grown in influence and impact in recent years. It will
be the largest sporting event ever hosted in New Zealand and provides
that country with an important event from which it can ‘lever’ and market
its products and industries.

SUMMARY
The supply of marine tourism opportunities is closely linked with the issue
of access. New inventions are creating new activities and allowing access to
previously unused areas. Thus, it could be argued that the supply of
opportunities for marine recreation is ever increasing. There are certainly
many marine activities available now which were not available 30 years ago.

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However, an important issue with regard to the supply of opportunities for

marine recreation is that of environmental quality. Most marine tourism
activities are dependent on the quality of the resource; for example, fishing
cannot occur if there are no fish. An even more extreme scenario would see
a complete loss of marine recreation opportunities if an area is so polluted it
is harmful to human health. Unfortunately, this is a reality for the harbour
and beach areas close to large cities. Thus, the supply of marine activities,
while increasingly diverse, is constrained by environmental quality. The impact
of tourism and other human activities on the marine environment inevitably
affects our ability to utilise that environment for recreation. The issues of
impacts and management are therefore critical to the future of marine tourism.
They are discussed in the following chapters.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 Discuss how the demand and supply of marine tourism are linked.
2 Critique the Spectrum of Marine Recreation Opportunities. Is it an
accurate model? How does it help an understanding of marine
tourism?
3 Discuss how nature-based marine tourism may become a catalyst
for further tourism development, and consider the implications of
that development for the tourism attraction.
4 Do you agree that environmental quality is an important constraint
on the supply of marine tourism opportunities? If so, why do you
agree? If not, why not?

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 5

IMPACTS OF MARINE TOURISM

INTRODUCTION
In the early stages of mass tourism development, the impacts of tourism were
largely viewed as positive, particularly with regard to their influence on the
economic development of a region or country. The influx of ‘foreign’ cash
into an economy as a consequence of tourism was viewed as an ‘export’
industry from an economic perspective. Consequently, tourism was seen as a
desirable sector to target for development. However, more recently it has been
recognised that there are costs associated with tourism development:

Countries are encouraged to invest in tourism because of its evident

economic benefits—particularly foreign exchange earnings,
employment and infrastructural development such as transport
networks. Cost-benefit analysis of tourism development has tended
to concentrate on these positive outcomes, while scant attention has
been given to the social, environmental and other costs associated with
development.
(Warren and Taylor, 1994:1)

Other analysts are far more dramatic in their assessment of the impacts of
tourism. For example, Croall states:

A spectre is haunting our planet: the spectre of tourism. It’s said that
travel broadens the mind. Today, in the modern guise of tourism, it
can also ruin landscapes, destroy communities, pollute the air and
water, trivialise cultures, bring about uniformity, and generally
contribute to the continuing degradation of life on our planet.
(Croall, 1995:1)

While this may be a little extreme, it is indicative of the growing view that
tourism is not the panacea it was once, in some cases, made out to be. It is now
widely understood that there are many negative impacts that result from it.

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Similarly, as the growth of marine tourism has become widespread, an

increasing number of reports show that significant environmental, social,
cultural and even economic damage can result. However, there are also
success stories, where the development of marine tourism has, on balance,
improved things. The question arises, therefore, of what it is that makes
the difference between successful and unsuccessful marine tourism.
Related to this first question is a second: how do we decide whether the
impacts of the tourism have been positive or negative? These questions
have also been asked with regard to the wider tourism industry. For
example, Johnston asks:

Is tourism development compatible with the ideals of ‘sustainable’

development? Can tourism, an industry that inherently creates de-
pendency relationships, truly be tailored in a socially responsible
and environmentally viable fashion?
(Johnston, 1990b:2)

The questions are difficult to answer. Considerable debate surrounds the

assessment of impacts of tourism. However, the first step in such an
assessment is to describe the range of impacts that tourism activities and
associated development are having. This chapter outlines some of these
impacts, both positive and negative, and the following chapter considers
strategies to manage these impacts.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
As outlined in Chapter 4, there appears to be a consensus in the literature
on tourism that demand for opportunities to interact with nature,
including marine environments, has been increasing rapidly (Jenner and
Smith, 1992). This general interest in nature, marine settings and
experiences based upon them is reflected in an increasing demand and
value being placed on relatively undisturbed coastal environments and,
in particular, wild animals (Gauthier, 1993). Whilst tourism of this type
has been applauded by many as a suitable saviour for threatened wildlife
populations, including marine species (Davies, 1990; Groom, Podolsky
and Munn, 1991; Borge, Nelson, Leitch and Leistritz, 1991; Barnes,
Burgess and Pearce, 1992; Burnie, 1994), many authors are cautious
regarding the negative environmental impacts resulting from nature-based
tourism (Butler, 1990; Wheeller, 1991, 1994; Zell, 1992; Pleumarom,
1993). Glasson, Godfrey and Goodey summarise these views when they
state: ‘Tourism contains the seeds of its own destruction; tourism can kill
tourism, destroying the very environmental attractions which visitors
come to a location to experience’ (Glasson, Godfrey and Goodey,
1995:27).

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There are significant numbers of cases which illustrate negative impacts

associated with tourist-nature interaction (Hanna and Wells, 1992; Burger
and Gochfield, 1993; Griffiths and Van Schaik, 1993; Ingold et al., 1993;
Viskovic, 1993; Muir, 1993). More specifically, there are many authors who
are expressing concern over the negative impacts that are being inflicted on
marine ecosystems as a result of marine tourism activities (Hegerl, 1984;
Mellor, 1990; Ward, 1990; Laycock, 1991).
Several examples illustrate these concerns. In Florida the endangered West
Indian manatee has become a major tourist attraction:

This virtual certainty of seeing manatees between November-March

in the Blue Springs/Crystal River area has contributed to the increased
popularity of manatee-related diving and boating excursions. Within
the Crystal River area alone (home to a third of the west coast Florida
manatee population), five dive shops exist to service manatee-related
scuba and snorkelling. In the height of the manatee season, the density
of divers in the estuarine waters can reach 1/10 m2 and, despite
manatee harassment legislation, many will pet, stroke and attempt
to ride the animals.
(Shackley, 1990:313)

Shackley concludes her review of manatee-related marine tourism thus:

‘Anyone who wants to ensure the survival of the species would be well advised
to avoid visiting them’ (Shackley, 1990:316).
A further report identifies the concern over the impact of marine tourism
growth in the northern Pacific:

Glacier Bay in southeastern Alaska has been the site of a long running
controversy concerning the sensitivity of humpback whales to ship
disturbance… In 1970 only four ‘large’ ships (meaning mainly cruise
ships but occasionally also meaning state ferries and military vessels)
entered Glacier Bay. Seven years later, 103 largeship entries were
recorded by the National Park Service, and many additional visits
were made by smaller tour vessels and private craft. A ‘sudden
departure’ of humpbacks from Glacier Bay was reported in the
summer of 1978, and again the following year fewer whales entered
and remained in the bay for the summer feeding season.
(Reeves, 1992:8)

An important concept that illustrates the danger posed by small incremental

changes to natural environments is ‘recreational succession’. This concept was
first proposed by Stankey (1985) when he described the gradual deterioration
of a camping site as it became increasingly popular with visitors. This
phenomenon has been observed in many different natural settings and can

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Plate 5.1 A New Zealand fur seal pup killed as a result of entanglement in a fishing
net. Examples of human impacts on the marine environment like this one
are widespread.

be described as follows. As pristine natural sites are discovered and used for
recreation, deterioration of the site’s natural attributes occurs. Consequently,
initial visitors, who were attracted by the pristine unspoilt surrounds, move
on and are replaced by greater numbers, with lower expectations of
environmental quality. This chain continues, resulting in ever-increasing
numbers of visitors, increasing development of the site’s infrastructure to cope
with visitors’ needs and decreasing environmental quality. Meantime, the
initial ‘discovering group’, having moved on, have explored and ‘discovered’
another pristine site and thus have started the chain of recreational succession
again elsewhere. The overall result of recreational succession is a gradual
‘creep’ of development of facilities and infrastructure and a gradual loss of
‘wilderness’ and environmental quality.
Related to the concept of recreational succession is Butler’s (1980) Tourism
Life Cycle model (Figure 5.1). He argues that a tourism destination or
attraction passes through a number of general stages as it becomes more
popular. This model reflects the typical ‘product life cycle’ concept which is
widely used in the marketing and business management areas; that is, that a
product will follow a birth-growth-maturity development pattern. This kind
of general development path has been observed in long-established whale-
watching locations (Forestell and Kaufman, 1995) and has relevance to a
number of marine tourism cases. For example, the case of Hanauma Bay on

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Figure 5.1 Possible stages in the development of marine tourism attractions (adapted
from Butler, 1980)

the island of Oahu in Hawaii illustrates both the dramatic environmental

impacts that can occur as a result of tourism and the developmental stages
outlined in Butler’s model.

Case study: Hawaii’s Hanauma Bay

Hanauma is a sheltered cove located on the island of Oahu, Hawaii,
about 15 minutes’ drive from the city of Honolulu. Prior to the 1950s
this secluded bay was used by local Hawaiians for traditional food
gathering and by occasional fishers and weekend campers. Coral, fish
and other marine life were plentiful at this time and use of these
resources was small-scale. During the 1950s a beach road was
constructed from Honolulu to Hanauma. This improved access
dramatically changed the numbers of people visiting the bay—a
massive increase in use occurred over the next decade (Burgett, 1990).
By 1964 it was estimated that over 1,000 fish and 500 coral heads were
being removed each year by visitors to the bay using scuba and
spearguns. Concern over these impacts resulted in a ban on the taking
of all marine life from the bay in 1967, and in 1970 Hanauma was

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declared a marine park and promoted as a tourist destination

(Reynolds, 1990).
A number of private tour operators began to run bus tours to the
bay for tourists, for whom snorkelling and fish feeding became
popular activities. The increased use of the area resulted in
demands for improved facilities to serve the tourists. The road was
improved, parking lots enlarged, restrooms and picnic facilities
added. These facilities served to increase the popularity of the bay,
and concerns over the ‘carrying capacity’ of the location were
expressed. Local government funded a study in 1977 to determine
the optimum level of use for the park. This study concluded that
the carrying capacity of the bay should be set at 1,000 visitors per
day. The popularity of Hanauma has continued, however, and use
of the bay exceeds 10,000 visitors each day (Burgett, 1990).
Reynolds (1990) estimated that by 1981 over 2 million tourists
visited the small bay each year.
Assessing the impacts of this intense recreational use of the bay
has been difficult. As with all marine ecosystems, the interactions
of reef fish and other marine fauna with other components of the
ecosystem are complex, dynamic and consequently difficult to
measure. However, a number of studies have shown that the
biomass (weight) of fish inside the reef crest at Hanauma is very
much higher than a natural level, while the biomass of other
organisms such as coral, sponges and other marine fauna is much
lower and declining. Several causes are suggested. First, the
common practice of fish feeding by tourists is encouraging larger
than normal concentrations of reef fish species which will accept
human-provided food. Second, direct trampling on benthic
organisms by waders, swimmers and snorkellers is destructive.
Third, the great amount of silt stirred up by large numbers of people
wading in the shallows is harmful to marine life such as corals.
Fourth, the suntan lotion and urine entering the water as a result
of large numbers of tourists is harmful. Reynolds states that ‘by
ten o’clock the water is cloudy (from silt) and there is an oil slick
of sun tan lotion on the water’ (Reynolds, 1990:106). Lastly, the
freshwater showers installed for tourist convenience on the shore
are resulting in higher than normal levels of freshwater run-off,
altering the composition of the near-shore salinity.
The consensus with regard to Hanauma is that the rapid growth
of tourist numbers, together with the infrastructure established to
service their needs, has produced a severe reduction in the quality
of the bay’s ecosystem, particularly in the heavily used shallow
areas. Hanauma, however, remains popular and provides an
example of the concept of recreational succession. Many now

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consider Hanauma to be nothing more than a ‘sacrifice area’—a

location where the mass tourists can be channelled to concentrate
their negative effects, thereby reducing the pressure on other bays
and beaches on the island of Oahu.

The case of Hanauma is typical of many coastal locations that have become
popular with tourists. It appears that environmental degradation is inevitable
when tourism becomes established. However, despite all these ‘doom and
gloom’ examples, there are cases where tourism development has provided
the impetus for an improved local environment. For example, one of the major
justifications used in the establishment of marine protected areas has been
their value as tourist attractions (Salm and Clark, 1989). Similarly, the value
of endangered species alive, as tourist attractions, rather than dead for food
products, has provided a justification for the protection of marine animals
such as whales, dolphins, seals, sea turtles and sharks (Orams and Forestell,
1995). Furthermore, there is evidence to suggest that marine tourism
experiences can be utilised to prompt tourists to become more environmentally
responsible—to become active marine conservationists (Orams, 1997).
Environmental organisations such as Earthwatch, World Wide Fund for

Plate 5.2 Massive coastal developments for tourism, such as this one in the Bahamas,
have major impacts on small local communities.

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Nature, the Pacific Whale Foundation, Marine Mammal Stranding networks

and many others all utilise marine tourism operations and experiences to solicit
members and support for their conservation work. And, as a consequence,
marine tourists do, in some cases, actively support the improvement of marine
environments.

SOCIO-CULTURAL IMPACTS
In 1870 the Reverend Francis Kilvert wrote in his diary ‘of all the noxious
animals, the most noxious is the tourist’ (Croall, 1995:21). These
sentiments are now being echoed around the globe by local people whose
societies have come to be dominated by tourism. For example, Hawaiian
activist Puhipau is reported to have said: ‘I beg you, please don’t come
to Hawaii. Tourism is killing us, it is literally sucking the life out of us’
(Puhipau, 1994: 10). His comment illustrates one extreme of the socio-
cultural impact of tourism. There are now many nations and regions
where the numbers of tourists far outnumber the locals and where the
area’s development, activities, employment and services are so dominated
by tourism that the integrity and traditions of the local culture are
completely subsumed. This kind of influence over the lives of locals by
the presence of ‘outsiders’ produces widespread resentment.
The impact of tourism development on local communities has been
characterised in a model proposed by Doxey (1975). He argues that the
reactions of a host community to the growth of tourism vary over time
in relation to developmental stages. The reactions range from initial
cynicism and euphoria, as locals consider the possibilities for their
location, to increasing levels of negative responses, as the costs of tourism
development to the local community are felt (Figure 5.2). Eventually a
stage of acceptance and/or adaptation to the changes induced by tourism
is reached.
Forestell and Kaufman (1995) provide an analysis of the development
of whale watching from their experiences in Hawaii and Australia. Their
work suggests that the operators involved in whale watching experience
phases of discovery early on, competition as growth develops,
confrontation as regulatory agencies become involved and eventual
stability when the industry matures. These observations can be considered
in conjunction with Butler’s life-cycle approach (Figure 5.3).
The socio-cultural impacts of marine tourism vary over time. Whilst
models such as those briefly reviewed here may not have universal
applicability, they emphasise that any socio-cultural assessment should
consider the stage of development of a particular location. A good
example of socio-cultural impacts of tourism, the majority of which is
marine based, is that of the islands of the Caribbean.

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Figure 5.2 Possible stages in the development of marine tourism attractions and
associated community reactions (adapted from Butler, 1980; Doxey, 1975)

Figure 5.3 Possible stages in the development of whale-watching locations and

associated operator reactions (adapted from Forestell and Kaufman, 1995)

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Case study: the islands of the Caribbean

Small island nations, such as those in the Caribbean, where marine-
based tourism is predominant, are particularly vulnerable to its
sociocultural impacts. The small size of these islands and their
popularity result in exacerbated effects on more traditional land uses.
For example, the forced displacement of the local population from
favoured areas, particularly beaches, is common in the Caribbean.
Prior to the development of tourism on the island of St Thomas, more
than 50 beaches were available to the local population for recreation
and other uses. However, by 1970 only two beaches remained open
to the public; the remainder are reserved exclusively for the use of
tourists. This has resulted in widespread resentment amongst the local
population (Johnston, 1990a). In 1984 one of these two remaining
public beaches, Magens Bay, was rezoned by the island’s government
for a tourism development. This caused a massive public outcry, which
resulted in the government being voted out of office (Johnston, 1990a).
During this protest many strongly worded anti-tourism murals, slogans
and graffitti appeared around the island.
The creation of exclusive beach clubs and resorts on Antigua has
also stopped the great majority of Antiguans from using the island’s
best beaches. Access for locals is only possible by purchasing
expensive day passes that are beyond the budgets of most.
Displacement from traditionally popular areas also occurs when
older islanders feel uncomfortable with large numbers of tourists who
fail to observe local dress codes and customs (Pattullo, 1996). Because
few tourists visit there, Friars Bay in Antigua has become a ‘refuge’
for locals seeking to escape tourists and partake in traditional beach
activities. A dramatic illustration of the exclusivity of beaches controlled
by resorts and clubs on the island is given by Pattullo (1996), who states
that the prime minister of Antigua was refused entry to a beach on the
island in 1994.
Tourism in the Caribbean has also been blamed for changing the
resident population’s ethics and general outlook on life. A transition
away from old traditional values to a ‘western-style materialism’ is often
cited as an example of this. An Antiguan politician observed that too
many islanders were ‘imitating the life-style of the holidayers whom
[they serve]’ (Pattullo, 1996:85). This loss of tradition or ‘cultural identity’
is a widely reported concern in the Caribbean (Johnston, 1990a).
A further example of the socio-cultural impact of tourism in the
Caribbean has been a significant increase in prostitution and crime
(Mathieson and Wall, 1982). In Antigua ‘beach boys’ operate on island
beaches looking for western women in search of local boyfriends.

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Payment for their ‘services’ usually takes the form of meals out in
restaurants, clothes and other material goods, as well as money
(Pattullo, 1996). Female prostitution is also well established on
Caribbean islands. In the past some marketing strategies used by
Caribbean nations have even tried to cash in deliberately on the sex
image (Mathieson and Wall, 1982). Tourism has created a demand
for drugs, which are supplied by local dealers; and drug traffickers often
use tourism to mask their activities (Johnston, 1990a). Affluent tourists
have also provided local street criminals with desirable targets.

ECONOMIC IMPACTS
There is no doubt that tourism development has had widespread economic
benefits. There are numerous examples of communities, regions and even
nations that have been rejuvenated economically, with the resultant social
benefits of greater employment, better services, improved health and
generally improved standards of living (see Kaikoura case study below).
While some locals may resent the prevalence of tourists in locations like
Antigua or Hawaii, there is no denying that these same locals benefit from
the businesses, services and infrastructure that these tourists support. The
reality is that it is difficult to have the good (for example, employment
opportunities and improved social services) without the bad (for example,
increased traffic and inflationary pressures).
The economic influence of tourism is both pervasive and seductive. It
appears to be an industry that needs little capital investment when, for
example, the attractions of an area already exist. It brings a significant
influx of cash into an area, spread over a wide variety of service industries
such as food, accommodation and transport as well as the attraction itself.
In addition, tourists contribute to the taxation revenues of governments
(for example, through sales taxes on goods and services) and yet the
government does not have to cater for these people in the longer term, as
they are visitors. Furthermore, these visitors have little power or interest
in the election of governments. As a consequence tourism appears an
extremely attractive option when governments are considering how best
to develop their economies. However, there are a number of cases that
illustrate that negative economic consequences can result from tourism
developments.
It is self-evident that if the tourism activity destroys the attraction upon
which it is based then the investment in tourism infrastructure and
businesses is lost. Sustainability is, therefore, a critical component of the
long-term economic success of any nature-based tourism venture. This is
widely recognised in marine-tourism-based communities. For example,

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in Western Australia at Monkey Mia it is understood that the economic

benefits that accrue from the dolphins mean that it is in the local
community’s interest to protect the dolphins:

Many locals are quick to point out the need for careful
management of Monkey Mia to preserve the dolphin-human
interaction and the windfall of tourist dollars for Denham, the
commercial centre of the Shire.
(Keys, 1987:23)

One of the most common economic impacts of tourism development

on local communities is that of price inflation. The increased demand that
results from tourists visiting an area usually leads to an increase in prices
for goods and services. This can impose economic hardship on host
communities, particularly if they do not receive greater incomes as a result
of the tourism.
The term ‘leakage’ has come to be used to describe the loss of economic
welfare from a host community when the money spent on visiting that
community goes elsewhere. This is extremely common in marine tourism
situations, because visitors often arrive in boats that they have provisioned
with supplies elsewhere. In addition, in many island areas, marine tourism
operators are not locals but are seasonal businesses that have their base
elsewhere. Consequently much of the money spent on the business actually
flows outside the host community.
The lack of spending in local communities has resulted in much
controversy with regard to the cruise-ship industry. These large vessels
are self-contained and thus, while large numbers of tourists may go ashore
to visit a small community, little money is spent on food, accommodation
and transport.
One further issue is that the economic benefits that arise from tourism
development are seldom distributed evenly throughout communities and
regions. There are, however, a number of locations that have derived
significant economic benefits from the development of marine tourism
activities. Kaikoura is such a location.

Case study: Kaikoura, New Zealand

Kaikoura is a small coastal community located around a small
peninsula on the northeastern coast of New Zealand’s South Island.
The continental shelf is close to shore near this peninsula, coming
as close as a kilometre from shore just south of the township. The
rapid increase in depth associated with the shelf, from as little as

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Plate 5.3 Tourists line up for one of four daily whale-watch trips at Kaikoura.

30 metres to over 1,000 in a short distance, and the convergence

of offshore currents in the vicinity of Kaikoura produce an upwelling
of nutrient-rich waters that supports a rich marine food chain. As
a result of this abundant ecosystem, a number of species of
whales, dolphins and seals can be found there relatively close to
shore.
Commercial whale and dolphin watching began in 1988 at
Kaikoura and the industry has grown quickly to become the
most important economic activity in the area (Baxter, 1993).
Before marine-mammal-based tourism was set up in the town,
Kaikoura was economically depressed. The impact of the
tourism growth on the town has been widespread:

The impact of Whale Watch Kaikoura on the local township

has been major. Prior to the establishment of the company,
Kaikoura was seen as an economically depressed area.
Businesses were on a downturn, and people were having
to leave the area to get work. Following the establishment
of the company which brought increasing numbers of
tourists, businesses across the board began to benefit
through increased sales… A host of new businesses have
sprung up in the accommodation and catering areas. New
craft shops and takeaway bars, as well as novelty shops,

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h a v e a l s o a p p e a r e d . R e a l e s ta t e p r i c e s h a v e a l s o
increased, and the tempo of life has picked up a little.
Without Whale Watch Kaikoura, I think our town may have
eventually given up the ghost and died.
(Hawke, 1995:39)

Socio-economic indicators back up Hawke’s impressions. In

1 9 9 1 , s o o n a ft e r t h e c e ta c e a n - b a s e d t o u r i s m b e g a n i n
Kaikoura, unemployment in the area was still higher than the
national average for New Zealand. Household income was
significantly lower than the New Zealand average; only 29 per
cent of the district’s residents reported incomes higher than
$NZ30,000 per year, as opposed to 44 per cent nationally.
Annual visitor numbers to Kaikoura in 1989 were estimated to
be 10,000. These increased dramatically to over 100,000 per
year by 1993. This influx of tourists has provided a significant
economic boom to the district, with unemployment dropping
significantly and household incomes rising dramatically.
Kaikoura is no longer viewed as an economically depressed
region, but as one of the ‘boom towns’ in New Zealand’s South
Island Warren and Taylor, 1994).

SUMMARY
So, whilst there is an acceptance that marine and other nature-based
tourism is growing, there is still considerable debate about, first,
whether this kind of tourism is even desirable and, second, how it
should be controlled to minimise detrimental impacts. For despite
volumes of publications on tourism management in the past decade,
‘we still know relatively little about how to control and manage
tourism’ (Butler, 1993:43). As a result, a number of leading authors
in the field are arguing for research in the nature-based tourism area.
For example, Boo states that: ‘despite rising expectations regarding
the value of nature tourism in many fields of expertise, there are great
gaps in the information necessary to manage the nature tourism
industry’ (Boo, 1990:4). The debate, therefore, centres upon the type
of tourism that should be created and permitted. A variety of
management strategies can be employed in an attempt to negate
detrimental impacts and to maximise the benefits of tourism. These
approaches are outlined in the next chapter.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 Outline and discuss three negative and three positive impacts which
can result from marine tourism.
2 Discuss the influence of ‘perspective’ with regard to the assessment
of tourism impacts (for example, a tourism industry employee versus
a local retiree).
3 Is the developmental path for tourism as outlined by Butler and
others inevitable, or can locations develop differently? If so, what
are the influential factors which render the development different?
If not, why not?

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 6

MANAGEMENT APPROACHES

INTRODUCTION
Up to this point this book has demonstrated that marine tourism is large
and growing rapidly, and furthermore that this kind of tourism is causing
many problems. It has also been pointed out that not all impacts resulting
from marine tourism are detrimental—in some cases the impacts are
beneficial. The question arises, therefore, of what it is that causes the
impacts of marine tourism to be positive or negative. The answer is—it
depends. Sometimes the positive impacts are much greater than the
negative simply because the tourism enterprise is very small, the resource
large and consequently the use of the marine resource negligible. The
benefits to the local community from the tourism may, however, be
relatively large. Therefore, it may be concluded that the marine tourism
operation is, on balance, beneficial. This judgement does, of course,
depend on your perspective. If you are a local person deriving income
from, say, a new, small-scale charter fishing operation, inevitably your
perspective is inclined to the positive. If, however, you are a person who
has retired to the location for peace, quiet and relaxation, your perspective
on the benefits of local charter fishing business bringing more tourists to
the area may be quite different. And, of course, if you take the extreme
example, and put on not rose-coloured but marine-blue glasses and view
things as a local reef fish, that perspective may view the small-scale fishing
operation extremely negatively—especially if you are the fish that gets
caught!
This simplistic illustration shows that judging the relative costs and
benefits of tourism is extremely difficult, if not impossible. It is, however,
possible to agree that a goal of maximising the positive and minimising
the negative impacts of tourism is a worthy one. Thus, rather than trying
to quantify costs and benefits it is better to concentrate on developing a
management regime for marine tourism which maximises the good and
minimises the bad. There is a wide variety of strategies that can be utilised
in developing such a regime. This chapter details some of them. It also

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discusses the concepts of ‘sustainability’ and ‘ecotourism’, two terms that

have become widespread in the laws and literature. These approaches seek
to solve the tourism development dilemma of how to stop people
destroying the very features which attract them to a location. This chapter
also details a case for education as a management approach for marine
tourism. Finally, some suggestions for measuring the impacts of tourism
are made, and a conceptual model for its management is offered.

STRATEGIES USED TO MANAGE MARINE

TOURISM
A number of well-established management regimes are utilised to manage
tourists and their activities on the sea. These strategies range from no
control whatsoever, to complex combinations of structures, technology,
economics, regulation and education. In order to simplify this situation,
Orams (1995) divided tourist management strategies into four main
categories: regulatory, physical, economic and educational. The first two
control tourist behaviour through external manipulation and have
dominated most approaches to managing marine tourism in the past (for
example, see Wallace, 1993). More recently, economic strategies have
been utilised (Plimmer, 1992). The fourth category has traditionally been
incorporated in park management activities (Beckmann, 1989) but has
had limited application elsewhere.
Table 6.1 outlines these four categories and details a number of
examples of specific management actions that can be grouped under
these headings. The following sections discuss each category in more
detail.

Regulatory management strategies

Regulatory management practices are the traditional method of
controlling tourist activities in marine settings (Plimmer, 1992). Rules
and regulations are commonly utilised to restrict visitor actions, access,
times and numbers, and are usually posted on signs, notices and written
material. Enforcement is usually undertaken by police, park rangers or
other agents of the management authority. A system of progressively
harsher punishment is most common; for example, a warning at the
first offence, banning from the area at a second offence, and eventually
fines and imprisonment in extreme cases of misconduct, such as
harassment or killing of protected wildlife. Examples of regulations
commonly used to manage tourists are visitor number restrictions, limits
on times and locations, types of visitor activity permitted, spatial and
temporal zoning, restrictions on the types of equipment permitted, noise
levels, speed limits, permits, lease and licence requirements, and codes
of practice.

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Table 6.1 Techniques for managing marine tourism
Technique Description Examples Purpose Implication
Physical
Site hardening Increasing the durability Boardwalks, concrete To reduce negative Escalates development of site
of the resource launching ramps, environmental impacts
mooring buoys which result from
intensive use (e.g. erosion)
Facility placement Geographical location Siting of boat ramps, To discourage use in Concentrates use in specific areas
of facilities to ‘channel’ marinas and moorings sensitive/inappropriate
use to desired areas away from sensitive areas
areas
Facility design Designing items to be Replacing children’s old, To meet recreation needs Usually more costly for recreation
safer, more durable or wooden beach-play better, improve safety organisation initially—
less harmful equipment with modern, and reduce vandalism/ maintenance costs lower
plastic, purpose-designed deterioration
equipment
Sacrifice areas Allocating specific areas Using above techniques To ‘sacrifice’ a specific Rapid deterioration of sacrifice
for intensive use in order to encourage majority of site by concentrating use site
that other sites remain users to a specific beach, so that other areas have Common spill-over to
pristine thereby reducing pressure lower levels of use neighbouring sites
on other nearby beaches Increased possibility of conflicts
between users
Remove/alter Reducing the motivation Moving ‘Christ of the To decrease high-density Public outcry re. removal of
attraction for people to visit a Deep’ statue from coral use of specific sites attraction; potential harm to
particular site by reef to sand bottom in attraction
changing the attraction Pennekamp Marine Park,
Florida
Table 6.1 continued

Technique Description Examples Purpose Implication

Rehabilitation Actively renovating an Revegetation/planting To improve quality of Active programme needed

area to improve its programmes; resource Site often can not be used
quality and mitigate reintroduction of during rehabilitation
deterioration endangered species
Regulatory
Limit visitor Setting maximum levels All mooring sites having To control impacts by Does not cater for demand
numbers for a site and close it to to be booked in advance restricting numbers Casual users tend to miss out
additional use after the —once they are booked of people
limit has been reached no more are permitted
Prohibit certain Banning activities which Banning use of all To reduce conflict/harm Resentment from groups which
activities may be harmful or unsafe motorised water craft are banned
or impact detrimentally within 100 m of shore Enforcement needed
on others
Close areas to Closing a specific area Fencing off a dune area To allow areas to recover Enforcement needed
activities/use for all use or for certain for six months to allow Reduce impacts from Displaces harmful use to
uses for a specified time vegetation to regenerate certain activities other locations
Separate activities Geographically or Zoning areas for specific To separate incompatible Education and enforcement
temporarily separating kinds of use; allowing uses needed
activities swimming on certain Reduces freedom of choice
days, windsurfing on
others
 Require minimum Restricting use of an area Visitors having to be To ensure skills match Appropriate training courses
skill level to people with a certain certified in water challenges must be available
training/certification safety/survival To reduce negative
skill level Visitors having to hold impacts
scuba certification or
CPR/First Aid
Economic
Differential fees Charging higher fees A discounted boat-ramp To spread use ‘User pays’ philosophy
for certain groups, fee for off-peak use To ensure costs of not widely accepted in some
activities, times or managing certain countries
locations activities are paid for Reduces access for lower
by participants socio-economic groups
Damage bond Requiring a damage A $100 beach-use deposit To provide a financial Financial system and inspection
deposit which is which is refunded to the incentive for good service required
refunded to user if site user only if inspection behaviour
is left in desired state reveals site is left in To provide money for
suitable state cleaning/rehabilitation
if needed
Fines Imposing financial A fine for littering, To penalise harmful acts Enforcement needed
penalty for vandalism or another Legislative backing needed
inappropriate/damaging regulation transgression
behaviour
Rewards Offering a financial A prize for the greatest To assist with Finance needed
reward for reporting amount of litter collected enforcement of
inappropriate behaviour by a group during a week regulations
or undertaking desired A reward for reporting An incentive for good
behaviour vandalism behaviour
Table 6.1 continued

Technique Description Examples Purpose Implication

Education
Printed material Distributing printed Brochures handed to To encourage appropriate Need access to visitors before
material to visitors which all visitors which prompt behaviour to reduce and during visit
describes/encourages them to take rubbish visitor impacts/conflicts
appropriate behaviour home
Low-power radio Broadcasting important Messages about weather, To encourage appropriate Need access to visitors before
information to visitors pollution or recent behaviour to reduce and during visit
via AM radio band problems in area visitor impacts/conflicts
Signs Displaying printed ‘Dunes being To encourage appropriate Important that wording is
messages in appropriate rehabilitated—please behaviour to reduce positive and sign does not detract
locations stay on track’ visitor impacts/conflicts from experience
Visitor centres Structure which forms Marine Park Visitor To encourage appropriate Major financial cost
focal point for area’s Centre behaviour to reduce
education efforts visitor impacts/conflicts
Guided walks/talks Formal communication Guided walk to seal To encourage appropriate High quality of
programme from staff colony behaviour to reduce person’s teaching skills
to visitors visitor impacts/conflicts imperative
Activities Any activity designed Instruction in surf To encourage appropriate High quality of
to entertain and educate life-saving techniques behaviour to reduce person’s teaching skills
visitor impacts/conflicts imperative
Personal contact General contact and Answering questions To encourage appropriate Availability of staff critical
communication between about the best beaches/ behaviour to reduce
staff and visitors reefs to visit visitor impacts/conflicts
 MANAGEMENT APPROACHES

The purpose of regulatory practices is threefold: first, to protect the safety

of the tourist; second, to reduce conflicts between tourists; and third, to protect
the marine environment from negative impacts due to inappropriate tourist
behaviour. As a result of the increasing use of marine areas for recreation and
the increasing demand for opportunities for commercial tourist operations,
there has been a proliferation of regulations pertaining to marine activities.
These regulations often restrict the freedom of visitors to do as they wish and
there is some evidence that this may reduce enjoyment of the experience
(Hatten and Hatten, 1988). Other difficulties can arise from the cost of
enforcing rules, particularly in large and remote areas such as those that exist
in marine locations. Nevertheless, regulation remains the most common
management response to increasing pressure from tourism (McArthur and
Hall, 1993).

Physical management strategies

‘Physical’ approaches to management are those human-made structures that
control human activity by restricting the movement or type of activity which
can be undertaken. A typical marine example is the construction of a
boardwalk across a wetland. This physical structure directs and facilitates
the movement of tourists and reduces the negative impacts that could be
caused by their walking through sensitive areas. Additional examples include
underwater observatories, mooring buoys for vessels in coral reef areas, sea
pens, tethered animals (sea turtles) and grandstands, such as those provided
at the Phillip Island Penguin Colony in Victoria, Australia (personal
observation).
Because of the difficulties involved with erecting structures in the marine
environment, physical controls are not a particularly common system in
controlling marine tourism. They are, however, very commonly used in
terrestrial protected natural area management (Yale, 1991; Buckley and
Pannell, 1992; Burgess, 1992; McArthur and Hall, 1993). In a number of
situations physical structures have been successfully used to control tourists
in the sea. The use of mooring buoys to reduce anchor damage on coral reefs
is a notable success story (Salm and Clark, 1989). Additional examples include
the use of such things as glass-bottom boats, semi-submersibles, self-guided
underwater trails and beach bicycle pathways.
Human-made structures are also utilised to provide additional opportunities
and services for tourists. Examples are marinas, wharves, boat ramps and
observation platforms. Of particular relevance are vessels which tourists use
to access the marine environment. Regulations can be used to restrict the type
of vessel permitted in an area; for example, by allowing only electrically
powered boats in an area sensitive to noise disturbance. Thus, the negative
impacts of an activity can be mitigated by a combination of regulatory and
physical approaches.

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Economic management strategies

Economic strategies use prices as incentives or disincentives to modify
people’s behaviour. Although these techniques have received little explicit
recognition, they have been used in many natural areas for many years
(Plimmer, 1992). An example of this type of strategy is the use of higher
entry fees to facilities during peak use times in an attempt to spread
visiting. Permits that are auctioned to commercial tourist operators can
restrict the number of operators. Imposing fines for littering, taking
undersize fish, or other inappropriate behaviour is another example of a
regulation combined with an economic disincentive. Although the use of
economic strategies has not been common in marine tourism situations,
considerable potential exists. For example, discounts on access fees to a
marine park can be provided if groups undertake a clean-up project, or
assist with research, during their visit. Fees could be more expensive
during times when wildlife is more sensitive to disturbance, thus providing
an incentive for tourists to visit at other times. Most marine resources
are managed by publicly funded government organisations. Given the
increasing financial pressure under which many of these public
management agencies find themselves, the opportunity to utilise economic
techniques to generate additional funds, and accomplish management
objectives, may be worthwhile.

Educational management strategies

The goals of education-based management strategies are to reduce the
incidence of inappropriate tourist behaviour by encouraging a voluntary
behaviour change, and to increase visitor enjoyment and understanding.
Many authors, therefore, view education as a potential ‘win-win’ situation
for both the marine environment and the tourist (Forestell, 1990).
However, the use of education as a management strategy in tourism
situations has not been as common as the use of physical or regulatory
techniques. This is due to a number of factors that make the planning
and implementation of an effective educational programme for tourists
particularly difficult (Beckmann, 1988). These factors include the diverse
characteristics of tourist groups such as different group size, age and
educational attainment. As a result, the needs of each tourist are unique
and are difficult to cater for in the design of an educational programme.
This is further complicated by the ‘non-captive’ nature of marine tourists;
that is, tourists are usually free to come and go as they please and will
often ‘vote with their feet’ and leave when educational programmes do
not meet their needs or hold their interest. In marine settings, the diverse
locations and the mobility and geographical spread of tourists often make
it difficult for an education programme to be scheduled at a time, or
located at a place, where tourists will be exposed to it.

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Lack of knowledge regarding the marine environment and a lack of suitably

trained and qualified personnel can also complicate efforts to implement an
effective education programme (Beckmann, 1989). These factors result in little
use of education as a management strategy and the predominance of physical
and regulatory approaches. However, a number of authors argue that
education is, or should be, a critical component of nature-based tourism
experiences (Roggenbuck, 1987; O’Laughlin, 1989; Alcock, 1991; Oliver,
1992; Bramwell and Lane, 1993). This argument is further developed later
in this chapter, where the role of ‘interpretation’ is discussed.

Case study: the reefs of the Florida Keys

The coral reefs of the Florida Keys are the only extensive coral reef
tract in North America and the third largest reef system in the world.
They contain many unique and endangered species, host intensive
recreational use and support a significant commercial tourism industry
producing an estimated $US1 billion per year for the local area
(Belleville, 1991). The Keys’ marine environment attracts more than
three million visitors each year (Laycock, 1991) and there is widespread
concern over the impact this high level of tourist use is having on the
Keys’ ecosystem. Ward’s comments typify the reaction of many to the
masses of tourists visiting the reefs:

Their boats pollute the water and everything in it with petroleum

products and sewage. Incompetent operators crash into the
reefs. They litter the sea with plastic foam cups, aluminum cans,
glass, plastic bags, bottles, and miles of tangled fishing line. This
debris does not go away—it is, for all practical purposes,
indestructible. Thousands of swimmers routinely bump, scrape,
and step on coral.
(Ward, 1990:123)

In 1990, as a result of an Act of the United States Congress, the

Florida Keys were declared a national marine sanctuary. National
marine sanctuaries in the US are administered by the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration, an agency of the federal government.
The central management tool for marine sanctuaries is a
comprehensive management plan. The plan establishes the specific
objectives, policies and guidelines for the sanctuary and helps to
determine the regulations to be enforced. These management plans,
therefore, consider the range of management strategies outlined earlier
in this chapter and adopt those which are considered most appropriate

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for protecting the resources of the area whilst allowing for traditional
commercial activities, such as tourism, to continue.
The management plan for the Florida Keys National Marine
Sanctuary (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1995)
outlines a wide variety of strategies to manage tourist use of the area.
Fundamental to these strategies is the establishment of a system of
five types of geographic zone. This regulatory approach designates
specific areas for specific uses. Wildlife management areas have
restricted access and activities in order to protect endangered or
threatened species and their habitats. Replenishment reserves protect
spawning and nursery areas by minimising human influences and
restricting extractive practices such as fishing. Sanctuary preservation
areas protect areas for non-extractive recreational use. Special use
areas designate areas for specific purposes such as scientific
research. Existing management areas allow for activities to continue
under current management restrictions.
Additional ‘action plans’ set out in the management plan include
channel marking (physical approach), a mooring buoy action plan
(physical approach), a regulatory action plan (regulatory approach),
an enforcement action plan (regulatory and economic approaches),
an education action plan (educational approach) and ones dealing
with water quality, research and monitoring, submerged cultural
resources and volunteers, each of which contains elements of all
four management approaches.
The Florida Keys is a large area that is intensively used for
tourism. A comprehensive management plan that sets out a variety
of management strategies is a common technique used in marine
resource management.

MARINE PARKS
One of the most popular and successful management regimes utilised both
to protect resources and to facilitate recreational use of them is the
establishment of marine parks. These locations are administered in many
different forms. One extreme is the designation of a ‘no-take’ marine
protected area where no disturbance or removal of marine life is
permitted, such as the Cape Rodney to Okakari Point Marine Reserve at
Leigh, New Zealand (Ballantine, 1991). The other extreme is illustrated
by the adjacent Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park, offshore from Auckland,
which provides no special protection or management of marine resources
but seeks to manage the publicly owned islands of the area (Hauraki Gulf
Maritime Park Board, 1983).

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Within these extremes there is a wide variety of institutional arrangements

for managing marine resources and marine recreation (Sorensen and
McCreary, 1990). The most popular is the ‘multi-use’ marine protected area
(Salm and Clark, 1989). These marine parks seek to manage recreational and
commercial use of the marine resources whilst protecting them from
unacceptable damage. The most popular mechanism for doing this is
establishing a range of geographic zones (see the case study above for an
example in the Florida Keys).
This kind of management approach has received widespread support at both
a scientific and a political level. In January 1992, then United States President
George Bush declared that ‘in the United States, marine sanctuaries and other
protected areas offer one of the best methods of safeguarding the marine
environment’ (Orams, 1993:4). Marine parks are, therefore, now seen by
many as an important framework under which various management
techniques can be applied to ensure that use of the marine environment,
including tourist activities, is sustainable. The largest marine park in the world
is the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.

Case study: the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

The Great Barrier Reef (GBR) is the world’s largest coral reef
system, stretching 2,000 km down the northeastern coast of
Queensland, Australia. The reef is actually comprised of some
2,600 individual reefs that vary greatly in size (Kelleher, 1987). It
supports a diverse range of marine species, including around 1,500
fish species, 350 species of hard corals and 240 species of birds
(Kelleher, 1987). Estimates in the early 1990s placed the number
of visitors to the reef at 2.2 million per year. By the year 2000 this
number is expected to have doubled (Dinesen, 1995).
In 1975 the Australian government established the Great Barrier
Reef Marine Park (GBRMP). The park is managed by the Great
Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA). However, the
GBRMPA shares responsibility for the management of the park
area with the state of Queensland (Dinesen, 1995). The broad
management tools used to control tourism and recreation in the
park include zoning plans, management plans, regulations, special
area designations, permits and education (Dinesen, 1995).
Zoning plans require considerable public consultation and
establish permitted uses along each section of the reef. For
example, some zones exclude permanent structures. Zoning plans
also establish which tourist activities require permits.
Management plans are prepared for individual reefs or islands

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that are likely to receive significant use for tourism. Historically, the
management of tourism impacts has been largely controlled with
the use of permits for commercial tourist operators because
management plans have been slow to develop.
In the early years of the park the relationship between use of
the park’s resources and impacts was not well understood. Permits
were therefore favoured as a means of managing impacts because
they allowed flexibility. Over time the number of permits being
issued and their complexity increased dramatically. The process
of permit granting and renewal was also being slowed down with
appeals. A further concern was the inequity of the process.
Commercial tourism operators were being prevented from offering
activities in some areas where private individuals could undertake
the same activities (Dinesen, 1995).
In high-use areas of the GBR, the GBRMPA has adopted a number
of physical methods to reduce impacts. In 1989, four permanent large-
vessel moorings and six small-boat moorings were erected in close
proximity to dive sites. These were designed to prevent coral being
damaged by boat anchors (Alder and Haste, 1995). Fishing in the area
was also restricted in order to protect the area’s resident populations
of potato cod. In 1992, it was estimated that this site, an area around
300 metres in length, received 30,000 dives (Alder and Haste, 1995).
A further management initiative for the GBR was taken by the
commercial tourism operators themselves. In 1992, they grouped
together to form a reef operators’ association. With the help of the
GBRMPA they instituted a degree of self-regulation. For example, they
placed restrictions on boat sizes, on length of stay at particular reefs
and on fish feeding. This technique has proved an effective way of
reducing the negative impacts associated with commercial tourist use
of the reef (Alder and Haste, 1995).
Educational approaches have also been emphasised by the
GBRMPA. A number of studies have shown that these techniques have
been effective; for example, research showed that educating scuba
divers reduces the impact that they have on coral reefs (Medio, Ormond
and Pearson, 1997; Rouphael and Inglis, 1995).
The GBR is a large resource with rapidly growing use and
associated impacts. However, through the establishment of a marine
park it has an agency with a mandate to manage human use of that
resource comprehensively. This organisational structure and the use
of a wide variety of management techniques are seen as an important
model of how tourism can be managed sustainably in marine
environments.

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MARINE TOURISM AND SUSTAINABILITY

The objective of sustainability in managing natural resources has become
widespread in recent years (World Tourism Organisation, 1997c). Derived
from the influential Brundtland Report (United Nations World Commission
on Environment and Development, 1987) and ratified by the Rio de Janeiro
Environment Summit in 1992 (UNCED, 1992), the concept of sustainability
has become a guiding principle in legislation, policies and approaches to a
wide range of resource management topics (World Tourism Organisation,
1997c). Sustainability is defined as ‘a characteristic of a process or state that
can be maintained indefinitely’ (IUCN, UNEP and WWF, 1991:211).
Sustainable use is defined as ‘use of an organism, ecosystem or other renewable
resource at a rate within its capacity for renewal’ (IUCN, UNEP and WWF,
1991: 211). Tourism has also been considered in terms of the principle of
sustainability (World Tourism Organisation, 1997c; Stabler, 1997) and has
been viewed as a potentially sustainable industry (Burnie, 1994). However,
a number of authors question the ability of any tourism venture to be
sustainable. For example, Zell states: ‘Tourism creates more tourism, the
location becomes well known and thus desirable creating demand, more
supply and ultimately destruction of the original reason for going there’ (Zell,
1992:31).
Partly in response to the push for ‘sustainability’ in resource use and
management, and partly as a result of the recognition that tourism can result
in significant environmental impacts that are not ‘sustainable’ in the longer
term, the concept of ‘ecotourism’ has arisen.

Ecotourism
Ecotourism has been hailed by some as the ‘answer’ to tourism development,
and ‘its supporters argue that ecotourism is the only tourism development
that is sustainable in the long term’ (Warren and Taylor, 1994:1). The concept
that tourism should contribute to the health and viability of the natural
attraction upon which it is based is an appealing one. However, these lofty
aspirations and the rapid adoption of this label by many operators and nations
have been greeted with cynicism by many, who view ecotourism as simply
nature-based tourism ‘dressed up’ under a new, attractive label:

Ecotourism is big business. It can provide foreign exchange and

economic reward for the preservation of natural systems and wildlife.
But ecotourism also threatens to destroy the resources on which it
depends. Tour boats dump garbage in the waters off Antarctica,
shutterbugs harass wildlife in National Parks, hordes of us trample
fragile areas. This frenzied activity threatens the viability of natural
systems. At times we seem to be loving nature to death.
(Berle, 1990:6)

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Berle’s statement typifies the concerns of many regarding the increasing

number of tourists who are visiting natural areas and who are having a
detrimental impact on those areas. Others, such as Wight (1993), caution that
the ecotourism label is being utilised to take advantage of a ‘greening’ of the
economic market place and to ‘eco-sell’ tourism and travel. In some cases
ecotourism may well be nothing more than a new marketing gimmick which
dresses up existing tourism attractions in an attempt to increase market share:

There is no question that ‘green’ sells. Almost any terms prefixed

with the term ‘eco’ will increase interest and sales. Thus, in the
last few years there has been a proliferation of advertisements in
the travel field with references such as ecotour, ecotravel,
ecovacation, ecologically sensitive adventures, eco(ad)ventures,
ecocruise, ecosafari, ecoexpedition and, of course, ecotourism.
(Wight, 1993:4)

Johnston agrees and states that:

In some cases people have been blindly applying the buzzwords

ecotourism, soft-path tourism and sustainable development to
national and international development schemes, promoting and
acquiring funding for these schemes because of the labels they
wear.
(Johnston, 1990b:4)

Although many countries and agencies look towards ecotourism as an

answer to both economic and conservation objectives (Boo, 1990), many
remain unconvinced that such ventures are a panacea that both protects
the environment and supports economic activity (Butler, 1990; Zell, 1992;
Pearce, 1994; Wheeller, 1994). Considerable debate exists, therefore, over
whether ecotourism can be sustainable, and over what management
regimes and strategies can be employed to minimise the negative impacts
associated with anthropogenic influences on natural ecosystems.
As a result of the rapidly increasing use of resources and the desire to
protect them, a number of leading authors in the field are arguing for
research in the ecotourism area. For example, Boo states that: ‘despite
rising expectations regarding the value of nature tourism in many fields
of expertise, there are great gaps in the information necessary to manage
the nature tourism industry’ (Boo, 1990:4). The debate therefore centres
upon the type of tourism that ecotourism is, or should be. A variety of
management strategies, such as those outlined above, can be employed
in an attempt to negate detrimental impacts. However, it is possible that
educational approaches are best suited to the management of nature-based
tourism.

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The case for education as a management strategy

Educational approaches to management have long been utilised in the park
management field. In fact, the profession has coined the term
‘interpretation’ to describe the use of educational approaches to natural
resource management.
Interpretation is a word traditionally used to describe the process of
translating meaning from one spoken language into another.
Interpretation of the natural environment in a park management context
is a similar kind of communication. Although the activity of interpretation
has existed since pre-biblical times (Weaver, 1982), the first explicit use
of the term and discussion of its meaning were made by Freeman Tilden,
who defined interpretation as: ‘An educational activity which aims to
reveal meanings and relationships through the use of original objects, by
firsthand experience, and by illustrative media, rather than simply to
communicate factual information’ (Tilden, 1957: 9). He suggests,
therefore, that interpretation is a particular type of education that focuses
on meanings and relationships. It is not necessarily about the
communication of facts, but about the communication and learning of
ideas and concepts and the imparting of an appreciation for the natural
environment involved.
What is not provided by Tilden’s definition is an explanation of the
practical management objectives of interpretation. Interpretation has, in
fact, multiple roles which go beyond imparting an appreciation for nature
(McArthur and Hall, 1993). In particular, it can assist in achieving
management objectives. For example, Beckmann, who conducted a review
of interpretation activity in Australian parks, states:

Most Australian interpreters believe that interpretation has a real role

to play in the management of parks (e.g. by reducing the need for
regulation and enforcement, increasing visitor awareness of
appropriate behaviour, enabling careful distribution of visitor pressure
to minimize environmental impacts on fragile natural resources).
(Beckmann, 1989:148)

Despite widespread support of interpretation as a management strategy for

natural areas (reported examples include Pope, 1981; Price, 1985; Whately,
1987; Beckmann, 1988, 1989; Jelinek, 1990; Burgess, 1992), there has been
little empirical research which has demonstrated the specific benefits of
interpretation programmes (Uzzell, 1989). ‘Unfortunately, very few
applications of interpretation to management in Australia are fully
documented, and the full potential of interpretation as “the public face of
management” has still to be realized’ (Beckmann, 1989:148). This is most
likely to be related to the difficulties in undertaking research in natural area

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settings and in determining such things as the incidence of visitor behaviour

that is counter to agency management objectives, visitor enjoyment and visitor
knowledge, attitudes and understanding.
There is, therefore, a case for assessing the effectiveness of education-based
management strategies in managing marine tourism. The objectives of such
strategies are sound and the potential exists to protect the marine environment,
increase visitor enjoyment and understanding, and prompt more
environmentally responsible behaviour.

Creating more responsible marine tourists

At a basic level, the overall goal of management strategies designed to control
marine tourism is twofold: first, to protect the marine environment from
detrimental impacts, and second, to provide for and promote enjoyable tourist
experiences. However, in order to accomplish this ambition tourists must
somehow be prompted to do more than simply ‘have a good time’.
Furthermore, and equally important, commercial operators must see their
responsibilities as extending beyond making a profit. They must see their role
as one of contributing to the health and viability of the resource upon which
the livelihood of their business depends. If this can be achieved, the
environment, upon which the tourism is based, would actually benefit from
the tourism.
This view is contentious and certainly would be viewed with cynical
contempt or, at the very least, as overly optimistic by some (for example, see
Wheeller, 1992, 1994). However, in certain specific circumstances, nature is
already benefiting from tourism. For example, the Wildfowl Trust in
Gloucestershire, England, has successfully assisted in the recovery of a number
of endangered bird species, and now reintroduces many back into the wild
to supplement threatened wild populations (Yale, 1991). These kinds of
programme, largely funded by tourists, are becoming more common. In
addition, a number of habitats, which might have otherwise been lost, have
been set aside as wildlife parks because of their tourism value, thereby
benefiting the wildlife (for example, see Groom, Podolsky and Munn, 1991;
Barnes, Burgess and Pearce, 1992).
The fact is that many tourists are willing to give of their time, money and
labour in order to assist with nature conservation. It may not, therefore, be
overly optimistic to aim for marine-based tourism that is mutually beneficial.
Given suitable management strategies, it may be possible. The success of a
management regime can, therefore, be measured in terms of its effectiveness
in prompting the movement of the tourist experience towards these desired
objectives. The first of these is changing tourists’ behaviour and lifestyle so
that their actions become more environmentally responsible, both during the
tourism experience and, longer-term, after the experience. The second is
promoting tourist actions that directly contribute to the environment while

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Figure 6.1 Objectives of marine tourism management strategies (Orams, 1995)

they are visiting it; for example, through assisting with research projects,
becoming involved with habitat restoration programmes, removing litter,
acting as volunteers for the management agency, or even helping to police
the area so that other tourists’ actions are not detrimental to the environment.
These desired objectives are illustrated in Figure 6.1.
The categorisation of current management practices persented earlier in this
chapter (see Table 6.1) showed that a number of authors place significant
emphasis upon educational techniques as a suitable mechanism for managing
human impacts on the natural environment. This optimism has seldom been
empirically tested (Uzzell, 1989). The view that an effective interpretation
programme for tourists will result in better tourism is, however, commonly
held. The potential exists to prompt more desirable tourism through a
management strategy that is based upon educational techniques.
One of the few pieces of research which has attempted to assess the
effectiveness of an education-based management regime on marine tourism
was conducted at Tangalooma, Queensland, Australia.

Case study: the dolphins of Tangalooma

Tangalooma is a tourist resort in southeastern Queensland, Australia.
Since 1992 a group of wild bottlenose dolphins have been regular
visitors to the beach adjacent to this resort (Orams, 1994). The dolphins
visit the area nightly to receive fish handouts from tourists in shallow
water beside the resort’s pier. This opportunity has been promoted as
an attraction and it has become increasingly popular since its inception.
The dolphin feeding at Tangalooma was used as an opportunity to
assess the effectiveness of an environmental education programme

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 MANAGEMENT APPROACHES

as a mechanism to promote environmentally desirable changes in

tourists’ attitudes and behaviour. The study compared tourists who were
exposed to the education programme (experiment group) with those
who were not (control group). Indicators of changes in levels of
enjoyment, knowledge, attitudes, intentions and behaviour were
measured and compared between control and experiment groups in
order to assess the impact of the education programme.
The study showed that interacting with dolphins produced a
desire in tourists to change their behaviour and become more
environmentally responsible. However, those tourists who were not
given the structured education programme seldom carried out
these good intentions. In contrast, many of the tourists who were
given the education programme became significantly more ‘green’
in their behaviour, by doing things such as joining environmental
groups and getting involved in environmental issues (Orams, 1997).
This study suggests that marine tourism experiences without a
structured education component are unlikely to produce the
changes in tourists’ behaviour proposed in Figure 6.1 above.
However, the study does show that a structured education
programme can prompt tourists to become more environmentally
responsible and move the tourism experience to the more desired
state identified in Figure 6.1.

Plate 6.1 The nightly feeding of the dolphins at Tangalooma has become a popular
tourist attraction.

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 MANAGEMENT APPROACHES

MEASURING THE IMPACTS OF

MANAGEMENT
In order to measure the success of management strategies in achieving a shift
towards the objectives for tourism illustrated in Figure 6.1, a number of
indicators need to be selected, for, as Pearce states:

Tourism impacts have been widely studied, but comparatively few

attempts have been made to incorporate these impacts into tourism
typologies. If this were more commonly done, it would facilitate
bringing together cause and effect… In each case, specific measures
of each variable used must be established, either in quantitative or
qualitative terms.
(Pearce, 1994:25)

These specific measures or ‘outcome indicators’ are shown in Figure 6.2. This
figure shows the transition to the desirable form of ecotourism as a series of
steps. As a first step, a management regime can be measured in terms of its
impact on tourist satisfaction and enjoyment. However, this should not be
viewed as the primary objective of such a strategy. More complex educational
and behavioural objectives should be given equal weighting. The intermediate
steps which assist in a transition from mere enjoyment to actual behaviour
change that benefits the environment are, initially, the facilitation of education
and learning, and subsequently, the changing of attitudes and beliefs to those
that are more environmentally and ecologically sound. These four steps (or
indicators)—satisfaction/enjoyment, education/learning, attitude/belief change
and behaviour/lifestyle change—are categories under which research
instruments can be designed to measure the effectiveness of a management
strategy in achieving the transition illustrated in Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2 Outcome indicators (Orams, 1995)

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 MANAGEMENT APPROACHES

The research instruments used to measure the achievement of these

outcomes could include such things as participant observation, questionnaires
and interviews. Of particular importance in assessing behaviour change are
follow-up surveys which assess the impact of the experience some time after
the tourists have returned home. For this purpose, a follow-up interview or
questionnaire needs to be conducted. It is well recognised that intentions to
change behaviour do not necessarily result in actual behaviour change
(Gudgion and Thomas, 1991). The follow-up research should attempt to
gather information on whether the desired behaviour change actually
occurred.
The second set of steps shown in Figure 6.2 is that of those that assist in
measuring the impact of the tourists’ behaviour on the marine environment.
The objective is to encourage a transition from a passive position, where the
tourist simply seeks to minimise detrimental impacts on the environment, to
an active one, where the tourist actually contributes to the health and viability
of the environment. These three categories— minimising detrimental impacts,
improving habitat quality and comprehensively contributing to the long-term
health and viability of the ecosystem—are far more difficult to design
measurement instruments for. Indices will need to be drawn up on a case-by-
case basis; however, management regimes which are judged to fulfil the last
criterion should be viewed as more desirable than those that merely seek to
minimise detrimental impacts.
Each environment upon which tourism is based will be different and,
therefore, indicators selected to monitor progress towards the desired state
will need to be carefully chosen. However, for each setting, decisions should
be made on, first, what types and levels of change in the natural ecosystem
are acceptable; second, what critical indicators should be used to monitor this
change; and third, what human actions are appropriate and inappropriate
for that setting. Various techniques can be used to make these decisions. For
example, if adequate scientific knowledge is available for the resource, the
most important indicators may already be known. In reality, however, this is
seldom the case.
Processes such as those developed for environmental and strategic planning
(including public participation) can be used, or an ‘expert’ panel can be
developed to arrive at a consensus on the indicators. In this way
hypotheses can be developed which allow testing of the level of
disturbance to the natural environment.
Assessing whether tourists’ actions improve habitat quality/protection
is less difficult. If tourists provide financial support and/or labour which
directly assists in the maintenance, protection or improvement of the
natural resource they are visiting, they are meeting this objective. The
more desirable state occurs when a comprehensive and on-going
programme exists where tourists can not only contribute during their visit
but continue to support and contribute finance, labour and expertise to

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the resources on a long-term basis. Measurement of these indicators

involves assessing the management regimes in place for specific tourism
programmes to establish whether they facilitate this kind of tourist
involvement.

A CONCEPTUAL MODEL FOR THE

MANAGEMENT OF MARINE TOURISM
This chapter has attempted to review the range of strategies available for
managing marine tourism. It has also proposed that management
strategies should attempt to do more than simply minimise negative
impacts. It argues that marine tourism can be managed to be, on balance,
a positive thing for the marine environment. It is recognised that this is
extremely ambitious and perhaps unrealistic given the rapid growth and
intensity of use demonstrated in earlier chapters. However, the alternative,
namely to accept that our enjoyment of the seas will result in their
eventual destruction, is less palatable. Educational strategies in
combination with other approaches show considerable potential for
creating the sustainable ‘ecotourism’ that so many hope is attainable.
When considering the management of marine tourism activities this
statement of Plimmer’s is pertinent:

So, we have a wide range of management techniques. We can add

to them as we realise the possibilities. It is essential that we look
at all these possible techniques as a menu, and choose the one, or
combination, best suited to the situation.
(Plimmer, 1992:125)

This pragmatic view is backed by the comments of Ceballos-Lascurain

(1993), who argues that managing tourism requires a multidisciplinary
approach. This chapter attempts to provide a brief review of some of the
approaches that may be a ‘menu’ from which specific strategies can be
designed.
Earlier, in Chapter 4, the Spectrum of Marine Recreation Opportunities
(Table 4.1) was outlined. This model, combined with ones of management
techniques (Table 6.1) and outcome indicators (Figure 6.2), provides a
conceptual framework for considering the management of marine tourism
(Figure 6.3). This framework is useful in clarifying the marine recreational
activity being discussed (the Spectrum of Marine Recreation
Opportunities), the human intervention being undertaken (the
management options available) and the outcomes that are being sought
(outcome indicators). This model represents a conceptual framework that
can be used as a basis for understanding and assessing the effectiveness
of differing management regimes.

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Figure 6.3 A conceptual model for the management of marine tourism
 MANAGEMENT APPROACHES

SUMMARY
The growth of marine tourism is a world-wide phenomenon that is likely to
continue into the twenty-first century, becoming one of the major economic
and social forces of coastal nations. Problems associated with it are widely
acknowledged, and the concept of ecotourism has arisen, in part, as a result
of a desire to create tourism enterprises which are based upon the natural
environment but which do not degrade or destroy it.
A wide variety of opportunities for tourists to recreate in the sea exists, and
the demand is considerable. The issue of how these kinds of activity should
be managed remains unanswered. An argument that marine tourists should
be encouraged, through the management strategies in place in a marine area,
to become active contributors to the health and viability of the marine
environment has been made. It is possible that marine interpretation
programmes are the best mechanism to achieve this.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 Name the four categories of management strategy and give an
example for each.
2 Discuss the concept of ecotourism. Is it useful in improving the
management of marine tourism activities?
3 What is the potential of education in managing marine tourism? Do
you see any special challenges in implementing such strategies in
marine settings?
4 Discuss the importance of monitoring the effectiveness of
management strategies.

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 7

THE FUTURE

PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES

Despite the significant efforts being made to mitigate the impacts of marine
tourism in programmes such as coastal zone management, marine park and
protected areas, management plans and fisheries management systems, the
reality of ever-increasing numbers and fixed resources remains. Our interest
in marine recreation seems unlikely to abate. Increasing interest in and use
of the marine environment has been a long-term trend. Furthermore, it is
certain that our invention of new ways to access the sea and utilise it for
recreational purposes will continue to increase. The result of these two basic
trends is simple: marine-based tourism will continue to grow in popularity.
Because of the increasing demand, the supply of marine tourism opportunities
will become a critical issue.

Plate 7.1 Opportunities for marine tourism experiences in high-quality natural

environments may become scarce in the future.

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 THE FUTURE

Supply of marine tourism opportunities is constrained by several important

factors. First, marine resources are limited. Whilst the oceans are vast,
the locations sought for marine recreation are relatively small. A
significant factor in this will be environmental quality. Marine tourists
do not want to conduct their recreational activities in polluted areas,
because many of the attractions they seek are not present in polluted
locations and their own health is threatened there. Thus, management
of marine resources in order to maintain or improve environmental quality
will become the major challenge.
A further issue with regard to marine tourism will be cost. A basic
economic principle—high demand and scarce supply—will continue to
force the cost of marine recreational activities up. Many cultures regard
free access to and use of marine resources as a basic human right.
However, it is already obvious that access to high-quality areas and
popular activities, in some areas, is only afforded by the wealthy.
A further issue derived from increasing demand and limited supply is the
conflict between incompatible activities. This is common in popular areas now,
and will escalate over the coming decades. Underwater photographers who
value large fish species alive will compete with spear fishers who wish to hunt
them. Jet-skiers who wish to wave ride and wave jump will endanger surfers
who wish to use the same ‘resource’. Wildlife watchers will conflict with water-
skiers who wish to use sheltered bays for their sport. Indeed, all of these
conflicts are common today. They will be an increasing challenge for marine
resource managers in the future.
An additional factor that should be noted is that most degradation of marine
resources is not the result of tourists nor their activities. The damage caused
by the pollution of our coastal environs from human activities on land and
from commercial use of our oceans for fishing, the dumping of waste, dredging
and so on far outweighs the influence of tourism. Consequently, the future
of marine tourism is inextricably linked with all other human activities that
affect the sea. To give a crude example, the whale-watching industry cannot
exist if commercial whaling practices wipe out all the whales. One of the most
significant challenges, and perhaps one of the greatest opportunities, for
marine tourism is to ensure that the demand for the use of marine resources
for recreational purposes is given due consideration in decision making on
marine resource utilisation.
While the future for marine resources looks bleak, there are a number of
cases which show positive results. As has occurred on land, the uniting of
large numbers of people who wish to use natural environments for recreation
and who value high-quality natural environments has produced positive
change for nature. The marine conservation movement, while not as well
established as terrestrial equivalents, appears to be gathering momentum.
‘Save the oceans’ campaigns, beach clean-ups, marine mammal and sea bird
rehabilitation centres and many other efforts have shown that humans who

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 THE FUTURE

are interested in things marine can make a positive difference through their
efforts.
One of the most encouraging signs of positive change is the increasing
number of marine parks and marine protected areas that are being established
worldwide. When the decisions of humans over the past two hundred years
are reviewed, close to the top of the list of ‘good decisions’ will be the
establishment and protection of large areas of high natural quality as national
parks and other protected areas. These not only provide a habitat for many
of the planet’s species, but also significantly contribute to the health and
functioning of ‘Gaia’—and of all things that live as a part of it.
As our use of marine resources for tourism and for other needs continues
to grow, marine protected areas will also become critical to the health of
‘Gaia’. They will provide locations that are not only important for marine
recreational activities but, most significantly and as their terrestrial
counterparts have done, make it possible to nurture a conservation ethic in
those who visit them. The role of marine resource managers, environmental
groups, management agencies and marine tourism operators is critical. If we
are to exist as a species for the next thousand years we must utilise every
opportunity to change the way people behave towards things marine. If people
are not inspired and changed as a result of their marine tourism experiences
then the industry is simply exploitative and will ultimately become destructive.
The year 1998 was declared by the United Nations as the International Year
of the Oceans. This is timely. As we approach the next millennium, the use
of our oceans needs to be carefully considered. Tourism has an important role
to play in the use of those resources. The industry could become an agent for
positive change—a contributor to the healthy functioning of ‘Gaia’ —or it
could be yet another significant cause of the decline of the quality of life on
our planet. Given the size and diversity of the industry, it is likely to be both.
The way that it is managed will make the difference as to which role
predominates.

POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS AND AREAS FOR

RESEARCH
A number of management solutions have been posed earlier (see Chapter 6).
In particular, the potential of education-based management strategies has been
emphasised. However, it would be naive to presume that well-educated marine
tourists will solve all problems associated with the industry. Complex challenges
seldom have simple solutions, and consequently the marine tourism dilemma
of conserving marine attractions whilst allowing for their use will never be solved
completely. Rather, the problem is more like a battle where resource managers
must continually work to minimise negative impacts and maximise positive
impacts, by developing strategies from the range of techniques available to meet
the unique challenges provided by individual situations.

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 THE FUTURE

In fighting that battle, answers to a number of important questions will

provide additional weapons for resource managers. These questions include
the following:

• What motivates people to pursue marine recreation?

• What are the characteristics of marine tourists?
• What techniques are most effective in controlling human behaviour in
marine settings?
• How can the impacts of recreational activities on marine resources be
minimised?
• How can the negative impacts of tourism development on host
communities be minimised?
• How can the benefits of marine tourism activities be maximised?
• What techniques are most effective in reducing conflict between
competing uses?
• What management regimes or decision-making approaches are most
effective?

The role of marine scientists is crucial in providing answers to these

questions and thus adding to the ‘menu’ of management strategies
available to marine resource managers. It is ironic that while almost all
of the challenges faced by the marine environment are the result of human
activities, including tourism, the great majority of research that occurs
on our oceans remains in the biological and physical sciences. It is critical
for our marine environment that marine scientists incorporate and
encourage the social sciences in their community. Increasing our
understanding of humans, what they do and why, is fundamental to
finding answers to the challenges posed by marine tourism and other
human uses of marine resources. In particular, a focus on applied
research—that which is focused on providing solutions to problems rather
than simply outlining the extent of the problems—is paramount.

SUMMARY
This book has provided a brief overview of a very broad topic. It has adopted
a conservation-oriented perspective to the issues surrounding marine tourism
because I consider the health of our seas a prerequisite to the survival of the
industry. The challenges faced in managing marine tourism are huge, and there
will probably always be more tales of failure than cases of success. However,
because there are success stories, where the management of the tourism activity
has resulted in positive change for local communities and for marine
ecosystems, there is hope. If it can be done in one area, perhaps it can be done
in others. Continued investigation, critical thinking, learning from experiences
and communicating those experiences are ways forward to a better future.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 Discuss three of the challenges outlined for marine tourism. Do you
agree or disagree that they are important?
2 Are there any additional research questions that will be important
for the future management of marine tourism?
3 What do you think are the most effective ways of managing marine
tourism? Discuss your approach to the challenges outlined in this
chapter.

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accessibility 5–7, 12, 14–17, 19–20, Baxter, A.S. 27, 68

30, 44, 48–9, 54, 60, 77, 80, 92, beaches 21, 37, 51, 55, 65
94–5 Beckmann, E.A. 72, 78, 79, 85
achievement as motivation 33, 40 behaviour, tourist 72, 77–8, 85–6,
activities: based opportunities 43–9, 88–90, 92, 97
55; definition 8–10; diversity 20–2; Bell, J. 22, 26
growth 6; incompatible 95, 97; Belleville, B. 79
limitation 74, 80 Berle, P.A.A. 83, 84
Adler, J. 1, 25, 27 Bermuda 22
age of tourists 12, 24, 35–6, 38, 42, 78 Billabong Pro Surfing, Gold Coast,
agencies 2, 96 Australia 52
Alaska, USA 58 birds 26, 28, 47–8, 50, 81, 86
Albert, D.M. 25 boats 14, 16–17, 18, 23
Alcock, D. 79 Boo, E. 69, 84
Alder, J. 82 Borge, L. 57
Amante-Helweg, V.L.U. 36 Bowyer, R.T. 25
America’s Cup 52 Bramwell, B. 79
amphibious craft 16 Brasch, R. 11, 18
Anderson, J. 25, 36 breeding sites 27, 47–8, 50
Antigua 65–6 Brighton, England 12–14
Archer, B.H. 22 Bristol, England 51
Atlantis Submarine 19–20 Brundtland Report (UNCED) (1987)
attitudes 15, 86–8, 89, 92 83
Auckland Maritime Museum, New Buckley, R. 77
Zealand 51 Burger, J. 58
Australia 27, 39, 47–50, 52, 54, 63, Burgess, J. 57, 77, 85, 86
67, 81–2, 85, 87–8 Burgett, J. 60, 61
Auyong, J. 1, 2, 4, 6, 40 Burnie, D. 57, 83
Bush, George 81
Baglioni, A.J. 36 Butler, R.W. 48, 57, 59–60, 63, 64, 69,
Bahamas 24, 62 84
Bainstow, J. 47
Baird, K. 22, 26 Cape Rodney to Okakari Point Marine
balance of stimulation and relaxation Reserve, Leigh, New Zealand 80
32–3, 40 Caribbean 19–20, 23–4, 40, 63, 65–6
Ballentine, W.J. 80 Carnival 24
Barnes, J. 57, 86 carrying capacity 43, 61
bathing 12, 37 Carvallo, M.L. 5

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catamarans 6, 16, 49 demand 6, 15, 35, 37–40, 42, 48, 57,

Ceballos-Lascurain, H. 91 67, 93, 94–5
challenge as motivation 33–4 Deutsches Schiffahrts Museum,
characteristics: of environment 43–6; Bremerhaven, Germany 51
of marine tourism 4; of tourists Dignam, D. 39
35–6, 78, 97 Dinesen, Z. 2, 81
Cherfus, J. 27 diversity: of marine tourism 3, 6; of
Clamen, E. 26 marine tourists 31–42
Clark, J.R. 2, 62, 77, 81 diving tours 23
Clark, Roger 44 Doak, W. 28
climate 23, 32, 46 dolphins 11, 26, 28, 36, 67–8, 87–8
coastlines 2, 4, 6, 9, 11–13, 21, 23, Dowling, R. 26
34–5, 38, 57, 62 Doxey, G.V. 63, 64
communication 18, 76, 85 Drakakis-Smith, D. 23
community 63–5, 66–7, 71 dredging 21, 50, 95
competition sports 17–18, 46, 52–4 Duffus, D.A. 25, 26
conceptual model for management Duffy, E. 33
91–2 Dulin, J.N. 26
Connor, R.C. 27 Dyer, P.K. 50
conservation 4, 62–3, 84, 86, 95–6, 96
Cook, James 17 Earle, S.A. 5, 22
coral 50, 60–1, 79, 81–2 economic impacts 6, 57, 66–9, 84, 92
Corbin, A. 12 economic management 72, 75, 78
cost: -benefit 66, 71, 97; socio-cultural ecosystems 4–5, 21, 58, 61, 79, 84, 90,
impact 56; of tourism 5, 95 92
Cousteau, Jacques Y. 6, 39 ecotourism 71, 83, 89, 91, 93
Crandall, R. 32 education and management 72, 76, 78,
crewed tours 23 81–2, 84–7, 89, 91–2, 96
crime 40, 65–6 Ellmers, D. 51
Croall, J. 56, 63 emergency positional indicator radio
Crofts, J.C. 40 beacons (EPIRBs) 6, 18
Crompton, J. 32 endangered species 29–30, 62, 79–80,
cruise-ship industry 2, 8, 16, 24–5, 29, 86
35–6, 39–41, 67 enjoyment 15, 29, 32, 77–8, 85–6, 88,
Csikszentmihalyi, M. 33 89, 91–2
cultural-social impacts 6, 57, 63–6 entertainment, tourism as 13–14
cultural-social opportunities 43–5, erosion 21, 50
50–2 escapism as motivation 32, 34–5, 40
culture, sports 18, 46 ethics 29, 65
curiosity as motivation 32, 38, 40 Ewert, A.W. 31, 36
Cuthbert, A. 47 expenditure, tourist 1
exploration 15, 32, 39, 48
damage 57, 60–2
damage bonds 75 Fabbri, P. 38
Davies, M. 57 facilities 73
Davis, D. 36, 39 fauna 23, 25–6, 50, 57, 61
Dearden, P. 25, 26 feeding sites 27–8, 47, 61
Deci, E. 33 fees 35, 75, 78
decompression sickness 15 festivals 51–2
definition: interpretation 85; marine Fiji 18, 23, 40, 43
tourism 8–11; sustainability 83 fines 75, 78
degradation, environmental 43, 48, 56, fish 27, 60–1, 81–2
59, 62, 95 fishing 11, 33–4, 38, 50, 82, 95

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Fleay, A. 49 Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park, New

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctury Zealand 80
79–80 Hawaii 17–20, 26, 28–9, 47, 60–3, 66
Florida, USA 16, 40, 47, 58, 79–80 Hawke, L. 69
Flotels 16 health, environmental 5, 21, 83, 86,
flotilla tours 23 90, 92–3, 96
food-gathering 11 Heath, R.A. 26
Forestell, P.H. 26, 27, 28, 29, 36, 59, Heatwole, H. 49
62, 63, 64, 78 Hegerl, E.J. 58
Friars Bay, Antigua 65 Hendee, J. 34
Frigden, J. 34 Heron Island, Queensland, Australia
future 94–8 39, 48–50
Hinkelman, B. 34
Gabbay, R. 2, 22 history and development of marine
‘Gaia’ 4–5, 96 tourism 8–30
gas diving, mixed 15–16 Hollinger, R.C. 40
Gauthier, D.A. 57 Hookipai, Maui, Hawaii 18
gender of tourists 35–6, 38, 42 Hooper, J.N.A. 50
Gibson, J.D. 50 Hopley, D. 49
Gilbert, E.W. 12, 13 Houston, J.R. 22
glass-bottom boats 19 hovercraft 17
Glasson, J. 57 Hoyt, E. 28
global positioning aids (GPs) 5–6, 18 Hulsman, K. 50
global tourism 1 Hunt, J.McV. 33
Gochfield, M. 58 Hurricane Hugo 23, 40
Godfrey, K. 57
Goodey, B. 58 image 37–8, 46
Goody, J.M. 48 impacts, environmental 5–8, 29–30,
Gourlay, M.R. 50 47, 55, 56–70, 71, 79, 82–4, 87,
government 2, 65–6, 78 89–91, 94, 97
Gray, H.P. 32 importance of tourism 22–5
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, infrastructure 12, 14, 23, 59, 61, 66
Queensland, Australia 16, 27, 48–9, Inglis, G.11 82
81–2 Ingold, P., et al 58
‘greening’ 84, 88 interaction, wildlife 26–8, 42 57–8
Griffin, R. 6 International Year of the Oceans
Griffiths, M. 58 (1998) 96
Groom, M.J. 57, 86 interpretation 85–7, 93
growth of tourism 1, 4–5, 8, 12–13, inventions 6, 14–15, 17–18, 38, 54, 94
20, 22–5, 29–30, 38–40, 57–8, 61, islands 2, 4, 22–3, 37
63, 68–9, 71, 84, 93, 96 Iso-Ahola, S. 31, 32, 33
Gudgion, T.J. 90 isolation 34–5, 44
guides 76 IUCN see WOrld Conservation Union
Guinea, M. 49
Guthier, D.A. 29 Jeffereys Bay, South Africa 18
Jeffrey, A. 27
Haddock, C. 33 Jelinek, A. 85
Hall, C.M. 5, 77, 85 Jenner, P. 1, 23, 57
Hammit, W.E. 26 jet-skis 6, 46–8
Hanauma Bay, Oahu, Hawaii 60–2 Johnston, B.R. 6–7, 57, 65, 66, 84
Haste, M. 82 Johnston, M.E. 5
Hatten, K.J. and M.L. 77 Joliffe, I.P. 2
Jones, B.L. 38

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Jones, O.A. 49 medicine and promotion of holidays

12–13
Kaae, B.C. 22 Medio, D. 82
Kaikoura, New Zealand 27, 67–9 Mellor, B. 58
Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii 47 Miami, Florida, USA 22, 24, 37, 40,
Kaufman, G.D. 26, 28, 29, 36, 59, 63, 51
64 Miles, J.C. 34
Kavanagh, T. 52 Miller, M.L. 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 21, 22,
Kealy, M.J. 25 23, 40
Kelleher, G. 16, 81 Monkey Mia, Australia 26–7, 67
Kenchington, R.A. 2, 16, 34, 38 moorings 77, 82
Kerr, L. 25 Morgan, L. 32
Keys, N. 67 Morris, R. 11
Kilvert, Francis 63 motivations, tourist 11, 31–5, 43, 50,
Kim, S. and Y.J.E. 2 97
knowledge 79, 86, 88 Muir, F. 26, 58
multi-use areas 81
Lane, B. 79 multinationals 2
Lane, S.G. 50 Munn, C.A. 57, 86
Laycock, G. 58, 79 museums, maritime 51–2
leakage, economic 67 Myers, N. 5
learning 85, 89, 92
Leiper, N. 50 National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Leistritz, F.L. 57 Administration 79
Leitch, J.A. 57 nature-based tourism 8, 23, 34, 43–4,
Leopold, Aldo 34–5 48–50, 57, 67, 69, 79
life cycle model of tourism 48, 59–60, navigational aids 5, 18–19
63 near-shore environment 5
lifestyle 46, 65, 86, 89, 92 negative impacts 4, 11, 49–50, 57–9,
Limpus, C.J. 49 62, 66, 69, 71, 77, 90–1, 97
Lockhart, D.G. 23 Neil, D.T. 36, 49, 50
Lovelock, James E. 4 Neill, P. 52
Lundberg, D.E. and C.B. 24 Nelson, W.C. 57
New Zealand 22, 26–7, 47, 51, 54, 59,
McArthur, S. 77, 85 80
McCreary, S.T. 81 nitrogen narcosis 15
McKegg, S. 22, 26 Nolan, M. 32
Madsen, J.S. 52 North Shore, Oahu, Hawaii 18
Magens Bay, St Thomas, Caribbean 65
Major, B. 40, 41 objectives of management 87
management 4, 11, 20, 28–9, 35, 67, observatories, underwater 19
69, 71–93, 80–2, 95–6 O’Halloran, T. 19, 20
management model 92 O’Laughlin, T. 79
manatees 10, 47, 58 Oliver, J. 79
Manning, R.E. 44 Operation Sail festival 52
marine mammals 26, 28, 68 operators, commercial 22, 27–8, 61,
marine parks 50, 61–6, 80–1, 96 63–4, 78, 82, 86, 96
marine sancturies 79–81 opportunities 22, 28, 30, 39, 43–55,
marketing 20, 24, 38–40, 42, 48, 84 57, 77, 93, 94–5
Marti, B.E. 39 optimal experience theory 33, 35
mass production 6, 17–18 organisations, environmental 2, 62–3,
Mathieson, A. 66 96
Mattix, R. 48 Ormond, R.F.G. 82

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 INDEX

O’Shea, T.J. 47 research 1–2, 28, 49–50, 85, 95, 97

outboard motors 17 resorts 12–14, 37, 39, 49
outcome indicators 89–92 responsibility of tourists 52, 86–8
revenue 2, 14, 27, 52, 54, 79
P&O 24 Reynolds, E. 61
package tours 23 Rio de Janeiro Environmental Summit
Pannell, J. 77 (1992) 83
passenger-carrying vessels 16 risk 35–6, 42
Patman, C.R. 2 Rockel, M.L. 25
Pattullo, P. 23, 24, 65, 66 Roggenbuck, J. 34, 79
peak experience theory 33, 35 Rossier, E. 26
Pearce, D. 57, 84, 86, 89 Rouphael, T. 82
Pearson, M. 82 Royal Caribbean 24
Peisley, T. 24, 25, 35, 36, 40, 41 Russell, Richard 12
people watching 51
permits 78, 81–2 sacrifice areas 62, 73
personal watercraft 6, 46–8 safety 5–6, 8, 15–16, 18, 47–8, 72
physical management 72–5, 77, 79, 82, sailboarding 17–18
92 sailing 11, 52
Pleumarom, A. 57 St Thomas, Caribbean 65
Plimmer, W.N. 72, 78, 91 salinity 61
Pliny the Younger 11 Salm, R.V. 2, 62, 77, 81
Podolsky, R.O. 57, 86 Sathiendrakumar, R. 22
pollution 47–8, 55, 95 Scherl, L.M. 34
Pope, L.V. 85 Schleibler, S.A. 40
popularity 8, 12, 20–1, 24, 37, 40, 46, science 12, 97
59, 61, 65, 94 scuba diving 5, 15, 18–19, 36, 39, 82
population, global 6 sea-kayak 17
positive impacts 56–7, 71 seals 59, 68
pressure, tourist 20–1, 30, 77, 85 services 66–7
Price, D. 85 Seychelles 22
prices 67, 78 Shackley, M. 22, 25, 29, 58
printed material 76 Shaw, W.W. 26
Probert, K. 22, 26 shore: -based tours 23; distance from
prostitution 65–6 21, 43–5
protected areas 62, 96 signs 76
protection 77, 80–1, 84, 86–7, 90–2 silting 61
Puhipau, activist 63 site hardening 73
punishment, behavioural 72 Smith, A.J. 2
Smith, C. 1, 23, 57
quality, environmental 43, 48, 55, 59, Smith, J. 12
61, 89–90, 92, 95–6 Smolker, R.S. 27
snorkelling 15, 19
railways 12–13 social reward 32, 40
rebreathers 15–16 socio-cultural impacts 6, 57, 63–6
Recreation Opportunity Spectrum 44 socio-cultural opportunities 43–5, 50–2
recreational succession 58–9, 62 Sorensen, J.C. 81
Reeves, R.R. 58 South Africa 18
regulatory management 72, 77–82, South Street Seaport Museum, New
84–7, 92 York 51–2
rehabilitation 74 special events 43, 52–4
relaxation as motivation 33, 37, 40 special use areas 80–1
replenishment reserves 80

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 INDEX

Spectrum of Marine Recreation Vikings 11

Opportunities 43–5, 52, 91–2 Viking Ship Museum, Roskilde,
Stabler, M. 83 Denmark 51–2
Stankey, George 43, 44, 58 visitors regulation 74, 76, 78
status, socio-economic, of tourists 13, Viskovic, N. 58
24, 35–6, 39, 42, 69
structures, human-built 44, 77 Walker, T.A. 49
submarines 6, 18, 19 Wall, G. 66
submersibles 18, 19 Wallace, G.N. 72
Suman, D. 47 Walton, J.K. 12, 13, 14
surface tension boats 16 wanderlust-sunlust theory 32, 35
surfing 6, 17–18, 43, 46, 52 Ward, F. 58, 79
sustainability 7, 57, 66, 71, 82–8, 91 Warren, J.A.N. 56, 69, 83
swimming 11, 28 waste dumping 21, 95
Waters, S.R. 22
Tabata, R.S. 39 water-skiing 17
Tangalooma, Queensland, Australia Weaver, H.E. 85
27, 87–8 Wells, G.R. 26
Tavarua, Fiji 43 Wells, S. 58
Taylor, C.N. 56, 69, 83 West, N. 37, 39
technology 14–20, 28, 30, 38–9, 48, whale watching 26–9, 36, 58–9, 63–4,
97 68, 95
Thomas, L. 4–5, 54 Whately, R. 85
Thomas, M.P. 90 Wheeller, B. 57, 84, 86
Thoreau, Henry David 34 Whitbread Round the World Yacht
Tilden, Freeman 85 Race 52–3
Tisdell, C. 22, 36, 39 White, R. 33
Tourism Life Cycle model 59 Wight, P. 84
Towner, J. 12, 13, 14 wilderness experience 12, 34–5, 59
transport 12–13, 17 Wildfowl Trust, England 86
travel 1, 3, 6, 9, 11, 20–1 wildlife 25–9, 42, 80, 86
turtles 27, 48–50 Wilks, J. 39
Tuvalu, Fiji 18 Wipond, K.J. 26
wooden boats 17
underwater accommodation 16 Woodland, D.J. 50
unrest, political 23, 40 World Conservation Union (IUCN) 1,
urban beaches 21, 37, 55 83
USA 12–13, 22, 26, 34, 39, 47, 51, World Tourism Organisation 1, 83
51–2, 54, 81 Wright, J.W. 6
Uzzell, D.L. 85, 87
yachting 52–4
Van Schaik, C.P. 58 Yale, P. 25, 28, 77, 86
Venice Beach, California, USA 51
viability, environmental 83, 90, 92–3 Zell, L. 57, 83, 84
Vickerman, S. 25 zoning 80, 81
Zuckerman, M. 33

115