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​ENGINEERING MECHANICS – THEORY

● Engineering Mechanics is the science which describes and predicts the
conditions of rest or motion of bodies under the action of forces.
● Branches – Mechanics of Rigid Bodies, Mechanics of deformable bodies &
Mechanics of Fluids.
● A rigid body is body when subjected to forces, the distance between any two
points on it does not change.

Statics​ – Study of the object at rest

Dynamics​ – Study of the object in motion.

Kinematics​-Study of the object in motion without considering the force

Example of Kinematics

1) Projectile

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2) Link Mechanisms
3) Motion of Earth and Asteroids.
4) Free vibration

Kinetics-​ Study of the object in motion with considering the force

causing the motion.

i.e. forced vibration

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● If the forces are converging or diverging from a single point then they
are called ​concurrent forces.

SR.
APPLICATION TYPE OF SYSTEM OF FORCES
NO.
Weight of the bicycle and Coplanar
01
wheel Reactions Parallel Forces

Simply Supported Beam with Coplanar

02
point load at the center Parallel Forces

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Weight of the Car and wheel Non-Coplanar

03
Reactions Parallel Forces
Non-Coplanar
04 Tripod of Camera
Concurrent Forces
General Forces
05 Shaft supporting a Spur Gear Non-Coplanar
Non-Concurrent Forces
Coplanar
06 Truss System
Non-Concurrent

FORCE

● The force is defined as any action that tends to change the state of
the body to which it is applied.
● It is a vector quantity.
● Unit N
kg−m
● 1N =1 sec2

● Force required to move 1 kg body with 1 m/sec​2​ acceleration is defined as

one Newton.

● 1 kgf = 9.8 N

{ 1 Young’s Modulus (E) is defined as the stress required to cause one unit strain}

● The Specifications or Characteristics of force are

1. Magnitude

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2. Direction of force or Line of Action

3. Point of Application

FREE BODY DIAGRAM (FBD)

Free body diagram is a sketch of the isolated body which shows the
external forces on the body and the reactions on the body from the
removed elements.

● Tension – Away from the joint and inside the body

● Compression – Towards the joint and inside the body.

Center of Gravity (G)

∫ x *dA ∫ y *dA
● xG = and y G =
∫ dA ∫ dA

● When the load is varying, the total load is equal to the area of the
loading diagram and the total load acts at the center of gravity of
the loading diagram.

INTERNAL FORCE

● The internal Forces hold the particles together forming a rigid body. If the
rigid body is composed of several parts, the forces holding the parts together
are called as internal forces.

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● Internal Forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. If a

complete system is considered, the internal forces cancel each other.
● Internal forces always occur in pair i.e. they are always equal in magnitude,
opposite in directions.

PRINCIPLE OF TRANSMISSIBILITY

● The condition of equilibrium or motion of a rigid body will remain

unchanged if force acting at a point of the rigid body is replaced by another
force of same magnitude and same direction, but acting at a different point
along the same line of action of original force.
● This principle should be carefully used in case of internal forces.
● In other words, the theorem of transmissibility says the point of application
of a force can be transmitted along the line of action of the force without
changing the effect of the force.
● The effect of force is same along its line of action.

MOMENT(M)

▪ Moment Arm is the distance of perpendicular from the moment center, about
which the moment is to be calculated, on the line of action of force.
▪ It is a vector Quantity.
▪ Unit – Nm M L​2 ​T​2
▪ If a force is passing through a point then the moment of that force about the
same point is zero because the moment arm is zero.
▪ Moment represents the measure of tendency of the force to rotate a body.

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▪ The point about which the force tends to rotate the body is called as the
moment center.
▪ The line perpendicular to the plane of the force and passing through the
moment center is called as axis of the moment.
▪ Moment of force F passing through A about point B is,
o M B = rAB x F
o (Moment of force F about point B is the cross product of F and rAB . )
o rAB = rA − rB

COUPLE

● Two coplanar, parallel, equal in magnitude but opposite in

directions forces create a Couple.
● Couple Moment is the product of magnitude of one of the forces and the
perpendicular distance between the two forces.
● Couple produces only rotational effect.
● Couple doesn’t produce any translation effect.
● Couple moment is constant anywhere in the plane.
● Couple can be balanced by another couple only.
● Couple can’t be balanced by a force alone.
● Applications – Steering Wheel, Tightening of the screw

RESULTANT OF TWO COPLANAR FORCES

A single force which produces the same effect as a number of forces

acting together is called as the Resultant of Those Forces.

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If the two concurrent forces ( P and Q ) are represented as two

sides of a parallelogram, then their resultant ( R) is
represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram.

R2 = P 2 + Q2 + 2P QCOS θ
Q sin sin θ
tan α = P +Q cos cos θ

θ is the angle between P and Q

α is the angle between R and P

● The above equation is based on the c​ osine law.​

Resultant R COMMENT
θ
0​0 R=P+Q Maximum Resultant Force

180​0 R=P–Q Minimum Resultant Force

90​0 R = P​2​ + Q​2

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● When the two forces are collinear, their resultant is the algebraic sum of the
two forces.
● Like forces mean forces in the same direction
● Unlike forces mean forces in opposite directions
● When the resultant force R is perpendicular to force P, then
ɑ = 900
Q sin sin θ
∴ tan α = P +Q cos cos θ will become
Q sin sin θ
tan tan 900 = P +Q cos cos θ = 1
0

∴P + Q cosθ = 0

P = − Q cos

R = Q * sin

EQUILIBRIUM OF TWO COPLANAR FORCES

When a body is subjected to two coplanar forces then the body will be in
equilibrium if these two forces are equal in magnitudes, opposite in
directions and collinear​.

LAMI’s THEOREM
If three concurrent forces are acting on a body, kept in equilibrium, then
each force is proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two
forces and the constant of proportionality is the same.
P Q R
sin sin α = sin sin β = sin sin γ = constant

● This theorem is based upon the sine law.

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● It can be applied to three coplanar forces in equilibrium only as it is based

on the sine law.
● While applying Lami’s Theorem, the all three forces should be either
directed towards the concurrent point or away from the concurrent point.

EQUILIBRIUM OF THREE FORCES

When a body is subjected to three, non-parallel forces then the body will
be in equilibrium if these three forces are coplanar, concurrent and their
triangle of free vectors is a closed triangle.

THEOREM OF VARIGNON

The moment of the resultant of two concurrent forces with respect to a

moment center in a plane is equal to the algebraic sum of the methods of
the components of the resultant force with respect to the same moment
center.

M = r X R = r X ( P + Q) = r X P + r XQ

FRICTION

● Frictional force resists the relative motion of contacting surfaces.

● Friction allows us to walk or to run.
● In a bicycle, the frictional force on the rear wheel is in forward direction.
● Laws of Coulomb’s Dry Friction ( French Scientist)
1. The frictional force always acts such as to oppose the tendency of
one surface to slide relative to another.

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2. The frictional force always acts tangential to the surface in contact.

3. The magnitude of the frictional force is exactly equal to the
tangential component of the force, which tends to move the body until
the limiting value is reached.
Limiting static f rictional f orce = μs * N

4. The total friction that can be developed is independent of the

magnitude of area of contact.
5. The total friction that can be developed is proportional to the normal
force.
6. For low velocities of sliding, frictional force is independent of the
velocities.
7. Force necessary to start sliding is greater than that necessary to
maintain sliding.
● Frictional force is opposite to the relative motion and along the contact
surfaces or tangential to the contact surfaces.
● The static frictional force is a non-constant and self-adjusting force. It
ensures the body is in static condition of rest. The maximum value of static
frictional force is limiting friction.
● When body slides the frictional force is constant and equal to µk * N

f rictional f orce
● tan∅ = normal f orce

Ø is called as f riction angle.

1. When there is no frictional force, the friction angle is zero.

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2. When the frictional force is limiting frictional force, then the

corresponding friction angle is called as limiting friction angle,

Limiting friction angle, ∅s = µs

● µs = C oef f icient of static f riction

µk = C oef f icient of kinetic or dynamic f riction

µk is always less than µs .

● When body is in rest, ​static friction

-µ​s*​N ≤ frictional force ≤ µ​s*​N​,
● Impending motion, ​frictional force = µ​s *​N​, it is also called as ​limiting
friction. ​At this moment the body is about to move but have not started
moving.
● When body is in motion, ​frictional force= µ​k*​N

● The maximum inclination of the plane on which a body, free from

any external forces can repose (sleep) is called as angle of repose.
● Belt, at the time of slip,
T1
T2
= expµ*θ

T 1 = T ension on the tight side

T 2 = T ension on the slack side

θ = Angle of Lap or contact angle

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Q. A 1000 N box is placed on ground. COF = 0.5. Horizontal force 100 N acted.

Find Frictional Force​. ​ANS: 100 N​. E

​ SE 2018

LADDER
● To have a ladder in equilibrium, the floor must be rough.
● Ladders can be made more stable by increasing its angle with the floor.

WALL FLOOR EQUILIBRIUM

ROUGH ROUGH YES

ROUGH SMOOTH NO

SMOOTH ROUGH YES

SMOOTH SMOOTH NO

TRUSS

● When the external forces act at the joints only, the structure is called a truss.
● In truss, members are subjected to only axial forces.
● The axial force can be either tensile or compressive.
● Determination of axial force in members is known as analysis of truss

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If, ​m= Number of Members &j= Number of Joints

SR.
CONDITION TYPE OF TRUSS SYSTEM
NO.

1 Perfect, Stable, Sufficient, Determinate Truss

m=2*j−3

2 Unstable, Collapsible, Imperfect, Deficient Truss

m <2*j−3

3 Redundant, Indeterminate, Over-Stable Truss

m >2*j−3

METHOD OF SECTION

1. Quick and useful method to find internal force in a particular member.

2. A section or cut is to be taken which cuts the system into two completely
separate parts.
3. Section can be along a line or it can be a curve also. Avoid taking section
through joints. The cut parts need not to be identical.
4. Out of the two cut parts, only one part can be considered to find internal
forces in members. Select that part which has less number of unknowns.
5. In FBD, consider forces in cut members only. Internal force in any non-cut
member should not be considered.
6. FBD will consist, internal forces of cut members, external forces and
support reactions.

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7. All three in-plane equilibrium equations

{ ∑ F X = 0; ∑ F Z = 0; ∑ M = 0; } can be used. Hence it will be

convenient to cut three members while taking the section.

8. Moment equilibrium equation i.e. ∑ M = 0 , can be used about any point in

the plane; that point can be lying outside of the cut section under
consideration.

VIRTUAL WORK

● Any assumed small displacement from equilibrium position which

is consistent with system constraints is called a virtual
displacement. A virtual displacement is only imaginary.
● The work done by any force acting on a system during virtual
displacement ( δr) is called as virtual work.

● Virtual Work = ∑ F . δr = ∑ F x * δx + ∑ F y * δy + ∑ F z * δz

As the body is in equilibrium, ∑ F x = 0 ; ∑ F y = 0 and ∑ F z = 0.

∴​ Virtual Work = 0
● Only external forces and reactions appear the virtual work equation. Since
all internal forces occur in pairs of equal, opposite and collinear forces and
net work by these forces during any movement is zero.

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● Principle :
The virtual work done by the external active forces on an ideal
mechanical system in equilibrium is zero for any virtual
displacements consistent with the constraints.
● Ideal System : Non Deformable links, No friction
● Advantages of Virtual Work Method
1. No need to dismantle the system.
2. Relation between active forces can be found without reference to
inactive forces.

DYNAMICS
● Newton’s Second Law;
∑ F X = m * ax

∑ F Y = m * aY

∑ F Z = m * aZ

● ∑ F is the net f orce.

● m * a is the inertia f orce .
● Inertia force –
I. Magnitude is product of mass and acceleration
II. It acts through the center of gravity of the body.
III. It acts in opposite direction to the direction of acceleration.

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Displacement (​Δ​x)
∆x = xf inal − xinitial
Average Velocity ∆x
∆t
Average Speed T otal Distance
T ime
∆x
= dx
∆t
dt
Instantaneous Velocity
It is the slope of displacement – time graph.

Average Acceleration ∆v v f inal −v initial

∆t = t2 − t1

The slope of the displacement – time graph at any instant is the velocity at
ds
v= dt that instant.
The Area under velocity-time diagram is the change in displacement during
∫ ds = ∫ v dt the same duration
The slope of the velocity – time graph at any instant is the acceleration at that
dv
a= dt
instant.
The Area under acceleration-time diagram is the change in velocity during
∫ dv = ∫ a dt the same duration

a= v dv
ds
Acceleration is velocity times the slope of velocity – displacement diagram.

1
∫ ads = ∫ v dv Area under acceleration − displacement diagram = 2 ( v2 2 − v1 2 )

Area under force-time diagram is the change in the linear momentum during
∫ F dt = ∫ m dv the same duration

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RECTILINEAR MOTION CIRCULAR MOTION

dv dv dω dω
a= dt
= v* ds α= dt
=ω* dθ

UNIFORM ACCELERATION
v =u+a*t ω2 = ω1 + α * t
v 2 = u2 + 2 * a * s ω22 = ω12 + 2 * α * θ
s=u*t+ 1
2* a * t2 θ = ω 1* t + 21 * α* t2
1 1
s= 2 * ( u + v) * t θ= 2 * (ω 1 + ω 2 ) * t

● If force is constant, linear acceleration is constant.

● If torque is constant, angular acceleration is constant.

CIRCULAR MOTION

● The velocity of the particle is always tangential to its path.

● The velocity vector is always perpendicular to the radial vector.
● When ball is rotating in circular motion and the string breaks, the ball moves
in a direction tangential to the circle from the point the string is broken.
● When particle is travelling along curve, it experiences two accelerations:
normal and tangential.

TANGENTIAL ACCELERATION​ (a​t​)

● at = dv
dt
= vdsdv = R * α

{ α is the angular acceleration}

● If a​t ​is positive, velocity v will increase, and vice versa.

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● If velocity is uniform or constant, a​t​ = 0.

● The vector of tangential acceleration is collinear with velocity vector.

CENTRIPETAL OR NORMAL ACCELERATION ​(a​n)​

● a​n​= v2
R = R2 * ω ( R is Radius of Curvature)
● Normal Acceleration is always directed towards the center of the curve.
● It is also called radial, centripetal or center-seeking acceleration.
● The normal acceleration vector is perpendicular to the tangent at the curve
point.
● Centripetal acceleration causes the change in direction.
m* v 2
● It will result into, C entripetal F orce = m * an = m * R * ω 2 = R

● The centripetal force acts in the opposite direction to the centripetal

acceleration. As the centripetal acceleration acts towards the center, the
centrifugal force acts away from the center.

● The work
​ done by the centripetal force is zero because the displacement is

always perpendicular to it.

● If particle is travelling along a straight line,

R=∞
an = 0
2
∴ mRv = 0

TOTAL ACCELERATION (a)

√a
a= 2 + an 2
t

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● In uniform circular motion, speed and magnitude of acceleration are constant.

Velocity and acceleration are not constant. Velocity vector is always perpendicular to the radius.
Acceleration vector is always perpendicular to the path and is always pointed towards the center
of the circle.

RADIUS OF CURVATURE (R)

√| √|
3 3
dy 2 2
(1+( dx ) ) (1+( dy
dx
))
R= |
d2 y
= d2 x |
| |
dx2 | dy2 |
● R ↓ Curvature ↑ Centripetal F orce ↑

GATE 2018 MECH 2M

Block of mass 2 kg slides down and has a speed of 20 m/sec at the lowest convex
point Q. The local radius at Q is 2 m. The normal force at Q in N is …. ( g = 10
m/sec​2​)
2
m* v 2 2*20
ANS: N = W + R = 2 * 10 + 2 = 420 N

CONICAL PENDULUM

θ is the angle of string with vertical axis of rotation.

m v2
T sinθ = R

T cosθ = m g

v2
tanθ = R*g

v= √R * g * tanθ = √L * g * sinθ * tanθ

R = L * sinθ

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MASS MOMENT OF INERTIA

● Mass Moment of Inertia measures solids ability to resist changes in the

rotational speed.
● It is the second moment of mass. i.e. mass into square of distance.
● It is also known as moment of moment of mass.
● The larger the mass moment of inertia, the smaller is the angular
acceleration for a given torque.
● Mass Moment of Inertia is the sum of the products of the mass of various
particles and the square of their perpendicular distances from the axis.
● If the body is homogeneous and have uniform thickness,
(mass moment of inertia) = * t * (area moment of inertia)

where, ​ρ​ = density and t = thickness.

● Mass is the measure of body’s resistance to linear acceleration.

● Mass Moment of Inertia the measure of body’s resistance to rotational
acceleration.
● Mass Moment of Inertia, I = m * k 2 , where k is the radius of gyration.

MASS MOMENT OF RADIUS OF

SR. NO. COMPONENT INERTIA ABOUT GYRATION
CENTROIDAL AXIS (k)

01 Slender Rod 2
mL L
12 √12

2
02 Sphere m R​2
√
2
5 R* 5

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Cylinder Or Wheel or
03 m
( R2o + R2i ) (Ro2+ R2i )
Disc
2
√ 2

Thin Cylinder or Hoop or

04 m R​2 R
Ring

PROJECTILE MOTION

● An object is thrown with initial velocity ​u​ and initial angle ​θ​ with horizontal.
● Air resistance is negligible.
● Projectile is subjected to only gravitational acceleration in vertically
downward direction.
● ax = 0 and ay = − g
● As there is no resistance in horizontal direction, the horizontal component of
velocity will remain unchanged throughout the flight.
● The trajectory of projectile is parabolic.
● At the ground, KE is maximum while PE is minimum.
● At the top of the path, KE is minimum while PE is maximum.

Equation of Trajectory g * x2
y = x * tanθ − 2 u2 θ

Range u2 sin 2θ
R= g

Maximum Height u2 θ
H= 2g

Time of Flight T = 2u sin sin θ

g

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● The maximum range is available at 45​0​.

W​ORK DONE

● The work is done by a force acting on an object when the point of

application of the force moves through some distance and the force has a
nonzero component along the line of motion.
● It is a scalar or product of force vector and displacement vector.
● It is a scalar quantity.
● Unit – Nm or Joule
● Energy is the capacity of body to do the work.

dv dv
F =m dt =mv ds
s2 v2
∫ F ds = ∫ m dv = 1
2 m( v 2 2 − v 1 2 )
s1 v1

work done = change in kinetic energy

(v−u) 1 1
● work done = F * d = m * a * d = m * t * 2 * (v + u) * t = 2 m * ( v 2 − u2 )

x2 y2 z2
● work done = ∫ F x dx + ∫ Fy dy + ∫ Fz dz
x1 y1 z1

● If the speed of object increases, the net work done on the object is positive and

vice versa.

● If friction is considered,

work done − f rictional work = increase in kinetic energy

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1
work done − μk * N * d = 2 m * ( v 2 − u2 )

PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

● M echancial Energy = K inetic Energy + P otential Energy
● Principle: The total mechanical energy of an isolated system remains constant
when system is subjected to conservative forces only.
(KE + P E)1 = (KE + P E)2

● Isolated System: No energy is added or removed from the system.

● CONSERVATIVE FORCES
▪ The work done of the force is independent of the path
▪ Work done by force on a closed path system is zero.
▪ e.g. Gravity Force and Spring Force
▪ The work done by gravity force does not depend upon the path whether
object falls vertically or slides down a slope.
● Work done by Non-Conservative Forces depends upon the path.
● Non-Conservative Force changes the mechanical energy of the system.
● Frictional force is Non-Conservative Force. The work is lost through heat
which impossible to convert back. It is an irreversible process.
● change in KE due to f riction = − μk * N * d

IMPULSE

● I mpulse = ∫ F dt = ∫ m dv

kg m
● Unit of Impulse – N-sec or sec or MLT

● Impulse is a vector quantity

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t2 v x2
∫ Fx = ∫ m dv x
t1 v x1

t2 v y2
∫ Fy = ∫ m dv y
t1 v y1

t2 v z2
∫ Fz = ∫ m dv z
t1 v z1

● Impulse is measure of the degree to which an external force

changes the momentum of a particle.
T 1+ ∆T
● Average F orce = 1
∆T ∫ F dt
T1

● I mpulse = (Average F orce) * ∆T { where​Δ​T = T​2​ – T​1​}

MOMENTUM

● The cars run due to friction at tire surface but rockets take off and fly due to
momentum.
● Linear M omentum, p = m v
● Unit – kg m / sec or M L T​1
● It is a vector quantity
px = mv x

py = mv y

pz = mv z
2
1 1p
● K inetic Energy = 2 m v2 = 2 m

● p = √2 * m * (KE)

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● Newton’s Second Law

ΣF x dt = m (v x−f inal − v x−initial )

ΣF y dt = m (v y−f inal − v y−initial )

ΣF z dt = m (v z−f inal − v z−initial )

● T he time rate of change of linear momentum of a particle

is equal to the net f orce acting on the particle

COLLISION IN ISOLATED SYSTEM

Assume two objects of masses m​1​ and m​2​ collide each other. Their initial velocities
are u​1​ and u​2​ while final velocities are v​1​ and v​2​.
intial linear momentum = m1 * u1 + m2 * u2

Due to collision object 1 will apply force F1 on two and object 2 will apply force
F2 on one.
F 1 = m1 * ( v1 − u1)

& F 2 = m2 * ( v2 − u2)
From Newton’s Second Law,
F1 = − F2

m1 * ( v1 − u1) = − m2 * ( v2 − u2)

m1 * u1 + m2 * u2 = m1 * v 1 + m2 * v 2

The total momentum of an isolated system is always conserved.

IMPACT

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Impact occurs when two bodies collide for a short time but a large
force is on the bodies by each other. e.g. Hammer Striking the Nail,
Hitting of Golf Ball

● When the velocities of colliding objects are collinear with line of impact then
impact is called as Direct Impact.
● When the velocities are along the line of mass centers it is called as Central
Impact.
● When velocities of colliding objects are non-collinear then impact is called as
Oblique Impact.
● When the line connecting mass centers of the two bodies does not coincide with
line of impact, then the impact is called as eccentric impact.

Recovery Impulse
● C oef f icient of Restitution (e) = Def ormation Impulse

V elocity of Seperation V2−V1

= V elocity of Approach = U 1 −U 2

● (Relative Velocity Of Particles After Impact) = e * (Relative Velocity Of Particles Before

Impact)

● Loss of KE = Initial KE – Final KE

1 2 2 2 2
= 2 * {( m1 * u1 + m2 * u2 ) − (m1 * v 1 + m2 * v 2 )}

● Area under force-time diagram is the change in the linear momentum during the

same duration.

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CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

● For an isolated system, impulse or collision forces are internal. They do not
change the total momentum of the system. Only external forces can change the
total momentum of the system.
● Momentum of total system is conserved in any collision.
● The total momentum of an isolated system just before the collision is equal to
the total momentum of the system after impact.

ELASTIC COLLISION

● Total kinetic energy as well as total momentum is conserved.

● Coefficient of Restitution is equal to one.
● No kinetic energy is lost in collision.
● The relative velocity after impact is same as relative velocity before impact.
● (v 2 − v 1 ) = (u1 − u2 )
m1 − m2
● v1 = m1 +m2 * u1
2m1
v2 = m1 +m2 * u1

● If a heavy object collides with a very light object that is initially at rest, the
heavy particle continues its motion unaltered after collision and light particle
rebounds with a speed equal to about twice the initial speed of heavy object.

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● When a light object collides with stationary heavy object, the light object has
its velocity reversed in the direction and heavy object remains approximately
at rest.
● If two objects of same mass collide, their velocities get exchanged.
e.g. Snooker Balls

PLASTIC OR PERFECTLY INELASTIC COLLISION

● Only total momentum is conserved and kinetic energy is not conserved.
● Coefficient of Restitution is equal to zero.
● The colliding objects move together after the collision.
● The relative velocity after impact is zero.
m1 *u1 +m2 *u2
● v1 = v2 = m1 +m2

● Loss of kinetic Energy is maximum.

● Energy lost in heat generation, sound generation, vibration and to increase
the internal energy.

ANGULAR MOMENTUM (H)

● Angular Momentum is the moment of linear momentum.

t2
● Angular Impulse = ∫ T dt = H 2 − H 1 = I * (ω 2 − ω 1 )
t1

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kg m2
● Unit - sec2

CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM

● If the net Torque acting on a system is Zero,
I 1 * ω 11 + I 2 * ω 21 = I 1 * ω 12 + I 2 * ω 22

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