TOPIC 2: WOOD WORKING TOOLS, EQUIPMENT AND MACHINES

Impelling tools
ii. Nail Punch – This is a piece of steel rod used in conjunction with a hammer for driving the heads of nails below the surface of a job
iii. Carpenter’s brace- The tool is used to hold and force various bits into the wood.
Boring tools
Boring tools are used to produce holes in wood. Example of boring tools include:
i. Bits- All bits have two main parts; the body which forms the cutting edge and the shank. There are several types of bits: Auger bits,
centre bits, forstner bits, countersink bits
ii. Gimlet – this used for starting holes for nails and screws, particularly in a corner or any place where a brace cannot be used.
iii. Bradawl- is a steel rod with one of its ends flattened to serve as a cutting edge. It is also used to create small holes for nails and
screws.

PORTABLE POWER TOOLS – They use electricity.

Portable electric powered hand tools are available to carry out the following functions;
i. drilling,
ii. sawing,
iii. planing
iv. rebating,
v. grooving,
vi. forming moulds,
vii. screw driving,
viii. sanding.
The tools are classified into three groups:
Type Category Use
Light duty Do-it-yourself Occasional

Medium duty General-purpose: Moderate to

tradesman intermittent

Heavy duty Industrial Continuous

General safety when handling portable power tools
i. Never use a portable power tool until a competent person has instructed you in its use.
ii. The manufacturer’s handbook of instruction for the tool in question should be read and understood before use.
iii. Always wear sensibly fitting clothes – avoid loose cuffs, ties, and clothes which are torn, etc.
iv. Wear eye protection where there is a risk of propelled debris or fume, dust or mist which may impair or damage your eyesight.
v. The correct type of Dust masks should be worn where the operative’s health may be at risk.
vi. Ear protection should be worn by all operatives who are likely to be subjected to noise.
vii. Never use blunt or damaged cutters.
viii. Keep flexible cables away from the workpiece, cutters, and sharp edges and also from trailing on the floor.
ix. Before changing bits, abrasive sheets or making any adjustments, always disconnect the tool from the electric supply (remove the plug
from its socket).
x. If a tool is damaged or found to be defective, return it to the stores or to the person responsible for it. Ensure that it is correctly labelled
regarding the extent of its damage or defect.

Identification of portable power tools

1. Power drill
There are several types of power drills; this include:
 Percussion drills. They are also known as rotary impact drills. They are used to create holes in hard materials such as masonry.
 Hammer drills. A hammer drill is used for drilling holes in masonry for up to 100mm in diameter.

Choice of an electric drill will largely depend on:

a type of work,
b volume of work,
c size of hole,
d type of material (wood, metal, soft brick or
blockwork etc).
Ideally, an electric drill should be adjusted to rotate at a speed to suit both the material (workpiece) and the hole size (drill bit).
PROCEDURE OF USING A POWER DRILL
i. Mark the position to be drilled.
ii. Select the correct drill size and fix it firmly in the chunk
iii. Place the drill at the point to be drilled making sure that you place it in such a way that the hole will be drilled at the desired angle to the
work surface.
iv. Start the motor and apply light pressure making sure that the motor is at the right angle
v. If you are drilling a through hole, relieve the pressure as you get near the bottom to prevent the drill from breaking.
vi. Remove the drill from the hole while it still rotates.
vii. Switch off the motor and keep it in a safe place.

2. Electric screwdrivers
This are used to offer fast and effortless methods of driving screws into jobs. These screwdrivers have a special clutch mechanism and depth
setting device, which enables a screw to be driven to a predetermined depth, after which the screwdriver bit stops turning. It should be noted
that in most cases, both clearance and pilot holes should be pre-bored before driving any wood-screw.
PROCEDURE FOR USING ELECTRIC SCREWDRIVER
i. Pre-bore both the clearance and pilot holes before driving any wood-screw
ii. Feed the screw to the diver via a strip of plastic into which they are temporary attached
iii. Drive the screw to a predetermined depth after which the screwdriver bit stops turning.
iv. Remove the screwdriver and keep it in a safe place.

3. Electronic nail and staple guns

These tools are used to drive narrow staples and nails into wood joint. They help to reduce labour intensive operations, such as nailing thin
panel material to timber sub-frames
Safe operation
The tool must be disconnected from the power
supply before:
● making an inspection
● making adjustments
● loading staples or nails into the gun
 The operator should wear googles and ear protectors.

4. Portable hand router

This a portable power tool having bits and is used for cutting mouldings, grooving for in laying dovetails, trenches, rebates, flutes beading and
decorative edges.

Procedure for cutting a rebate, trench or groove with the router:

i. Choose a straight router bit of the correct size and fix it in the chunk.
ii. Adjust the base to give you the correct depth of cut.
iii. Set the straight guide to give the width of cut you desire
iv. Hold fast or clamp the workpiece on the table
v. Start the motor and hold the base of the router over the workpiece and the edge against the gauge.
vi. To cut a wider rebate, trench or groove adjust the gauge and make additional cuts until the required width is obtained.
vii. Stop the motor, remove the work and clean up.

5. Circular saw
Using a Circular Saw

i. Draw a guideline on a piece of scrap lumber and make a test cut to determine how to properly align the blade to the guideline on your
work piece for an accurate cut.
ii. When cutting, start the saw and then move it into the material you’re cutting. This method helps keep the two sections of the work piece
from pinching or binding the blade.
iii. Cut with the body of the saw on the side of the work piece that’s supported, not on the cutoff side. Push the blade through the cut and
let the pieces fall. Release the saw trigger and let the blade come to a full stop.
iv. Most cuts you make with a circular saw will be crosscuts or rip cuts. A crosscut goes across the grain of the wood, and a rip cut goes
with the grain. Circular saw jigs make it easier to make straight cuts. For accurate crosscuts, you can use a crosscut jig. It eliminates
guesswork and helps give you perfectly straight cuts. A rip-cut jig does the same for rip cuts. You can also find jigs that you can adjust
to make precise crosscuts, rip cuts and angled cuts. Watch our video What’s That Cut Called? to learn more useful cuts.
v. When cutting plywood or other larger pieces, you can create your own jig to make straight cuts. Simply clamp a 1-inch-by-4-inch
board to the work piece to use as a circular saw cutting guide for your saw. Make sure it’s straight and even so you can get the best cut
across the plywood.
vi. Depending on what you’re cutting, the saw blade may accumulate resin or gum deposits that’ll make the saw less efficient. If you notice
deposits on the blade, check your manual for cleaning instructions.

Maintenance of portable power tools

i. Replace worn out parts. Due to continuous use, parts get worn out and will eventually require replacement.
ii. Regular cleaning. For your tools to always be in the best condition, you should clean them immediately after use before storing them.
iii. Lubrication. This is a must to keep all the parts of your tool working properly.
iv. Cool down heated tool. Overworking a tool can cause it to overheat. This usually when working through difficult materials such as
drilling through concrete or sawing hard wood.
v. Sharpen bits and blades. When you use old and worn out blades and bits, means working your tool even harder to get the job done.
vi. Calibration. Most power tools require recalibration after a specified period of use hours.

TOPIC 3: JOINTS AND MATERIAL PREPARATION

Basic Woodworking Joints

 There are difference joints that a carpenter may use. These joints are classified into the following three classes and carry out the
following functions:
 1. Lengthening joints- They are normally installed at the end. They are installed to increase the effective length of a timber unit
2. Widening joints - They are normally installed at the edge. They are increase the width of a timber unit or board material.
3. Framing joints- They installed at angles. They are used to terminate or change direction

a. Lengthening joints
Where a timber unit is not long enough, a lengthening joint must be added. The type of lengthening joint used will depend on the situation at
hand.
 Lap joint
The two adjoining lengths of timber are joined at the end
 Butt joint
They are cleated. The joints can have either single cleat or double cleats depending on the strength required. They can also be concealed
or not.
 Scarf joint
The scarf joint can be installed using two methods: For structural use it will require a slope of 1: 12 or less. The second method involves a
hook which enables the joint to be tightened with folding wedges
 Laminated joints
This involves laminating or overlapping different timber units together with nails or glue so as to attain large long lengths of timber.
 Finger joint
This joint is produced by machines then glued and assembled by controlled end pressure. This a good method of using short ends and
upgrading timber.

a. Widening joints

They are normally installed at the edge. They are used to increase the width of a timber unit or board material. They include:

● Butt joint
This is the simplest joint to create among other joints. It is the basis of all the other forms of edged glued joints. Boards joined using this joint
must have edges planed (shot) straight and square then glued and cramped.
 ● Tongue and groove joint
A groove is run on one piece and a matched tongue is machined on the other. Commonly used in flooring boards. If this joint is used for desk
tops, etc., it must be glued.

● Groove and feather joint

Prepared as for a butt joint then a groove is run in both edges to be joined. A loose tongue is inserted (plywood) into the joint which is glued
and cramped.

● Dowelled joint
Prepared for butt joint. Dowels are inserted at regular intervals along the joint. The boards are glued and cramped. Careful selection of dowel
length and diameter is important.

b. Framing joints

These joints are installed at angles. They are used to terminate or change direction of timber units. They include:

● Mortise and tenon joint

The joint has two basic components: a mortise which is essentially a hole cut into one board, and a tenon which is a tongue that is shaped
onto the end of another board which will fit into the mortise.

● Lap frame joints

Extremely easy to form, lap joints also have the benefit of being extremely strong. By notching one board and placing it another board within
the space, the walls of the notch prevent the other board from twisting free.

● Slip frame joint

Slip joints are essentially open-ended mortise-and-tenon joints, and resemble simple lap joints. Essentially, they are formed by creating a slot
along the end of one board, the same width as the tenon of the other board which is formed normally.

● Butt joints
Butt joints are one of the weakest forms of case joints, but they are the easiest and quickest to make. A butt joint is achieved whenever you
join the straight and square end grain of one board to face grain of another board
JOINTS APPLICATION

The above joints are used in different areas. They are applied in:

i. Walls
ii. Floors
iii. Roofs
iv. Stairs
v. Temporary works
vi. Gates and fences

Material Preparation

Procedure

i. Material selection. This is where you select the type of wood you wish to use.
ii. Make sure that the materials are clean of debris or foreign materials.
iii. Measuring. This is where you mark your measurements on the timber unit accurately before cutting
iv. Cutting. This is done after measuring and marking the timber unit.
v. Planning. Remove sharp edges that were made during the cutting process using a hand plane or a powered planer
vi. Make sure that the joint is straight and square and free from saw marks or knife marks. Prepare the joint properly according to the
desired design.
vii. After the material has been prepped, spread an adhesive accordingly. Too little adhesive can result in week joints while too much of it
requires a lot for money and may also cause ill-fitting joints.
viii. Selecting the clamping pressure. The type of wood and level of joint preparation dictates the amount of pressure to be applied to the
glued joint. The ideal clamp time is based on a number of factors, such as the type of adhesive, kind of wood, moisture content,
environmental conditions and glue-line thickness.
How to strengthen joints.

Joints attached together using glue or single nails become loose over time. Below are some of the methods to use that strengthen the joints:

I. Bolting. In this method, the joint is attached together using a bolt, nut and washer. This method makes the joint very strong and lasts for
a long time without becoming loose
II. Use of plates. The use of plate highly depends on the location of the joint. A hole is drilled on the wood to fit the plates and they are
attached to the wood using screws or nails.
III. Screwing. After gluing the two pieces of wood in position with wood glue and holding the joint until it's reasonable stable, drill two pilot
holes through the joint so the wood doesn't split. Drive the screws into the pilot holes, countersinking the heads in the wood base.
IV. Gang- nailing. A Gang-Nail connector is a steel plate with a collection of nails projecting from one face. When the teeth of a connector
plate are pressed into timber laid end-to- end, the plate 'welds' them together by forming a Gang-Nail joint

Quality Control

i. Firmness – The joint should be of good strength and stability.

ii. Rigidity – The joint should be in quality state to resist change of form.
iii. Workmanship – The joints should flash and look seamless.

Topic 4: Foundations
The function of the foundation is to transmit the load from the building finally to the soil. This, it must do without excessive settlement
and compression of the supporting soil layer.   
Functional Requirements of Foundation  
• Ability to carry loads with a minimum movement  
• Adequate width to safely transmit the loads on it to the supporting soil layer  

Functions of Foundations  
• Foundation provides suitable support and stability for building  
• Transmits to the ground all the loads that come on the building over a sufficient area of subsoil  
• Prevents the failure of the building or uneven settlement.  

The selection of foundation types is influenced by  

• The type of building  
• The nature of the loading  
• The site-condition 
Foundations are of many types but the more common ones include  
• Strip foundation  
• Pad foundation  
• Basement foundation 
• Raft foundation  

Foundation systems

1. STRIP FOUNDATION
Strip foundations are used where the soil is of good bearing capacity. The size and position of the strip is directly related to the overall width of
the wall. The depth of a strip foundation must be equal to or greater than the overall width of the wall.
Types of strip foundation include:
a. Shallow strip foundation
They are usually located no more than 6 ft below the lowest finished floor. A shallow foundation system generally used when:
(1) the soil close to the ground surface has sufficient bearing capacity,
(2) underlying weaker strata do not result in undue settlement. The shallow foundations are commonly used most economical foundation
systems

b. Wide strip foundation

Wide strip foundations are strip foundations where the width of the foundation is great than three times the thickness of the wall.
Wide strip foundations use transverse steel to prevent the foundations from failing.
Wide strip foundations are cheaper because the depth of the foundation does not need to be increased to prevent cracking. This reduces the
amount of concrete used, thus saving money.
c. Deep strip foundation
A deep strip/trench fill foundation is used if there is good bearing capacity rock near the foundation level.
A trench is dug to reach the rock, and concrete is poured in to fill the trench. This is an inexpensive foundation if the conditions are right.
 d. Stepped foundation
On sloping sites, it may be necessary to use a stepped strip foundation This reduces the amount of excavation, block work and concrete.
2. RAFT FOUNDATION
These are used where the building has a basement, the bearing capacity of the soils are quite low.
There are three types of raft foundations namely:
- Solid slab raft foundation
- Slab and beam raft foundation
- Cellular raft foundation

Solid slab raft foundation

This consists of a continuous slab of reinforced concrete forming the foundation.

Slab and beam raft foundation

Beams are combined with the slab to give more rigid base for heavier loading. These beams may either face downwards or can be
upwards on which the floor rests.
 Floor finishing on beam

Slab Foundation
Basement wall

Space created may be used as horizontal ducts

Cellular raft foundation

This is where the up stand beams are large as to form walls (basement walls) in lattice manner (cells) these cells can be utilized i.e. used
as rooms (i.e. for boilers or storage). This type is done where very rigid bearing for heavy loading is required. The cellular raft foundation
may be combined with raft beam type and have down facing beams

3. PILE FOUNDATION
Piled Foundations ~ these can be defined as a series of columns Constructed or inserted into the ground to transmit the load(s) of a structure to a lower
level of subsoil. Piled foundations can be used when suitable foundation conditions are not present at or near ground level making the use of deep
traditional foundations uneconomic.

They span between the bearing stratum and the building so as to transfer the load. They are similar to those in underpinning but they are done
together with the building. They are classified into:

1. Mode of bearing
2. Mode of placing

3. PAD FOUNDATION
This is done for isolated load bearing elements (column) and its mostly in reinforced concrete since the tendency for failure is to cup in, the
reinforcements are placed in either direction.

FOUNDATIONS SUSPENDED TIMBER STRUCTURE

Suspended Timber Ground Floors consist of the finished timber floorboards being attached to floor joists, which are suspended above the
subfloor of the foundation.
These floor joists are raised above the subfloor on small supporting walls called tassel walls (or sleeper walls). This creates a small gap and
allows ventilation and air movement to prevent damp forming in the timber joists
Disadvantages

 They can tend to deteriorate more quickly as the timber can rot, so they need a little more maintenance than other flooring types.
 They can also feel a bit draughty which is why they need to be properly insulated.
 They can also hold less weight than a concrete alternative, so might not be suitable for every build type

Method of constructing Suspended Timber Floors

 These floor joists are raised above the subfloor on small supporting walls called tassel walls (or sleeper walls).
 A wall plate is then attached to the top of the tassel walls, on which the floor joists rest on.
 A damp-proof course is placed to separate the wall plates from the tassel walls, preventing decay from any rising moisture. Also, note
the gap in the block work of the tassel walls, ensuring adequate air circulation.
 Vents are installed in the external wall to ensure that adequate ventilation is given to the timbers, ensuring the circulation of fresh air,
keeping the timbers dry and preventing decay.
 To ensure that the floor is thermally insulated, either rigid or blanket insulation is placed between the floor joists.
 The quilted insulation is supported by netting stapled to the joists, while the rigid insulation can be supported on battens between the
joists.
Topic 5: Timber frame construction

After the foundation is built and the batter boards are removed, the carpenter builds the framework. The framework consists of beams, trusses,
walls and partitions, flooring, ceilings, sheathing and siding, stairways, roof framing and coverings and doors and windows. The framing
system is the structure of the building holding up the walls, floors, and roof. Framing systems use structural elements and dimensional lumber
to support the wall and sheathing materials to cover them. The benefit of this method is that it requires less material to create structures.

Methods of construction
4. Balloon framing
The balloon frame (figure below) is a widely used type of light framing. Balloon framing is a style of wood-house building that uses long,
vertical 2" x 4"s for the exterior walls. These long "studs" extend uninterrupted, from the sill on top of the foundation, all the way up to the roof.

Advantages
 Drywall cracking is unlikely, which adds to the durability of the building
 Balloon construction is useful in situations where a vaulted ceiling, tall chimney, or two-story open foyer is desired
 You will also have more flexibility in window design. Angled or arched window tops are easier to achieve when using this method
 The technique creates a structure with a higher resilience due to the longer wall frames that are used. In turn, it means the building will
be better able to withstand high speed or strong winds.
Disadvantages
 In the event of a fire, the building is likely to be destroyed more quickly. This is because the structure provides an easy path for fire
to travel from one floor to the next. This means you will have to install fire stops on each level
 Balloon framed buildings don’t have insulation between a room and its exterior walls. This will contribute to higher energy bills in the
future.
 It is costly. The long framing members used in construction pushes up construction costs.
 Walls constructed turn out to be very heavy. To raise these walls, more labour, skill, and specialized equipment is required. It also
increases the risk during construction.

5. Platform Framing
Platform framing (also known as western framing) is the most common framing method for residential construction where each floor of a
pole barn or conventional building is framed independently by nailing the horizontal framing member to the top of the wall studs.

Advantages
 It is a simpler construction process compared to balloon construction. The technique involved also makes it a quicker method of
construction
 Platform framing utilizes less wood. Additionally, smaller pieces of wood can be used on the wall frames
  Because walls can be fabricated down on the floor, the safety level for workers is higher with platform framing
 The technique also requires less labour. This helps to keep construction costs within reasonable limits.

Disadvantages
 Structural problems may occur after completion of the house. This is because the joists and headers experience interruption from the
sub-floor
 Vertical shrinkage is likely when the wood dries. This may destabilize siding materials, resulting in frequent maintenance.
Materials used in Timber Frame Construction
Timber
Among the oldest, or perhaps the oldest, of building materials, wood has been used for thousands of years and has properties that make it an
ideal building material.
 It is readily available and an economical natural resource.
  Wood is relatively lightweight and easy to standardize in size.
 It provides good insulation, which is why many architects and engineers like using it for homes and residential buildings.
 Wood has high tensile strength—keeping its strength while bending—and is very strong when being compressed vertically.
 Because it is lightweight and needs to be pressure treated to come into contact with surrounding soil, wood is a less popular choice for
foundations or basement walls
Metal
Steel is a metal alloy of iron and carbon and often other alloying material in its composition to make it stronger and more fracture-resistant than
iron. Because it is so strong compared to its weight and size, structural engineers use it for the structural framework of tall modern buildings
and large industrial facilities. Some of its qualities include:
 Steel has high strength-to-weight and strength-to-size ratios.
 It’s high-cost relative to other metals. Structural engineers can consult on choosing the most cost-effective sizes to use in a house to
support the actual load on the building.
 Steel is less time-consuming to install than concrete.
 It can be installed in any environment.
 Steel can be susceptible to corrosion if improperly installed or maintained
Procedure of setting out Timber Framed Buildings
A building is set out in order to accurately define the outline and width of the excavation and to determine the center line of the proposed
building walls, so that construction according to the building professionals drawing (the architectural plan) plan can be transfer into the ground,
this building process is called setting out of building.
 Site Clearance
Several weeks before the arrival of your home components, a surveyor will come to your property, mark the boundaries of the house, and
indicate where the footings and foundation should be. An excavator will clear the site of trees and brush, and put in a rough road so that the
contractor’s equipment and deliveries can reach building site
 Build the Foundation
Before the timber is delivered to your site, the foundation will need to be completed. The footings will be set first, then checked and approved
by the local building inspector before the foundation walls or piers are erected. The type of foundation that’s chosen for your home is governed
by several factors, including the site’s characteristics, the type of soil, the local climate, the design of the house and your budget.
  Unload and inventory the timbers, and raise the frame.
At this time, the timber package will be delivered to the site, and the framing crew will unload it from the delivery truck either by crane, forklift
or hand. The crew will then raise the frame (bent by bent or section by section) depending on its overall design. 
 Checking the Plumbness
Using a plate level, plumb the corners starting with the longest wall. Once the wall is plumb, fully nail the end of the wall to the intersecting wall
that forms the corner. Plumb all the corners on the exterior walls of each floor, and fully nail them before straightening anything.
 Enclose the exterior
In the weeks following the raising, the materials that will form the exterior walls and roof will be attached to the frame. The roofing will then be
covered with any type of finishing material and work on the exterior will continue with the installation of windows and doors, and painting of the
siding and trim.
 Round out interior spaces.
Once the home is fully enclosed and protected against the elements, we focus on the interior. The basic systems of the house will be put into
place in this order: plumbing; heating, ventilating and air conditioning.

What are the Advantages of Timber Frame Construction?

 Responsibly sourced timber is an eco-friendly building material and there's less material wastage with this kind of build
 It's, on average, 30% quicker to build with timber frame than block and brick
 Timber frames are light, often meaning simpler (and less expensive) foundations are required
 A timber frame build can be easily erected during adverse weather, where block builds may be delayed
 Timber frames are manufactured precisely, leaving less margins of error for on-site trades, while also ensuring that rooms are true
(perfectly level and square)
 Less requirement of wet trades, who are often in short supply, and create a lot of mess on a building site

What are the Disadvantages of Timber Frame Construction?

 As the timber frame is precision-made, there is a low-level of tolerance for any deviations in the groundwork, potentially causing issues
that are difficult to rectify
 Some timber frame panels are heavier than others, and may require craning into place, which adds requirements for site access
 Timber frame, by its nature, is more prone to heat fluctuations as it has less mass than a block-built home. This means timber frame
homes need to be well-insulated, and these elements need to be considered in the budget. Thankfully, timber frame construction lends
itself well to this
  Timber frame will cost more per sq m of build than block and brick, but take into account savings made from the quicker construction
process which may bring this cost down or even make it cheaper overall
 Timber frame companies often take large deposits (potentially even the whole amount) before construction begins, which may mean
cashflow is an issue for some self builders

Stick Built vs Pre-Manufactured Timber Frame Construction

Stick built timber frame
A stick built timber frame is literally built a stick at a time directly on the building site. In theory, a stick-built frame should include all the
elements described above and therefore should perform as any other timber frame. 

 The problem with stick built timber frame building is that because they’re built on site, mostly just following custom and practice
principles rather than engineered design, the structures are inefficient and slow to build. 
 As the construction process doesn’t allow for testing, the performance of stick-built frames from an energy efficiency, structural stability
and fire resistance point of view also tends to be unproven

Pre-manufactured timber frame

Modern timber frame structures are built using precision engineered off-site manufactured panels which mostly include all the insulation
and membranes necessary to achieve the desired level of performance.
 They come in all sorts of shapes and sizes to suit the project. Most manufacturers look to make large elevational panels which are
more efficient and speed up the construction process. 
 Because the panels are pre-manufactured to predetermined repeatable designs, they can be tested to make sure they provide the
performance that’s promised. 

Fixing Devices

Fixing devices are metal pieces for fixing members together. There are four main kinds of fasteners. They are named Nails, Screws, Bolts,
Gang nail plates and connectors.

7.1. Nails

Nails are made of drawn iron wire. One end is upset and forms the nail head. The other end is pointed. Nails are used for joining wood,
assembling ironwork to
wood, fastening flooring boards, wooden partitions, etc... When ordering nails you must state the Quality, the Length, the Finish, the Type
e.g. 25 kg 100x4,5 galvanized Flat head nails.

a) Jolt or Bullet head nail: - A strong nail giving a neat appearance when driven and punched into the wood. Widely used in
buildings.

Figure

b) Flat head nail: - Wire nails are available in sizes from 13 mm to 250 mm in length and are obtainable in bright mild steel and
galvanised. The shank is roughened near the head to increase the friction grip. The head is round and flat and knurled to prevent the
hammer from slipping off. These nails are also known as French nails.

Figure

c) Panel pin: - Panel pins are round in cross section. They are available in sizes from 13 mm to 50 mm in length and are used for light
construction. The head is easily punched beneath the surface with no damage to the wood surface surrounding the head. Available in
bright steel and various coatings. Veneer pins are similar to panel pins but finer in section and are used for small mouldings and fixing
veneers in position.
 Figure

d) Fibro nails: - Wire nail coated with zinc to prevent it from getting rusty. A thin nail of about 15 mm to 30 mm length with flat head and
blunt end.

Figure

e) Spring head or roofing nail: - An umbrella shaped type of nail which is commonly used to nail roofing iron (corrugated iron) on to
the roof frames. The nail is galvanised to protect it from getting rusty.

Figure

f) Clout nail: - Made in steel or copper and may be galvanized. It is round in cross section and has a large head which makes it ideal for
fixing roofing felt and webbing.

Figure

7.2. Screws

Woodscrews are used for joining wood, fastening ironwork to wood, fastening hardware (hinges, locks, catches) to wood. A screw is a
metal fastener with a
spiral thread cut in. Wood-screws are made of iron, brass or other material. Screws provide much greater holding power than nails. The
spiral thread of the screw turns its way into the wood to become firmly embedded in the fibres. A thread is formed in the wood and enables
screws to be removed and replaced if required.

a) Parts of a screw: - A screw consists of a Slot, the Head, the Gauge, the Shank, the Thread and the Point.

Figure

b) Different types of screws:

 Figure

c) Fitting screws: - Softwood: It is necessary to bore a clearance hole for the shank of the screw through the top piece of wood.
Countersinking will also be required for a countersunk head screw.

Hardwood: A clearance hole must be bored in the top piece and a pilot hole for the thread of the screw in the bottom piece.
 Figure

7.3. Bolts and nuts

Bolts and nuts are used for joining wood in heavy wood construction (roof trusses and rafters), fastening heavy wood structures to iron
constructions, connection of parts on iron construction.

The bolt consists of a cylindrical shank with a head. The shank is threaded for a nut.

Fastening two (or more) pieces of wood by means of a bolt gives a very strong connection.

A washer is put between wood and nut to prevent damaging the wood, when the nut is tightened up.

When ordering any Bolts and Nuts you must specify the quantity, the diameter of shank, the length, the finish, the type eg. Fifteen M10 x
100 galvanized cup head bolts.
a) Coach screw: - Extra large wood screw with bolt type head that is tightened with a spanner.

Figure

b) Self-tapping screw: - Used for sheet metal work. It cuts its own thread as it is screwed. Has either slotted or Philips cross slot head.

Figure

c) Machine bolts: - All bolts with square or hexagonal heads referred to as machine bolts.

Figure

d) Coach or Carriage bolts: - All bolts with round heads are referred to as coach or carriage bolts. They have square or ribbed collars that
prevent them from turning once the nut has tightened.
 Figure

e) Stove bolts: - Functions as a bolt but have screw heads flat or round.

Figure

f) Rag bolt: - For bolting wood to concrete, jagged head is set in wet concrete and holds firmly when concrete dries.

Figure

g) Hexagonal nuts: - Commonest type of nut available in a wider range of sizes.

Figure

h) Square nuts: - Mainly in large sizes only for coach bolts.

 Figure

i) Flat square nuts: - In smaller sizes only for lighter jobs.

Figure

j) Handrail nut: - Used on handrail screw and in places where there is a space problem and where it is necessary for nuts to be
tightened from the sides.

Figure

k) Winged nuts: - Used where nuts have to be easily undone and tightened by hand.

Figure

1) Dome nuts: - Decorative nut, usually chromium plated.

m) locking nut: - Is used where vibrations might make normal nuts undone. Has fibre ring inside to make it hard to turn.

Figure

n) Flat washer: - For round head screws, spreads the load to give good grip. Also used in conjunction with bolts to prevent bolt from
falling into wood and give a smooth surface to tighten the nut on.

Figure

o) Single coil spring washer: - For fastening, spring shape prevents bolt from coming undone.

Figure

p) Tooth washer: - Washers with internal or external gripping teeth to prevent bolt from undoing.
 7.4. Gang Nailing plates.

Gang nailing plates are light gauge metal plates used to connect timber units. These are hammered into the surface of adjacent pieces of
timber to hold them together. They are widely used in framed structures and in the prefabrication of structural elements such as trusses.

7.5. . Connectors

m)They are designed to enhance performance in joining timber to steel and timber to timber connections. As such, it is of utmost
importance for timber connectors to be manufactured from durable materials such as hot rolled mild steel or pre-galvanised steel.
Timber connectors are used between pieces of wood bolted together to prevent slippage.

Connector Plate
 ADHESIVES USED IN JOINERY
-An adhesive is a wood glue that is used to join two or more pieces of wood together. Adhesives are
formulated to penetrate the wood fibers making wood joints that are much stronger.
- Wood glue takes 30 minutes to 1 hour to dry. Wood glues can last in place for years and is therefore
recommended in joinery.
- It should be stored in a closed container to prevent it from loosing its strength due to freezing.
Types of Adhesives
I. Exterior glue
This glue is normally used for outdoor projects. It is normally labelled exterior or water resistant.
II. Interior glue
This glue can be white or yellow and it is not recommended for outdoor use. You can only use it for
interior furniture
III. Liquid hide glue
This glue is used in furniture repair. It requires long curing time.