INTRODUCTION

Structures
A structure can be defined as a body such as dams, bridges, buildings, roof trusses etc. designed
to resist the applied loads with sufficient strength and without any appreciable deformation.
Structure is an assembly of members such as bars, cables, etc. The main purpose of this is to
transmit external loads to the foundation.
Classification of structures
Structures can be classified in many ways as dimensional, usage, physical forms and methods of
analysis.
1) Dimensional classification
 One dimensional e.g. trusses, beams, frame, arch, etc. in one dimensional, one
dimension, length is very large compared to other two dimensions for the components
of the structure.
 Two dimensional (surface structures) e.g. slab, walls, deep beams, shells, etc. The
length and breadth are large in comparison to the thickness
 Three dimensional (solid structures): all the three dimensions of length, breadth and
height are equally prominent e.g. retaining walls, gravity dam and foundation, etc.
2) Usage classification: bridges, cableways, dams, industrial sheds, silo, etc.
3) Physical form: tabular and tall building; pin jointed trusses and rigid jointed beam and slab,
etc.
4) Method of analysis: determinate structures, indeterminate structures, 2D and 3D. The
statically determinate structures are structures in which the reactions of the supports can be
determined by the use of the equations of static equilibrium such as cantilevers, simple
beams and overhanging beams. Statically indeterminate structures are the structures in
which the number of reactions exerted upon the structure exceeds the number of equations
of static equilibrium (WilliamA.Nash,1998), hence, it cannot be analysed by using only the
basic equilibrium equations e.g. fixed beams, portal frames, multistoried frames, etc.
Supports
The loads applied to a structure must be transferred to the ground by the supports, that is, the
support will generate reactions to counteract the actions of the loads. the type and number of
reaction depend on the support conditions. Support may be roller, hinge (pin) and fixed.
Symbolic representation Forces and moment acting
a.

One reaction normal to the pad

OR
Roller/Simple

b.
Hinge/Pin Two reactions
 Horizontal
 Vertical

c.
Fixed Three reactions
 Horizontal
 Vertical
 Rotation (Moment)
Figure 1: Support Diagrams

LOADS
For safety, it is essential that the structures are analysed for all probable load and their
combinations. though it is difficult to accurately estimate the loads coming on a structure. They
can be caused by gravity, wind pressure, hydrostatic pressure, accelerations, earthquake, impacts
and vibration, etc. load are usually modelled as counteracted point loads, surface loads and volume
loads.
A concentrated load or couple is applied at a point while a distributed load is applied over a length
or area. Below are typical examples:

Concentrated Load Uniformly distributed Load

Uniformly distributed Load Distributed couple

Varying distributed load Concentrated couple

Classification of loads
Generally, loads are classified into two groups:
 Dead load
 Live load
Dead loads are self-weight of the structural system and are computed on the basis of weight,
density and dimensions of the structures. In a building, it includes the self-weight of all beams,
columns, trusses, walls and other component including service equipment supported by the
structures.
Live loads (imposed loads) are that movable loads which a structure has as it is being used for its
designed purpose. Live loads are
 Forces of nature: wind, earthquake
 Not permanent: snow loads
 Design load: occupancy loads as specified by various codes.
It is difficult to specify live load for a structural system accurately as:
 The magnitude of the load itself is uncertain
 The location over which the loading acts at any instant is also uncertain
Uncertainty about loads and materials are accounted for by the use of factor of safety (FOS) in the
design of structure. This allowed a deterministic analysis.
Note: Dead and live load are also called dynamic load. Static load is the one that is applied slowly
so that the structure will not accelerate while Dynamic load is applied rapidly enough to cause the
structure to accelerate.
 EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS
A structure may be at rest or in motion. The usual civil engineering structures say a building, a
dam, a bridge are all at rest and hence may be said to be in statically equilibrium. A flight,
aeroplane is in motion and hence is in dynamic equilibrium.
The curriculum for this course deals with structures which are all in a statically equilibrium. The
equations of static equilibrium are based on Sir Isaac Newton’s law governs the motion of bodies
i.e.,
Σ𝑓𝑥 = 0 + -
Σ𝑓𝑦 = 0 + -

Σ𝑀𝑅 = 0 + -

Determination of support reactions

As already discussed for structures, we have only three equations of statically equilibrium.
Applying these three equations to the external equilibrium of the structure, the reaction
components can be found out and in such case the structure is statically determinate. A structure
can be statically indeterminate if the forces in the members of a structure as well as its reactions
cannot be found out by the conditions of equilibrium or the principle of static alone. In such cases,
the equations of equilibrium are supplemented by the equation of compatibility of deformations.
Free body diagram
This is one of the most useful tools at the disposal of the structured analyst. A free body diagram
is simply a sketch of a structured component with all the appropriate forces acting on it. It may be
of an entire structure or it may be a subsection of a large structure. A free body diagram of an
entire structure leads to a relationship between the extended forces in the structure. Such diagram
is shown below:
ACTUAL STRUCTURE FREE BODY DIAGRAM (FBD)
The reactions are generally assumed acting in the positive coordinate directions. If the final
calculations give positive sign, the assumed direction is correct. If the answer is negative, the
assumed coordinate direction of the force should be reversed.
Similarly, a free body diagram of pint of a structure may be required for purpose of analysis. In
such a case, part of the structure should be drawn separately and all the external forces acting on
the structure should be shown in proper places and directions. The internal forces exerted by one
part on the other will now become external forces on the corresponding part.
 BENDING MOMENT AND SHEAR FORCE
When any structure is loaded, stresses are induced in the various part of the structure. In order to
calculate the stresses where the structure is supported at a number of point, the bending moment
and shearing force acting must be calculated. This topic will be a revision of what has been covered
previously and also look into various ways by which shear force and bending moment diagrams
are drawn. It is important to be consistent in the way that shear force and bending moment diagrams
are drawn. For this class, we will adopt the upward movement to be positive and downward
movement to be negative while bending moment are always drawn on the tensile side of the beam.
Definition of Terms
Beam: it is a horizontal structural member which is acted upon by a system of external loads at
right angles to the axis. The various types of beams are cantilever, simply supported, continuous,
overhanging and fixed beams based on the type of support.
Force: it is an important factor in the field of engineering, which produces or tends to produce,
destroys or tends to destroy motion.
Resultant force: if a number of forces A, B, C, D are acting simultaneously on a body or particle,
then a single force which will produce the same effects as that of all the given forces is called
resultant force while the forces A, B, C, D are called component of forces.
Moment of a force: this is the turning effects produced by a force on a body on which it acts. The
moment of a force is equal to the product of the force and the perpendicular distance between the
line of action of the force and the point about which moment is required.
Bending moment: is the algebraic sum of the moments about the section of all the forces acting on
either side of the section.
Bending moment diagram: A bending moment diagram is one which shows the variation of
bending moment along the length of the beam.
Shear force: this is the algebraic sum of the lateral components of the forces acting on either side
of the section.
Shear force diagram: A shear force diagram is one which shows the variation of shearing force
along the length of the beam.
The maximum bending moment occurs where the shear force is zero, while the maximum shear
force is the peak of the shear force diagram either negative or positive side.
The point at which the bending moment changes sign i.e. BM is zero is called point of
contraflexure.
 BENDING STRESSES IN BEAM
The bending moment at a section tends to bend or deflect the beam, and the internal stresses resist
its bending. The process of bending stops when every cross-section sets up full resistance to the
bending moment. The resistance product by the internal stresses, to the bending, is known as
bending stress and the relevant theory is called the theory of simple bending.
Assumptions in the theory of simple bending
1. The material of the beam is perfectly homogenous, isotropic and has equal value of young
modulus in tension and compression.
2. The beam material is stressed within its elastic limit and thus obey Hooke’s law
3. The beam is initially straight and all longitudinal filaments bend into circular arcs with a
common centre of curvature
4. The transverse sections, which was plane before bending remain plane after bending
5. Each layer of the beam is free to expand or contract independently of the layer above or
below it
6. The value of modulus of elasticity (E) is same, for the fibres of the beam under compression
or under tension.
7. The loads are applied in the plane of bending.
8. The radius of curvature of the beam before bending is very large in comparison to its
transverse dimensions.
Theory of simple bending
Consider a small length of a simply supported beam subjected to a bending moment m as shown
below, now consider two section AB and CD, which are normal to the axis of the beam as a whole, will
bend as indicated in the diagram.

A C
---R---------------------------S
B D

Since we are considering a small length of dx of the beam, the currative of the beam, in this length
is taken to be circular. A little consideration will show that all the layers of the beam, which were originally
of the same length do no remain of the same length any more. The top layer of the beam AC has suffered
compression, and reduced to AC. As we proceed towards the lower layers of the beam, we find that the
layers have no doubt suffered compression but to a lesser degree, until we proceeds to the layer RS, which
has suffered no change in its length through bent into R’S’. The amount of extension; increases as we
proceed lower, until we came across the lower most layers BD which has been stressed to B’D’.
From above, we see that the layers above RS have been compressed and those below have been
stretched. The amount, by which layer is compressed or stressed, depends upon the position of the layer
with reference to RS. This layer RS, which is neither compressed nor stretched, is known as Neutral plane
or neutral layer. This theory of bending is called Theory of Simple Bending.
Bending stress
As a result of bending of a bending moment or couple, a length of beam will take up a curved
shape, and a very short length may be treated as a part of the arc of a circle. It follows that at the
outer radii the material will be in tension and at the inner radii in compression, and at some radius
there will be no stress. This layer of the material is the neutral layer or neutral axis.

CENTRE OF GRAVITY
The centre of gravity of a body can be defined as the point through which the whole weight of a
body may be assumed to act. The centre of gravity of a body or an object is usually denoted by
C.G., C of G or simply by G. The position of C.G. depends upon shape of the body and this may
or may not necessarily be within the boundary of the body. The centroid or centre of an area is
defined as the point where the whole area of the figure is assumed to be concentrated. The line of
intersection of the neutral layer with any normal cross-section of a beam, is known as a neutral axis
(centroid) of that section.

MOMENT OF INERTIA
This is properly obtained by summing the products of particle mass and the square of its distance from a
given axis, for the particles in the body, it is denoted as (I) (second moment of area).