Advanced Foundation Design

7Th Semester Elective

Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering, Bangalore
 INTRODUCTION
The different structural elements viz. beams, slabs, staircases and columns, which are placed above the
ground level and are known as superstructure. The superstructure is placed on the top of the foundation
structure, designated as substructure as they are placed below the ground level. The elements of the
superstructure transfer the loads and moments to its adjacent element below it and finally all loads and
moments come to the foundation structure, which in turn, transfers them to the underlying soil or rock.
Thus, the foundation structure effectively supports the superstructure.

However, all types of soil get compressed significantly and cause the structure to settle.
Accordingly, the major requirements of the design of foundation structures are as given below.
a) Foundation structures should be able to sustain the applied loads, moments, forces and induced
reactions without exceeding the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
b) The settlement of the structure should be as uniform as possible and it should be within the
tolerable limits. It is well known from the structural analysis that differential settlement of supports
causes additional moments in statically indeterminate structures. Therefore, avoiding the
differential settlement is considered as more important than maintaining uniform overall settlement
of the structure. In addition to the two major requirements mentioned above, the foundation
structure should provide adequate safety for maintaining the stability of structure due to either
overturning and/or sliding.
FOUNDATION:- A foundation is that part of the structure which is in direct contact with the ground to
which the loads are transmitted.
A structure essentially consists of two parts,
a) Super Structure: The structure which is above the plinth level.
b) Substructure: is otherwise known as the foundation and these forms the base for any
structure.
Generally about 30% of the total construction cost is spent on the foundation. The soil on which the foundation
rests is called the “foundation soil” or Subsoil

IMPORTANCE OF FOUNDATION DESIGN:

It is worth mentioning that the design of foundation structures is somewhat different from the design of other
elements of superstructure due to the reasons given below.
 Foundation structures undergo soil-structure interaction. Therefore, the behavior of foundation
structures depends on the properties of structural materials and soil.
 Accurate estimations of all types of loads, moments and forces are needed for the present as well as for
future expansion, if applicable. It is very important as the foundation structure, once completed, is
difficult to strengthen in future.
 Foundation structures, though remain underground involving very little architectural aesthetics, have to
be housed within the property line which may cause additional forces and moments due to the
eccentricity of foundation.
 Foundation structures are in direct contact with the soil and may be affected due to harmful chemicals
and minerals present in the soil and fluctuations of water table when it is very near to the foundation.

ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD FOUNDATION:

1. The foundation shall be constructed to sustain the dead and imposed loads and to transmit
these to the sub-soil.
2. Foundation base be rigid so that differential settlements are minimized.
3. Foundation should be taken sufficiently deep to guard the building against damage caused
by swelling or shrinking of sub-soil.
4. Foundation should be so located that its performance may not be affected due to any
unexpected future influence.
TERMINOLOGY IN SAFE BEARING CAPACITY:-

5. Gross pressure intensity (q):- It is total pressure at the base of footing due to weight of the
superstructure, self weight of footing and weight of the earth fill, if any
6. Net pressure intensity (qn):- It is excess pressure or difference in intensities of the gross
pressure after the construction of the structure and original overburden pressure (ϒDf).
7. Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qf): It is the maximum gross pressure intensity that a
foundation soil can withstand without undergoing shear failure.
8. Net ultimate Bearing Capacity (qnf): It is the maximum extra pressure (in addition to
initial overburden pressure) that a foundation soil can withstand without undergoing shear
failure.
9. Safe Bearing Capacity (qs): The maximum pressure with which soil can carry without risk
of shear failure is called safe bearing capacity
10. Net Safe Bearing Capacity (qs): It is net ultimate bearing capacity divided by factor of
safety(f)
11. Allowable Bearing Pressure (qa): It is the maximum net intensity of loading that can be
imposed on soil with no possibility of both shear failure and excessive settlement.
BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL

 It is the load carrying capacity of soil

 It is used for designing of foundation.
 Bearing capacity is the power of foundation soil to hold the forces from the
superstructure without undergoing shear failure or excessive settlement.
Methods of estimating bearing capacity
a. Analytical methods involving the use of soil parameters
b. Plate load test on soil
c. Penetration test
d. Presumptive bearing capacity values from codes.

Presumptive Bearing Capacity

Building codes of various organizations in different countries gives the allowable bearing
capacity that can be used for proportioning footing. These are called presumptive Bearing
Capacity values. These values are based on experience with other structures already built.
Note:
1. For non-cohesive soils the values should be reduced by 50% if the water table is above or near
base of footing.
2. These values should be used only for preliminary design. The actual bearing capacity of soil
should be calculated as per the standard codes.

Safe/Allowable
Bearing
Type of Soil / Rock
Capacity
(kN/m2)
Rock 3240
Soft rock 440
Coarse sand 440
Medium sand 245
Fine sand 440
Soft shell / Stiff clay 100
Soft clay 100

 Factors affecting Bearing Capacity

a. Nature of soil, its physical and engineering properties such as type of soil, unit weight
of soil etc.
b. Nature of foundation
 Depth of foundation

 Size of footing

 Shape of footing

 Eccentricity in footing load

 Inclination of footing load

c. Inclination of the ground
d. Surcharge load and rigidity of the structure.
e. Depth of water table relative to the level of the foundation.
f. Initial stress if any

 Factors influencing selection of depth of foundation bearing capacity

a. Bearing Capacity
b. Settlement
c. Depth of volume change due to moisture fluctuation
 d. Depth of frost
e. Scour depth
f. Organic matter, peat and other abounded garbage dumps
g. Underground defects such as faults, cavities mines and underground services.
 Classification of foundations systems
Foundations are mainly of two types:
a) Shallow and Depth is equal to or less than its width
b) Deep foundations. Depth is equal to or greater than its width
Shallow foundations are used when the soil has sufficient strength within a short depth below the ground
level. They need sufficient plan area to transfer the heavy loads to the base soil. These heavy loads are
sustained by the reinforced concrete columns or walls (either of bricks or reinforced concrete) of much less
areas of cross-section due to high strength of bricks or reinforced concrete when compared to that of soil.
Shallow foundations are also designated as footings.

Considerations for Shallow Foundation Design

 For economical design, it is preferred to have square footing for vertical loads and rectangular footing
for the columns carrying moment
 Allowable bearing pressure should not be very high in comparison to the net loading intensity leading
to an uneconomical design.
 It is preferred to use SPT or Plate load test for cohesion less soils and undrained shear strength test for
 cohesive soils.
 In case of lateral loads or moments, the foundation should also be checked to be safe against sliding
and overturning The FOS shall not be overturning. less than 1.75 against sliding and 2.0 against
overturning. When wind/seismic loads are considered the FOS is taken as 1.5 for both the cases.
 Wall foundation width shall not be less than [wall thickness + 30 cm].
 Unreinforced foundation should have angular spread of load from the supported column with the
following criteria
Shallow Foundation

For the purpose of study, shallow foundations are considered as those that are placed at a depth Dy,
not exceeding the width, B, of the toundation. From the point of view of design, the shallow
foundations are classified into four types. They are:

1. Spread footings or pad foundations.

2. Strap footings.
3. Combined footings.
4. Raft or mat foundation.

A spread footing is that in which the base of a column or wall is enlarged. The footing of a
column is also called as pad foundation. A pad foundation may consist of a simple circular, square
or rectangular slab of uniform thickness, or they may be stepped or launched to distribute the load
from a heavy column. A wall footing is also called as a continuous footing or a strip footing.
If the footing supports more than one column, it is called as a strap or combined footing. A row
of column foundation connected together by a beam is called as a continuous footing. Wide strip
footings or foundations are necessary where the bearing capacity of the soil is low enough to
necessitate a strip so wide that transverse bending occurs in the projecting portion of the foundation
beam, and reinforcements are required to prevent cracking.

Raft or mat foundations are normally required on soils of low bearing capacity or where the
structural columns or other loaded areas are so close in both the directions that individual footing
foundations would nearly touch each other. A normal practice is to use a raft foundation where the
sum of the areas covered by the conventional individual spread footings is more than about 50
percent of the loaded area of the structure. Raft foundations are useful in reducing differential
settlements on variable soil or where there is wide variation in loading between adjacent columns or other
applied loads. Raft foundations are commonly used beneath multistoried buildings, storage tanks,
silo clusters, chimneys, etc. It is common to use mat foundation and to provide the floor slab for the
 basement. Mat foundations may be supported by piles in situations such as high ground water to control
buoyancy or where the base soil is susceptible to large settlements.

In between column footings and raft foundations, comes combined footings where several footings
(two or more) are joined to form a small mat. A combined footing may have either rectangular or
trapezoidal shape or a series of pads connected by narrow rigid beams called straps. Such footings are
called as strap footings.

1) Spread footings: In this type, the base of the member transmitting load to the soil is made
wider so as to distribute the load over wider area. A spread footing supports either one wall or
one column. A spread footing may of the following types:
(i) Strip footing: It is spread footing for wall
(ii) Pad (isolated) footing: It is the isolated footing for a column

i) Strip footing: There are two types of Strip footings:

(a) Simple strip or wall footing: When the wall carries a light loads or when the safe
bearing capacity is very high, a simple strip footing is provided. In this case, the wall
directly rests on the concrete base and no masonry offsets are provided.

(b) Stepped strip footing: When the wall carries a heavy loads or when the safe bearing
capacity of the soil is not very high, the base width required will be much greater. In
such case, it is essential to provide masonry offset to achieve larger spread before the
load is transferred to concrete base. The height and width of each offset should be so
proportioned that rate of spread does not exceed permissible value for the masonry.

ii) Pad footing: A spread footing for a single column is either known as the isolated footing
or pad footing
(a) Simple pad footing: When the column carries a light load or when the safe bearing
capacity is very high, the footing may consist of simple concrete block projecting out
from the column face on all sides. The shape of the footing is generally kept the same
as that for the column. As a thumb rule, the base dimensions of the concrete base
 should not be less than twice the appropriate lateral dimensions of the column in that
direction.

(b) Stepped pad footing: If the column load is more or if the safe bearing pressure of the
soil is less, it is necessary to provide masonry offsets to achieve larger spread, before
the load is transferred to the concrete base.

2) Grillage foundation: When heavy structural loads from columns (like transmission
towers), piers, stanchions are required to be transformed to a soil of low bearing capacity,
grillage foundation is often found to be lighter and more economical. This avoids deep
excavation and provides necessary area at the base to reduce the intensity of pressure within
the safe bearing capacity.
Depending on the material used, grillage foundation can be broadly divided in
two categories
(a) Steel grillage: Steel grillage foundation consists of steel beams (R.S.J’s) also known as
grillage beams which are provided in single or double tiers. In case of double tier
grillage, the top tier is laid at right angles to the bottom one. The grillage beams of each
tier are held in position by 20mm spacer bars with 25mm dia separators. The beams are
suitably placed so as to provide facility for placing the concrete between them (minimum
8cm)
(b) Timber grillage: If the soil encountered is soft and is permanently water-logged, this
type of foundation can be safely used for light buildings by limiting the loading to 5.5
tones/m2. In this type of construction, the concrete block usually provided below the wall
footing is replaced by timber platform. The timber platform consists of planks (usually 8-
10cm thick) arranged in two layers, one longitudinal and the other across the wall
extending beyond the footing base by 45 to 60cm on either side. The two layers of planks
are separated by rectangular sections of timber

3) Eccentrically loaded footings: Normally, the footings are so designed and proportioned that
C.G of the superimposed load coincides with the C.G of the base area such that footing is
subjected to concentric loading, resulting in uniform bearing pressure. However, in some cases,
it may not be possible to so. For example if the wall or column under construction is near some
other property, it will not be possible to spread the footing to both sides of the wall or column.

4) Combined footings: is the one which supports more than one column. The centre of gravity
of the supporting area is in line with the C.G of the two column loads. A combined footing may
be rectangular or trapezoidal in shape. A combined footing is provided under the following
circumstances:
(i) When the columns are very near to each other so that their footings overlap
 (ii) When the bearing capacity is less, requiring more area under individual footing

(iii) When the column is near property line so that the footing cannot spread in that
direction

5) Strap footings: comprises of two or more footings of individual columns connected by a

beam called strap. The strap does not remain in contact with the soil and does not transfer any
pressure to the soil. The strap assumed to be infinitely rigid, serves to transfers the column loads
on to the soil with equal and uniform soil pressure under the footings. If the distance between
adjacent columns is large, strap footings is recommended.
 Mat or raft foundation: consists of thick reinforced concrete slab covering the entire area of the
bottom of the structure like floor. The slab is reinforced with steel bars running at right angles
to each other both near to and bottom of the slab. This type of foundation is adopted where pile
foundations cannot be used in soft soils having low value of bearing capacity. They are also used
where the soil mass is erratic so that differential settlement is controlled.

Where raft foundation is needed?

  Structures like chimneys, silos, cooling towers
 For foundations where differential settlement can be a major concern
 For soft soils strata or site with pockets of weak soil
 In situations where individual footings may touch or overlap each other.
 For Buildings with basements where continuous water proofing is needed

Types of Raft Foundation

 Plane Slab Rafts: For fairly small and uniform spacing of columns and when the supporting soil is not
too compressible.
 Beam and Slab: For large column spacing and unequal column loads.
 Slab with Column Pedestals: For columns with heavy loads which may require large shear strength or
flexural strength of slab.
 Cellular Rafts: For compensated foundations to avoid differential settlements in weak soils.
 Piled Rafts: For heavy structures on soft soils in order to share the loads with piles.
 Strip Rafts or Grid Rafts: For economical design where a complete slab may be avoided.

General Considerations for Raft Foundation

 The depth of foundation shall not be less than 1.0 m.
 Punching shear failure for raft foundation on cohesionless soils is not an option so it shall not be
considered for analysis. The design is mostly governed by settlement criteria.
 For raft foundations on cohesive soils stability against soils, deep seated failure shall be analyzed. The
effect of long term settlement due to consolidation shall also be considered.
 The uplift due to sub-soil water shall be considered in design. The construction below water table shall
be checked for floatation Foundations subjected to heavy vibratory loading should preferably be
isolated
Deep Foundations

Deep foundations are normally defined as those that have depth width [D /B) ratio greater than 2. Very deep
foundations have DUB ratio greater than 4. Piles, piers and caissons fall in this category. They are used to
transmit loads to deeper layers of soil. Piles and drilled piers are used both on land and under water for
supporting structures, whereas caissons are normally used for bridges and sometimes for multistoried
buildings also. The terms foundation pier and caisson are interchangeably used by engineers to denote a
cylindrical foundation with or without steel reinforcement. Piers are constructed with or without enlarged
bottom which is concreted in place after excavation or drilling. Piers, which are sometimes called as drilled piers,
 are nothing but large diameter piles, bored and cast-in-situ. Whereas, a caisson is a large monolith which is built
above ground and sunk in stages to the required founding level as a single unit. In some countries, the caisson type
of foundation is also called as well foundation.

REQUIREMENTS FOR A STABLE FOUNDATION

A foundation is an integral part of the superstructure. The stability of a structure depends upon the stability of
supporting soil. Whether a foundation is shallow or deep, the following basic requirements must be satisfied.

I. The foundation strucmre must be properly located with respect to any future influence which could adversely
affect its performance.

2. Thc foundation (including the earth beneath) must be stable or safe from failure.
3. The foundation must not settle or deflect sufficiently to damage the structure or impair its
usefulness.

These requirements should ordinarily be considered in the order given above. The first is rather nebulous; it
involves many different factors, some of which cannot be evaluated analytically but which must be
determined by engineering judgement. The second is specific. It is analogous to the requirement that a beam
in the superstructure must be safe against breaking under its working load. The third requirement is both
specific and nebulous. It is analogous to the requirement that a beam in the superstrucmre should not
deflect enough to be objectionable; but how much is objectionable cannot always be defined accurately.
These three requirements are independent of one another, and each must be satisfied; that is, if only two
of the three have been met, the foundation is inadequate.

The first requirement is considered in this Chapter. Requirements 2 and 3 relate to stress and strain, that is, possible
overloading; and undue deformation of the soil. The depth of embedment required to prevent such overload or
undue ‹leformation is determined by analysis. These matters are discussed in Chapters 5 and 6. Foundations
may rest in a rocky strata also. This matter is discussed in Chapter S. Chapter 7 deals with combined footings
and raft foundations.

FOUNDATION LOCATION AND DEPTH

The location and depth of foundation of a structure play an important point in the overall stability of the
foundation. The location of the foundation in an area should not affect either its future expansion or its
foundation should not be affected by the constructions in the adjoining areas. The depth of foundation depends
upon the type of soil in the area, size of structure, the magnitudes of loads, and the environmental conditions.

In this chapter, the factors that affect depths for a shallow foundation only are considered. The depths for deep
foundations are considered under the relevant chapters.

MINIMUM DEPTH FOR SHALLOW FOUNDATION

The foundations that govern the minimum depth for shallow foundations are:

 Local erosion of soil due to flowing water.

 Underground defects such as root holes, cavities, mine shafts, etc.
 Unconsolidated filled up soil.
 Adjacent structures, property lines, excavations and future construction operations. ñ. Ground water level.
 Depth of frost action.
 Depth of volume change due to the presence of expansive soils.
 Dessication due to the heat from boilers, furnaces, etc.
 Dessication due to drawing of water by the roots of trees.
Local Erosion

In areas where there is heavy rainfall, there is every possibility of the top soil getting eroded due to the flowing
water. The erosion will be particularly severe, if the top soil is loose, and further if the structure lies on a
sloping ground. Local experience should indicate the possible depths of erosion in such cases and the
foundations should be located below such depths.

Underground Defects

Presence of root holes, cavities of burrowing animals, burried old vaults, and mining shafts, etc. should be
investigated before deciding the depths for foundations. The collapse of the roof of a burried cave or an old
mine can be a serious problem in some regions. Man-made discontinuities, including old wells, sewers, cables
are frequently encountered in cities and established industrial sites..No footing be located above such a
discontinuity or on its backfill unless both are known to be capable of carrying the imposed load.

Unconsolidated Filled up Soil

Filledup soils are quite common in low lying areas. Soils washed down by flowing rain water from higher
elevations and deposited at low level areas remain unconsolidated for a number of years. Man made fillings of
old ponds, abandoned quarries, old dried up nallas, etc. pose serious problems for foundations as such soils
normally remain unconsolidated. The strength characteristics of all the filledup soils with respect to depth should
be investigated before deciding the type and depth of foundation.

Presence of Adjacent Structure, Property Lines, etc.

The proximity of existing structures and the possibility of future construction are important factors in the location
and depth of foundations. When the foundation of an existing structure is close to the external wall of a proposed
building, the problems that arise are:

‹a) The type of foundation to be adopted for the proposed building. (fi) The depth at which the foundation is
to be located.

(c) The construction method to be adopted.

The construction of a new foundation close to the existing one can cause damage to it due to vibration (if piles
are driven), shocks of blasting, undermining by excavation or the lowering of water table. The deeper the new
foundation and nearer it is to the old, the greater the damage is likely to be. The load imposed on the soil by a new
structure can cause settlement of the existing one because the stresses spread through the soil in both the horizontal
and vertical directions. If it is possible, the new foundation should be kept sufficiently away from the old, and
at a depth greater than the old. An empirical rule for the minimum spacing of footings to avoid interference
between the old and the new is given in Fig. 4.2. By rule of thumb, the minimum horizontal spacing the old
and new footing should be equal to the width, B, of t.he wider one. Further a line drawn at a 45° angle (30° for
soft soil) with the horizontal should not intersect the base of the lower one as shown in Fig. 4.2. While the use of
this rule will help minimize damage to adjacent foundations, a better answer to the foundation location and
depth in such a case is an analysis of bearing capacity and settlement and a study of the proposed construction
procedure.

Foundation depth must be selected with future nearby excavation in mind. This is particularly true close to the
property lines, where only limited legal control over the construction operation on the adjoining site may be
possible. The effect of the transfer of stresses from the footings placed at higher levels to footings at lower levels
is shown in Fig. 4.3.

Old
footing
Limit for horizontal spacing in
all soils
New footing in average soil

/ footing in soft
45° ‘•.,
soil
Average soil

Limit for bottom of new

footing deeper than old
footing

Ground Water Level

The level of ground water is a factor in foundation in three ways as follows:

 The construction below ground water level often presents difficulties. In cohesionless sands and silts, for
example, upward flow of water into a footing excavation can create a quick condition, and construction
is impossible without predrainage.
 The presence of ground water close to the foundation level can reduce the ability of some soils to carry
high foundation pressures.
 When the ground water level is above the lowest floor, for example, basement floor, water proofing and
res istance against hydrostatic uplift become serious considerations.
Frost Action

In regions where the air temperature falls below 32° F (0° C) far more than a few days, the ground freezes and
heave of soil may occur. Foundations placed within the zone of heave are stowly lifted during cold weather
and suddenly dropped when the frozen mass thaws. The zone of frost heave may extend to depths 2 to 3 m
beneath the ground surface in areas of extreme cold. To be free of frost heave under average conditions, the
base of foundation should be placed at a depth equal to about three-fourths of the maximum frost penetration.
In highly susceptible soils, such as saturated silty sands and silts, the full depth of penetration is normally
used; while in gravels and dry sands, even less than three-fourths of the maximum depth of penetration is
often adequate.

Normally, clay soils are insensitive to frost heave as their permeability is low thereby limiting the amount of
moisture which can be drawn up into the soil to lorm ice lenses which cause the heave.

The question sometimes arises whether the requirement for embedment below the depth of frost penetration
applies to pile caps, grade beams, etc. If the loads coming on pile caps or grade beams from the superstructure
are more than the frost heave pressure exerted on the bottom of caps and beams, thcre will not be any danger
to the structures. Otherwise, there should be free surface underside the pile caps and grade beams to preclude
any potential heave action.

The heavc pressurc is the pressure required to prevent expansion of soil during the formation of ice. This
pressure, as an extreme case, is estimated to be about 2 to 3 MPa. This is a large force but for high capacity
piles in the 2000 kN range or more, the column load (dead load only) is usually sufficient to offset the heave
pressure. Where such is the case, some saving in the cost can be effected by reducing the embedment of the
pile caps, raising the soffit into the zone of frost penetration.

A serious frost penetration problem may occur beneath cold storage, refrigirator, and similar spaces within a
building. The depth of freezing in such cases can be quite large, often making it
impractical to carry the foundations to adequate depth to get below frost level. In cases of this type, the only
sure protection is the installation of warm air ducts or pipes with a circulating heated fluid to prevent loss of
heat mom the underlying soil.
Volume Change in Expansive Soils

Dessication Due to the Heat from Boilers, Furnaces, Sun, etc.

In humid regions where soils ar›• ordinarily moist, severe dessication may cause susceptible soils to shrink
and bring about severe settlement of structures. Accelerated dessication accompanied by rapid and irregular
settlement can be caused by many local conditions such as the heat transferred to soil from boilers, ovens,
furnaces, etc. that are inadequately insulated from ground. Dessication can happen due to sun’s heat which is
severe in fine silts and clay soils. Foundations should be kept below the depths of dessication due to sun's
heat as these soils become very soft during rainy seasons.

Dessication Due to the Roots of Existing Trees

In many instances, presence of large trees and even some shrubs, close to the buildings has resulted in soil
dessication as the roots of these vegetation are capable of removing sufficient amount of moisture from soils,
and hence cause settlement of foundations placed above or adjacent to their major root system. It is therefore
essential to see that such vegetation is not grown close to buildings.

SELECTION OF TYPE OF FOUNDATION

The selection of type of foundation for a given site depends an many factors. The most important factors are:

 The function of the structure and the loads it must carry.

 The subsurface condition of the soil.
 The cost of the superstructure.
All the factors mentioned above are interrelated. If the structure is of an important type and carries very heavy
loads, the type of foundation must be such that it gives stability under all adverse conditions. Possibly in such
cases, cost might not be a major factor for consideration. The type of foundation and cost generally depend on
the type of soil met at the site.

In selecting the type of foundation, the design load plays an important part which again depends on the subsoil
conditions. The various loads that are likely to be considered are:

 Dead loads.
 Live loads.
 Wind and earthquake forces.
 Lateral pressures exerted by the foundation earth on the embedded structural elements.

 Impact equivalents relating to moving and dynamic loads.

In addition to the above loads, it might be necessary, under special circumstances, to consider the following loads
based on the subsoil conditions.

 Lateral or uplift forces on the foundation elements due to high water table level.
 Swelling pressures on the foundations in expansive soils.
 Heave pressures on the foundations in areas subjected frost heave.
 Negative frictional drag on piles where pile foundations are used in highly compressible soils.
Dead loads include the weight of the structure and all materials permanently attached to it, such as floor finish,
exterior walls, permanent and fixed service equipments, such as plumbing stacks and risers, etc. If the weight
of the earth is directly supported by the elements of the structure, it should be considered as dead load.

Live loads include all equivalent vertical loads that ar“e not a permanent part of a structure but are expected to
superimpose on the structure during a part or all of its useful life. Vertical loads due to wind and snow are also
included. Human occupancy, furnitures, warehouse goods, mechanical equipments, etc. are some of the other
major live loads. The magnitude of live loads to be used in the design of buildings, industrial structures, etc. are
usually stipulated in local building codes.

Railway and highway bridges as well as other structures subjected to traffic loads are designed as per the local codes in
practice. Industrial fioors, subjected to a special type of truck traffic must be designed to suit each specific truck
loading. Reaction from industrial cranes sometimes constitute a large portion of the live load.

The live loads due to human occupancy including furniture and appliances are often reduced for the design of large
girders, columns and foundations. The amount of reduction varies with the floor area and the number of
floors. Local building codes give the permissible reduction factors.
Wind load acts on all exposed surfaces of structure. The magnitude of design pressure is usually
stipulated in local building codes.
Earthquake motion may result in lateral forces. Every structure lying in earthquake zones must be designed to
resist the lateral forces generated by earthquakes. Earth pressure is a lateral force acting permanently against a certain
part of the substructure below ground surface. It should be treated as a basic load similar to dead load.

Water pressure may act laterally against basement walls and vertically on base slabs. Considering the substructure
as a whole, the lateral hydrostatic pressures are always balanced; but the hydrostatic uplift or buoyancy force must
be counteracted by the dead load of the structure. If the dead load is insufficient, some provision must be made
to anchor the structure.

Swelling and heave pressures are also very important in the design of foundations. The former occurs in expansive
soils and the latter in cold regions.
Negative friction on piles poses a serious problem if piles are constructed in recently filled up soils or in marine
regions. The negative frictional force in the design of pile foundations is an important factor which will be
considered in the chapter under pile foundations subjected to vertical loads.

Steps for the Selection of the Type of Foundation

In choosing the type of foundation, the design engineer must perform five successive steps.
 Obtain the required information concerning the nalure of the superstructure and the loads to
be transmitted to the foundation.
 Obtain from soil investigation the subsurface soil conditions.
 Explore the possibility of constructing any one of the types of foundation under the existing conditions by
taking into account: (i) the bearing power of the soil to carry to required load, and (ii) the adverse effect on the
structure due to differential senlements. Eliminate in this way, the unsuitable types.
 Once one or two types of foundation are selected on the basis of preliminary studies, make more detailed
studies. These studies may require more accurate determination of loads subsurface conditions and footing
sizes. It may also be necessary to make more refined estimates of settlement to predict the behaviour of
the structure.
 Estimate the cost of each of the promising type of foundation, and choose the type that represents the
most acceptable compromise between performance and cost.
Settlement of Shallow Foundation:

• The term “settlement” indicates the sinking of a structure due to compression and
deformation of the underlying soil.
• Foundations of all structures have to be placed on soil. The structures may
undergo settlement depending upon the characteristics such as compressibility of
the strata of soil on which it is founded.

• The settlement of any loose strata of cohesion less (granular) soil occurs relatively
faster. Clay strata often need a very long time to get fully consolidated under the
loads from the structure.
Uniform settlement: If the structure as a whole settles uniformly into the ground there
will not be any detrimental effect on the structure but services
(Water pipe lines, electricity cables, telephone lines etc...) May get damaged if the
settlement is cosnsiderable. Such uniform settlement occurs if the subsoil is
homogeneous and the load distribution is uniform.
• However, the differential settlement should be deal with utmost care as it can cause
serious damage to the structure. Due to differential settlement, beams and columns may
get distorted, walls may suffer tension cracks, services may get damaged and structure
may become unserviceable.
Angular distortion is the ratio of differential settlement between two columns to the spacing
between them. A structure may fail if the tilt exceeds permissible limits. When the columns are
monolithic with foundation slabs, tilt of the foundation takes place.

SETTLEMENT ANALYSIS:
This analysis may be divided into three parts:
 The first part consists of obtaining the soil profile, which gives an idea of the depths of
various characteristic zones of soil and also relevant properties of soil such as void ration,
specific gravity, water content, consolidation and compression characteristics
 The second part consists of analysis of transmission of stresses to the subsurface data
 The final part consists of settlement predictions based on theory of consolidation

Factors influencing settlement:

The following are a few important factors to be considered in the evaluation of settlement.
1. Elastic properties of soil
2. Shape of footing
3. Rigidity of footing
4. Contact pressure
5. Width of footings
6. Compressibility characteristics of soil
7. Initial conditions of soil (Density, void ratio etc.)
8. Degree of saturation
9. Time available for settlement
10. Thickness of soil layer
11. Load dispersion angle

TYPES OF SETTLEMENT:
Immediate, consolidation and secondary settlement

The total settlement of foundation comprises three parts as follows:

S = Si + Sc + Ss
 where, S = total settlement
Si = elastic or immediate settlement
Sc = primary consolidation settlement
Ss= secondary consolidation settlement

(i) Immediate (elastic) settlement

• It occurs in all types of soil due to elastic compression.

• It occurs immediately after the application of load
• It depends on the elastic properties of foundation soil, rigidity, size
• It is determined from elastic theory.

The immediate or elastic settlement (Si) can be computed from the following expression:
Si = q B (1-2) If
E

Where, q = intensity of contact pressure

B = least (width) internal dimension of footing
= Poisson’s Ratio of foundation soil
E= modulus of elasticity of soil (to be obtained from triaxial test)
If = influence factor (to be obtained from table)

(ii) Primary consolidation settlement (Sc)

 It takes place due to expulsion of pore water and is time dependent settlement.

 Clay and Organic soil are most prone to consolidation settlement.

 Consolidation is the process of reduction in volume due to expulsion of

water under an increased load.
 It is a time related process occurring in saturated soil by draining water
from void.
 Consolidation theory is required to predict both rate and magnitude of
settlement.
 Since water flows out in any direction, the process is three dimensional.
 But, soil is confined laterally. Hence, vertical one dimensional consolidation theory is
acceptable. 9. Spring analogy explains consolidation settlement.
 Permeability of soil influences consolidation.
The primary consolidation settlement (Sc) can be computed from the following
expression:

where, Sc= Consolidation Settlement

Cc = Compression Index
eo= Initial Void Ratio
H = Thickness of clay layer
0= Initial overburden pressure at the middle of clay layer
 = Extra pressure due to the new
construction where, Cc = compression index = - 0.009 (wL -
10)

(iii) Secondary consolidation settlement (Ss)

 This settlement starts after the primary consolidation is completely over

 During this settlement, excess pore water pressure is zero.

 This is creep settlement occurring due to the readjustment of particles to

a stable equilibrium under sustained loading over a long time.
 This settlement is common in very sensitive clay, organic soils and
loose sand with clay binders.
where, C= Coefficient of secondary
compression H = Thickness of clay layer
tsec= Time taken for secondary compression (usually life span of structure)
tprim= Time taken for primary consolidation to complete
Footings founded on saturated cohesionless soils reach total settlement during the
construction stage itself due to high permeability of soil.
In saturated cohesive soils, there is no change in water content during the stage of
immediate settlement. The soil mass is deformed without any change in volume soon after the
application of the load. This is due to low permeability of soil. Primary consolidation settlement
may take many years to reach its final stage. Secondary consolidation settlement starts with the
completion of primary consolidation settlement.
where, C= Coefficient of secondary compression
H = Thickness of clay layer
tsec= Time taken for secondary compression (usually life span of structure)
tprim= Time taken for primary consolidation to complete
Footings founded on saturated cohesionless soils reach total settlement during the
construction stage itself due to high permeability of soil.

In saturated cohesive soils, there is no change in water content during the stage of
immediate settlement. The soil mass is deformed without any change in volume soon after the
application of the load. This is due to low permeability of soil. Primary consolidation settlement
may take many years to reach its final stage. Secondary consolidation settlement starts with the
completion of primary consolidation settlement.
(iv) Settlement of footing on slopes can be obtained from the following equation:

Sß = 0.00385ßo + (1-0.0125ßo)De
SO B

where, Sß = settlement of footing on or adjacent to a slope

So = settlement of footing on flat ground
ßo = angle of slope with horizontal
B = width of footing
De = distance of the edge of footing from the top edge of slope
(v) If the structure as a whole settles uniformly into the ground there will
not be any detrimental effect on the structure but services (water pipe
lines, electricity cables, telephone lines etc...) may get damaged if the
settlement is considerable. Such uniform settlement occurs if the
subsoil is homogeneous and the load distribution is uniform.

(vi) However, the differential settlement should be dealt with utmost care
as it can cause serious damage to the structure. Due to differential
settlement, beams and columns may get distorted, walls may suffer
tension cracks, services may get damaged and structure may become
unserviceable.

(vii) Angular distortion is the ratio of differential settlement between two

columns to the spacing between them. A structure may fail if the tilt
exceeds permissible limits. When the columns are monolithic with
foundation slabs, tilt of the foundation takes place.