TYPES AND METHODS OF

3 RESEARCH

3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

Introduetion
Research may be classified crudely
Although any typology of research is inevitably arbitrary, be classified as:
methods. According to the intent, research may
according to its major intent or the
Pure Research

Applied Research
Exploratory Research

Descriptive Study
Diagnostic Study
Evaluation Studies

Action Research

research may be classified as:

According to the methods of study,
Experimental Research

Analytical Study
Historical Research

Survey

The Nature of Classification

approach to differentiate
a watertight demarcation. It is just an
The above classification is not different types of
for the purpose of better understanding. The
the distinctive approaches to research

31
 SCIENCES

SOCIAL

R E S E A R C H
IN
METHODOLOGY
OF
another.
t here may be Ove TYPES AND METHODs OF RESEARCH
one

piny
experimoaph
from mvol ve
32 distinguishable nay
between Pure and
of course,
not sharply
For example.
pure
research

experimental
or survey tio The Interplay Applied Research
research are, another.
apply The distinction between pure and applied research is not absolute, but at best only relative,Tor
quasiods.
involetho
between one

study or
type/method

analytical
and

study:
Evaluation

an
studies may

analytical
study:
Survey
Research
may
involve nure research may have significant potential for its application to the solution of a practical proole
case Research is necessarily
and so
on.
of the ah now or later (eg.. application of Newton's Law of Gravity in space research); and applied researcn
approach; of each
Experimental
analytical other aspects bove raay end up making a scientific contribution to the development of the theoretical knowledge ( E
experimental
approach or

sections, the meaning,

nature
and the
types Elton Mayo's Hawthorme Study's contribution to Behavioural science).
In the following
and methods of research are
discussed.
The terms, 'pure' and 'applied' just represent the polar ends of a continuum. "Research studies
is solely to
of Research
upon the suitabilin, have differing degrees of field
'purity' and 'applicability', depending on
whether their purpose
of Type/Method the other things, solve some functional problem."2
Choice
research project depends,
among
the appropriate
method of he advance knowledge
in a or to

The quality of a taken in selecting r the mutual contribution between pure and applied research.
should be
of research is
essential for this Goode and Hatt have highlighted
method selected

for any project. A

for it. Hence
through
care

knowledge of types
and methods
R E S E A R C H
purpose Contribution of Pure Research
APPLIED
3.2 PURE
AND 1. By developing principle, pure research offers solutions to many practical problems. For
incentive
example, Maslow's theory of motivation serves as a guideline for formulating
Pure Research without any intention to apph
schemes and approaches to moti vating employees in organizations. Generalizations have
sake f knowledge in the goals of diagnosis or
undertaken for the Galileo's contribution many practical applications. In fact, nothing is so practical for
Pure research is Newton's contributions, etc.
Einstein 's theory of relativity, of
treatment as good theoretical research.
practice, e.g., research. It is undertaken out intelle.
known as basic fundamental or the critical in practical problem. For example, a
Pure research is also It aims at extension knowled. of 2. Pure research helps to find factors a
fail to
It is not necessarily problem-oriented.
conflict
curiosiry or inquisitiveness. The developmen common-sense approach problems like communal disharmony or ethnic
to
refinement of an existing theory. can be
It may lead to either discovery
of a new theory or abstract the key factors. On the other hand, by deeper study such social maladies
of pure research enrich the storehoese
research. The findings better understood and it may be possible to find a solution to such problems.
sciences owes much to pure
of various
to formulate significant
practical researches n
drawn upon in the future choose the best
of knowledge that can be direct view to futur 3. Pure research develops many alternative solutions and thus enables us to
for its own sake without any
the words of Dixey, "natural knowledge pursued solution. By applying scientific knowledge developed by pure researches, various appliances
to results of most unexpected
kind and of very highest practical importance" Continuous basic
often lead
utility will
of pure research formed like radio, television, refrigerator, computer etc. have been invented.
for applied research. The findings
Thus, pure research lays the foundation research in these fields has contributed to the manufacture of more effective
and useful
inventions like steam engine, machines
the basis for innumerable scientific and technological models at the least cost.
automobiles, electronic gadgets, electronic data processing,
telecommunication, etc., which have
revolutionized and enriched our human life. Contribution of Applied Research
A practical study designed to improve productivity
Applied Research . Applied research can contribute newfacts. land tenure
Applied research is carried on to find solution to a real-life problem requiring an action or policy in agricultural farms may stimulate theoretical anälysis of extension technology,
etc. Applied research uncovers
decision. It is thus problem-oriented and action-directed. It secks an immediate and practical result system, price parity between agricultural inputs and outputs,
new facts, which enrich the concerned body of knowledge.
e.g, marketing research carried on for developing a new market or for studying the postpurchase
endeavour.
experience of customers. 2. Appled research can put theory to the test. Applied research is also a scientific
he has to
There is vast scope for applied research in the fields of The researcher has to design it scientifically. From his knowledge of theory,
technology, management, commerce, formulate hypothesis. Thus, his study
economics and other social sciences. Innumerable
problems faced in these develop a conceptual framework for his study and
empirical study for finding solutions.
are areas. They need offers an opportunity to test the validity of existing theory.
like 'small farmer',
Though immediate purpose of an applied research is
the
to find solutions
3. Applied research may aid in conceptual clarification. Many concepts
it may incidentally contribute to the
to a practical problem, labourer', 'social responsibility', 'social structure', etc. are not precise. Different
development of theoretical knowledge by leading agricultural
of to the discovery and lack of clarity. The vagueness of
new facts or testing of a
theory or to
conceptual clarity. people define them differently leading to confusion

I. Thomson, J.A., Introduction 2. Emory. C. William, op. cit, p. 21.

to Science, Oxford University Press, 3. Goode, William J., Hatt, Paul K., op. cit. p. 34-38.
p. 181.
 ME THODOIOGV OF RESEARCH IN soC SCIENCES

Concept surfaces mot sharpy when we nnem to orerationalie" * dening

reseanch Thus, reseanh mk concephunl
clarity
Applied reseanch may mer re prmth eietinr theorirs A ractical roblem i meceesary delimit the area o he
facts. t cannot he soved by the application of ahetract principles from a singele
o heie ve one shedy is
hat one
hdy is shufied even
wmena He going o he ahle t
advises that "it firt level at the
Township development. for exampte. may drew upon sch dhscipiines a town meh sernwnt Ratrmsthat i samistak
geology. demapraphy, sociology. economics. etc. Thrk, the souton f a practical
ie ane them
vestigate therm av
as thomughly
more effective ftttaehe
themghiy a* posihle than one
vananee
mee n
cmples oc
eemtral
disciplinesrehies Need for
t
try t
study of varnables and
may requie some imtepration of the theones and principles ot vanus the
Erpleretory Studies the enirvere m
one piece of
3.3 EXPLORATORY OR FORMULATTVE RESEARCH Social sciences are
elatively
young. Resenwches
t o he exploratory
ones. Few im them
Most exiting theories in social well-tdden paths exiet to
are seate.
Meoning folilow few the
Msy of them
mevitably
sciences
Exploratoy rescarch is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem ahout which the reseaa guidance
ne for
empiric research.
for empirical researeh
al Hence,
are
re either
esther oe
tno
seneral or
general ivestigators
toe
of oc
has lrtle or no kowiedpe. It is similar to a doctor's initial imvesti ation of a patient suffering oblems for
for the purpose fomulating exploratory
of research is ospecshe
ot
specsfic tpowe
ciea
them for more necessary to gt ital mg mt the
as formulative research precise
an unfamihar malady far getting some clues for idennifying it. "R is ill-stnuctured and much nvestigtion Hence. s aso 0
TCUed om pre-determined
objectives It usualy takes the form of a pilot study. lew The Steps in Explorotion
Though ia separate type of research. it in appropnate to consider it as the first stape Selltiz and others have suggested the
three-stage process of
age of a following three ste ps/methods for
exploration, description and expenimentatkon. (a) A review of pertunent iterature the
exploratory Stuy
Purposes (b) An experience survey
The purpose of (c) An analysis of "insight
an exploratory study may be stimulating' cases.
to nerate new ideas or Literature survey: A study of
related and pertinent books.
number of leads and clues for articles and reports nas up a
t o increase the researcher's further
familiarity with the problem or
hypothesis may be formulated: investigation that will advance the rusearch. A workahle
t o make a precise formulation of the
important variables may be iuentified
problem or
Experience survey: Informal interviews with
t o gather information persons
tor clarifying concepts or researcher securing insight into the subject and its experience the area of sthay wil help
the in in
various facts. In
t o determine whether it is feasible survey, representation to different facts of selecting the person for thisS
to attempt the study. experience should be given. For
example, im an exploraiory
Sometimes study of the problem of rural development, it is
may find, after studies, rural development administrators, social profitable interview researchers famaliar with rural
a scientist
research project. that it is not
spending a tremendous amount of energy and time on a to

possible to secure the required data. A preliminary exploration workers, rural financial institubons and vilage kaderss
help avoiding such dismay Fur example, a research student of the author could The researcher should
prepare an interview guide so as to have an idea of issues and
of wanted to study the of the problem on which aspects
marketing strategies of large manufacturing enterprises. A critical pattem questionsmay be
posed. Of course, this interview guide should be îleaible
to know whether pre-requisite this study was
marketing executives would divulge adequate information
to
enough to explore
various avenues that
emerge dunng the interviews.
strategies. An exploration determined that they would not. about iheir
marketing This survey may yield a new
hypothesis and information on the varnous dimeasions of the study,
An exploratory facilities and cooperation available for the
study does not aim a lesting study, and the factors to be controlled
attempts "to see what is there rather than to hypothesis. According to Daniel Katz, it
should be so designed as to predict the relationships that will be founded."o Butjustit Analysis of insight-stimulating cases: In an unexplored area of snudy, an intensive study of
provide as definite information as some selected cases can yield stimulating insight. For exampBe, the
possible for a set of research objectives. of Sigmund Freud on human
extraordinary theoretical insights
Levels of Exploratory Studies psyehe were the result of his intensive study of patients. Profound
Katz insights into the relationship between the individual and society have been brought out by
conceptualizes two levels of anthropological case studies of primiúve cultures.
significant variables in the situation; at theexploratory studies. "At the first level is the
second, the discovery of the The types of people
4.
Emory, C. William, op. cit. p. 79. discovery of relationship between variables." who provide "insight-stimulating' information could include the following:
See Section 8.4,
Pilot Studies and
6.
Festinger, Leon and Daniel Katz, Pre-1ests, below. 8. lbid. p.
Rinehart and Winston, (eds.), Research Methods 17
9. Selliz, Claira, Marie Jahoda, Morton Deutsch and Stuart W. Cook, Research Methods in Social Relations, New
i966, p. 74. in the
7. 1bid,
p. 75.
Behavioural Sciences, New York: n York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1959, pp. 3247.
10. lbid, pp. 61-64.
 SCIENCES

RESEARCH
IN SOCIAL
METHODOLOGY
OF

36 TYPES AN ME THODS OF RESEARCH

between contens

ing groupy
soene.
comers to the the margin o4criptive Study vs. Analytical Study
I. New placed on
individuals who are
neltner Managers nornor workers bu
peripheral foremen ane
Marginal
or
hierarchy., A descriptivestudy identifies relevant
variables but does not am at testung hypothesis.
kor example. in an
organizational
al
hand, an analytical study is primarily concerned with " uand
something in between transfemed employecs
other

terpreting relationships
testing hypothesis and specifying
promoted or
c.g.. rerently A descriptive study is
ndividuals in transition,
different
view trom the majority relatively less limited by the
rigorous requirements oi measurement and
who hold a
an analytical study.
group sis than An
analytical study's design approximates
4. Deviants and
isolates in a

extreme examples of
the nditions
conditions under
under
study, e experimental design.
to the model
oa
cases or c a s e s
that should he scheme.
. Pure of a nral
development
A descriptive study employs simple statistical techniques like averages and percentages, but an
most dissatistied heneficiary
the
who do not. alvtical study employs advanced statistical techniques like correlation and multivariate analysis.
6. Those who fit well and those
different categories
in the system. Usefulness
7. Those who represent that further research
researcher finds
when the The descriptive studies are useful in their own way.
exploratory study of the proki. o
comes
The end of an
the major dimensions
succeeds in identifying
presently possibie on the problem
or
1. They have much to contribute to the development of a young science. as
descrptive
formal research design. theoretical point. It may be useful in verifying focal
the latter case. he has to plan the information can focus directly on a

3.4 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

concepts through empirical observation. The adequate the description, the greater is
more
the likelihood that the units derived from the description will be useful in subsequent theor
building."12
Meaning
interpretation. It is the simnla
Descniptive study fact-finding investigation with adequate
is a 2. Descriptive information can highlight important methodological aspects of data collection
study, as it has tocus on particular asDects
type of research. It is more specific than an exploratory and interpretation. The collection of facrual data increases our awareness of the relative
to gather descriptive information and provides accuracy of our measuring devices. Thus, our ability to accumulate further knowledge is
or dimensions of the problem studied. It is designed
information for formuiating more sophisticated studies. Data are collected by using one or more significantly broadened.
appropriate methods: observation. interviewing and mail questionnaire. 3. Descriptüve information obtained in a research may be useful for prediction about areas of
social life outside the boundaries of the research.
Criteria
This method is 4. Descriptive studies are valuable in providing facts needed for planning social action
All problems do not iend themselves descriptive study. to applicable to
problems,
which satisfy certain criteria. First. the problem must be describable and not programmes.
arguable. For instance
philosophical and controversial issues are not suitable for descriptive study. Second, the data should
Limitations
be
amenable to an accurate. objective. and. if
possible, quantitative assemblage for reliability and The descriptive method of study has certain limitations:
significance. Third. it should be possible to develop valid standards of comparison. Last, it should
lend itself to verifiable procedure of collection and 1. It is not applicable to problems, which cannot satisfy the required criteria mentioned earlier.
analysis of data.
2. The researcher may make description an end in itself. Research must lead to discovery of
Objective
A descriptive study aims at facts.
identufying the various characteristics of a community or institution
or problem under study, but it does not deal with the 3. Although social science problems are continuous and have a past and a future, the researcher
testing of
potential relationships between variables thus proposition hypothesis. However,
it "can reveal or
may lose himself in current conditions only.
invesigation later." the setting stage for more elaborate its limitations
4. researcher may tend statistics. In making statistical analysis,
A
The to over-use
descriptive study also aims at a
classification of the range should be recognized.
matter of study. of elements
Thè
classification must satisfy two
exclusiveness. Exhaustiveness is
comprising the subjec
criteria, viz., (1) exhaustiveness
achieved when all the and (2) mutual
exclusiveness occurs when each item impcrtant elements are identified. Mutua
can be
should also te unambiguously
system. Descriptive infornmation placed in only one category in nc
useful for
11. Black. James
A.. and Dean J. explanation, prediction and awareness. 12. Dubin, Robert, Theory Building, New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Quoted in W. Emory, Business Researc
Champion, op. cit., p. 80.
Methods, op. cit., pp. 7-8.
 S C I E N C E S

TYPES ANO ME
R E S E A R C H
IN
SOCIAL
HO0S OF AE SEAMCH
OF
THODOLOGY
ME 3.5 DIAGNoSTIC STUDY
Purpose

38 research is
thus, directe. o assess
Evaluative or
apprase the quality and quanttY
towards dis.
isco formance, and to specity its
atributes and a
with change gver time. As suchman puts it,conditirons required
directed

It is also
the causene and s for it succes.
Meaning
decscriptive
study but
with a
different

be done
focus.
about. Il aims at
Iying tho
dentifying
concehe program views as desirable, the means by which
pro
"evaluative reearch
the change is t asks about the
be brougt about. and
similar to can
This is and whai
whr is it
happening change
SigNs according to which such change can be
w h a t is
happening.
and the pors1ble
solufions
tor i .
the
Types of Evaluation
recognized
of a problem
whether certain Vas
a n d testing
Purpose with
discovering
the rural hr e Evaluation are of three types:
A diagnostic study may

are persons
also be

hailing
concerned

from rural
areas

for a
more
suitable

particular
party?
for manning
branches Concurrent evaluation: This is a continuous process and partakes the nature of an
inspeco
associated. e.g. vote or social audit oT an on-8oing programme. It aims at the evaluation of the gualty
are
than city-voters
villagers
o
banks
Do more
implementation and services as a feed back for improving the performance
prior knowl
Requirements
requirements,
VIz.,
wledge « . Periodicevaluation: This
is made after each distinct
phase or state of a project has een
adequate mof
common

studies share
population,
and diagnostic of the given completed. In the case of a medium period time-bound programme like 5- year plan. thi
Both descriptive
formulation.
clear-cut
definition
s statistical analysis and
its thorough of vanables, evaluation may be done in the middle of the period and it may be called mid-te rm/interim
the problem.
significance. As the aim is to obtain complete and accurate information about a given sitnas
measurement
than is
information. precise
accurate evaluation.
for collecting against bias tha
more provision for protection
phenomenon. the
research design
must make much
a m o u n t of work
involved is considerable andso 3. Terminal evaluation: This
"This is
is done after the completion of a programme or project
(e.g.. an
or
Moreover, the irrigation project). designed to assess the extent of the achievement of its goals
study.
required in an exploratory effort is extremely
important. objectives. It may also involve a benefit-cost analysis. In the case of a project with long
research
concern with economy of gestation period (e.8 an imigation project), the appropriate methodology for termina
Study vs. Descriptive Study evaluation will consist of a survey-cum experimental design.
Diagnostic the specific characteristics
have in common emphasis on
s of
ae

Though these two types of studies other in some respects. See section 3.8 Experimental Research. below:
they differ from each
given phenomenon, relationships and with implication Evaluation Research
concerned with causal Criteria of
First, a diagnostic study is more directly
a descriptive study. Weiss
4 and Coleman5 list a number of specific criteria, which distinguish evaluative research
for action than is
towards finding out what is occurring, a diagnostic from other types
of research.
Second, while descriptive study is oriented
a
it is occurring and what
but why can use the finding as a
not only what is Occurring First, evaluation research is usually conducted for a client who intends to
study is directed towards discovering for
be done about it. basis for decision making. This is quite different from basic research, which aims at knowledge
-

is actively guided by hypothesis

than is a descriptive study. its own sake.
Third, a diagnostic study more
the latter's
Second, the evaluation researcher deals with his client's questions relating
to
Last, a diagnostic study is not possible in areas where knowledge is not advanced enough to
descriptive researcher formulates his own research questions.
make possible adequate diagnosis. In such cases, the social scientist limits his
effort to programme, while the basic
are being reached.
studies. Third, the evaluation researcher measures whether the programme goals
rather than with comparisons of 'what
3.6 EVALUATION STUDIES Other scientific researchers concern themselves with 'what is'
is' with what ought to be'.
Meaning control research work, the evaluation
Fourth, unlike basic researcher who normally has over

Evaluation study is one type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of the programme as opposed to the evaluation. This
researcher works in asetting where priority goes to
soCial oreconomic programmes implemented (e.g., family planning scheme) or for assessing the to the programme/prject's built-in tüme
means that the evaluation researcher must fit time schedule
impact of developmentai projects (eg, irigation project) on the development of the project area. work as hindrance to their wortk.
Schedule. The programme staff tend to see data-collection
Suchinan defines evaluation as "

determination of the results attained

a
by some activity (whether Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice
programme, a drug or a therapy
objective."13
or an
approach) designed to accomplish some valued goal or 14. Wiss, Carol, Evaluation Research: Methods of Assessing Program Effectiveness,
Hall, 1972, pp. 6-8. 1972, pp. 3-4.
Research in Social Sciences, Morristown
N.J. General Learning Press,
13. Suchman, Edvard A., Evaluative Research, New . Coleman, James, Policy
York: ussell S«ge Foundation, 1967,
pp. 31-32.
 SCIENCES

RESEARCH
IN SOCIAL
M E T H O D O L O G Y
OF
inherent in evaluationst

oroject While a
40 conflicts are
results, the pra TYPES AND METHODS
Fifth,
researcher-programme

interested in objective
personnel
evaluation and public
for
dissemination

in-house u s e
ot

only.
personh OF

3.7 ACTION RESEARCH

RESEARCH
researcher is meant
results should be
evaluation of research in
expect that
the
differ from
other types
m
method, techodo,
Meanin9

not

chniques Aogy
does
evaluation research and r e s e a r c h ction rescarch 1s a type ot evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study or an e fion
Nevertheless,
and operationalization Ac

The problems
of reliability. validity of research. rapramme launched for solving a problem/for improving an existing situation.
other types
evaluation and
to
principles are common
for
development, advancement, excellence and promotion of welfare of people,
In the quest
government, institutions
ent, institu and
voluntary agencies undertake action programmes for
Design and Measurement

researcher must plan his design as

to probe deeper
into the
lowing question,
followina
objectives.
r
Land
rerorm acnev
programmes, agricultural extension programmes. social
werar
An evaluation
of the programme to be evaluatted? goals
rammes, human resource development
the objectives programmes, managerial improvement programmes, ua
.What is the nature of content of elooment programmes, programmes for improving the quality of life in factories and otfices, etc.
2. Are the objectives unitary
or mulniple eame examples of action programmes. This plethora of development programme has given impeiu
the objectives to be achieved? coaction research. with the pressing need to assess the relative effectiveness of different approaches
3. How are
or the worthwhileness of one goal as against another, research has been called upon
programme? he same goal
4. Who is the target of the
play a closer and relevant role for action. The criterion of relevance for action is of critical
5. When is the desired change to take place? in action research.
importance
6. What is the desired magnitude of effect? of Action Research
reach the target group? Typologies
7. Do the benefits really Prospero R. Covar" categorizes action research into five types.
side effects of the programme?
8. What are the unintentional efjfects or
is concerned with one or more of the followin Type I: Classical design: Research and action are separate and independent. The connection
The evaluation researcher's operationalizaion wing hetween research and action is not purposely sought. It may occur by chance. Action programme
indicators: research finding. The researcher may not deliberately gear his work
agency may not know/use the
I. Efforn or activity (i.e., input) variables.
toward contributing to the effectiveness of an action programme.
2. Performance or programme output in terms of the policy objectives. Type I1: Interdependence of action and research: Action is caried out by an agency not
research
3. Adequacy of performance (one common index of adequacy is "the rate of effectiveness connected with a research institution. Research on action may be entrusted to an independent scientist
launch a development programme and a university social
body. For example, government may
the number of people exposed to the programme") may be welcomed to study
the on-going programme. The researcher may include in his report a
4. Eficieney- but he
a measure
of benefit-cost. section on implications for action, and give a copy of the report to the implementing agency,
5. Process measures why the programme is successful or unsuccessful. had no further obligation to the action programme.
A few types of special designs suitable for evaluation research are: Type III: Evaluate research built into an action programme: In this case, research is dependent

1. action, and the action people define the scope of the research.
Social audis: These useful
of geting at process and efficiency. They aim a
area means upon
action programme are designed and
examining: How much of resource inputs actually reaches the intended recipients in some Type IV: Action for research: Here the activities of the the
form (i.e., cash of research. For example, a researcher may wish to test
subsidy,
food and clothing for flood victims)? Of that portion which does modified to carry out tests of hypothesis
planning information: personal
not reach them, where does this loss of
input go? Does the intended change take place? Etc. relative effectiveness of three different methods of introducing family
2. contact with the wife, personal contact with both
husband and wife, and impersonal contact thrugh
Benefit-cost analysis: This is made in
order to measure the programme efticiency ana each approach
measure its o the media alone. For this research purpose, a family planning programme
applying
effectiveness by comparison with alternative mass
has tw be
programmes. This analysis depends to different groups of couples with similar
characteristics and under similar circumstances
on
availability of reliable and validdata. Monetary costs can be carried
social costs are
purely speculative. easily estimated, but many launched. Thus, the research requirements dictate
how the action will be out.
For example, how could one
anguishes rape, the emotional costs of
of financially measure Research-cum-action: Action and research go together as a joint endeavour.
Researcher

rationally dealt with, e.g., the social costs of assault or murder? Some social costs can De Type V: on it. Once the
action programme and research
total and decision makers jointly design and launch the
out
of injury could be measured in terms of disability of an industrial employer arisimg and action launched, they
record what happens under specified
power and the loss of his society's loss of the disabled operational design is completed
potential tax amount. wo person's conditions. They may vary the conditions
if they want.
chman, Edward, op. cit., p. 63. The Agricultural Development
Council. 1972,
See Castillo, Research and the Action Program, Singapore:
Pp. 1-5.
 SCIENCES
TYPES AND METHO0S OF RESEARCH
SOCIAL nplementing pep
ME TODNNOGY OF RESEARCHIN the of acton

s u c c e s s
of the action research depends on conperation
The
is of the action programme.
ontion in Action Research
designed
p r o g r a m m e

Ganguly'" in the
and the bencficiarics

action
an Akhilesh and
As
the following questions as proposed Model developed and adopted by (1980) prov
Wh rmnh always has an cvaluative
component.
Action Rescarch participation and
communication
programme
Development through
N R ANI° hage, an xthn eseanh usually stuie zational embodies six major step
action research. This model
o n O r g a n i z a t i

a good
llustration for
llustration

developing
change
programme

of diagnostic information. (3) plannin

( 1 )D i a g n o s i s ,
(2) sharing and communication proc S
implementation of participation
t WAar s that has changod of organizational change, (5) to solve the
actual proDie
itiation evaluation. This action research attempted
n Nad has changed (e^tent)? (4) init post-experimental at Bangalore through partucipatio
organisation
perceived gap between
(6) sector
in a large publiC
A n quik has it changed (rate) r k situation successful in bridging the as
researcn
work
This research was mostly the action

before andafter
the
unication
programme.
desired and demonstrated
the e fficacy of
ww the mditions a n d tne system
a practiced
the stimuli that induced change he System
approach
to o r g a n i z a t i o n
development.
A R wer
effective 3.8 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
an
aWhat arumad during the transition
mechanisms did change occur
thrugh what in cnange and operational
particular point development
I n t r o d u c t i o n

stabilization at a such motivation, productivity,

as the effect
h a t brught various phenomena to a s s e s s
are become necessary
observed in the change? focus of
evaluation. They are: There
are i n f l u e n c e d by various variables. It may
This need has given
rise to
Can directionality he which can be the which
variables on a phenomenon.
areas.
eficiency, or one set of
variable
indicate the problem particular
questions of one
e on
intended
recipienis. experimental research.

Lmpact of the programme

on the
intended
recipients.
effect
variables on a
phenomenon
of the programmes
Meaning9
(5)
Extent
impact of effects. the effects of particular to
whether and
assessin w h a r
about the
undergo change. research is designed
(C)Time
involved in bringing
which are
supposed
to Experimental It aims at determining
constant or
controlled. factors is called
variables, the other variables influenced. by
other
(dBefore-after
measures
of the that took place
between the before-and-a
by keeping related to each other.
The factor, which is variables.
variables are
influence it, are
known as independent
and processes
variable and the
of the events manner
other factors, which
(e)
ldentification
variable, and the hectare is a dependent
a dependent i.e., crop yield per which influence
measures.
of the programme. agricultural productivity, and cultural practices
marter o r
content For example, quality of seed, manuring
of the subject such as soil fertility, irngation,
(T) Analysis of the
programme.
factors
and operational
aspects variables.
structural are independent variables is perceived
(g)Organizational, the yield variables and dependent them.
between independent
Factors in thechange
introduced.
programme. The of relationshipnature controlled procedure
is adopted to test
(h) of the
observed relative to
the objectives
the form of causal hypothesis. A closely of Chapter 5, below.
(i) Direction of the changes and stated in described in detail in
Section 5.4 Hypothesis
The testing of
the hypothesis is
Action Research
The Phases in the Characteristics of
action research are: Procedure
in of the
The different phases in the
terms
selected. These should
be 'identical' farmland
Two identical groups
are plots of two
(1) a baseline survey of the pre-action situation; in a farm productivity experiment, should
under study. For example, and s a m e irrigation facility
the phenomenon same climate
(2) a feasibility study of the proposed action programme; soil fertility, same size,
with same soil composition,
(3) planning and launching the programme; be selected for the study. control group. Experimental
and the other as to the
(4) concurrent evaluation of the programme; used as experimental group, is not exposed
One of the groups is Control group
(5) making modifications and changes in the programme and its method of implementation " variable or stimatulus. o u t c o m e is
to an experimental and control groups'
group is exposed the experimental
the light of the research findings; and difference between
experimental variable. The variable.
(6) final evaluation, if the programme is time-bound. attributed to the effect of the experimental Programme
& Communication
Through Participation
"Organization Development 549-561.
18. 19. Akhilesh K.B., and T. Ganguly, Vol. 17, No.4, 1982, pp.
Hinkle, Roscoe C. "Howard Beer's Approach
1961, pp. 155-180.
to Social Change", The Sociological Quarterly, Vol. 2, NO. S,
Indian Journal of Industrial
Relations,
-A case study",
 SCIENCES

SOCIAL
RESEARCH
IN
OF 5

ication
applicati
METHODOLOGY

of TYPES AND METHO0S OF RESEAPCH

the impact ot
desires to study a parnie
llustration:
An agricultural
scientist

of a crop. 1. After-oniy desgn:

i nis is the
simplest type of experimental design The effect
on a
0epe
yicld l e (Y) is assessed by measuring it in hoth experimental (E> and control (O groups ve the
fertility,
climate, iriga
cli.
urea) on the
conditions-soil
(say
fertilizer
farm. All variabl

application exper1ment
cited aboVC
n
chemical

selects two
identical plots of land
in
Thus, all
a
vanables
are kept
constant.
exposed to an
independent variable (X).
is measured in both E
In a
fertilzer
over. The
aie
He the only. vicld (Y) and C plots, after the experiment is
are
the same. fertilizer.
This is
variation be of chemical fertilizer
seed,
cultural
practice-
chemical
of the chemi
to the
applicatic
(X).
In the
experimental plot alone. he applied
in yield is
a t t r i b u t a b l e to
the application
ewe
mical fertilia attributcd Measurement after ExperimenfullOn

difference experimental groun

plots.
Hence the control and For Xan E Ye
used as both
the two
be proPra
group may
menmber-education

single effect of
a
In cases. a
know the
tion of eon C Yc
selects of members.
some
w a n t s to a c r o s S section
extension
worker He s e l c c t s
of a cooperative.
2 cooperative

cooperative knowledge
of the members
and e x t e n t of
cooperative knowledge
of the
edge ge. The = Ye -

Yc

The
Difference

m e a s u r e s the type Knowledge. E and C. measuring

group is used
their as
random. He
differen design: In this design the
measures
again before-after same
a society at 2. One group
He
programme.
researcher wants to
evaluate
he
group has been exposed to X. Suppose
member-education
a
them to a and atter, tne
exposes
to the programme. before He may this second
employ
be attributed attitudes towards drinking and driving.
effectiveness a im in cnanging
can or
in knowledge before and a r t e r
The change test
in score on anon the attitude given target group
of design.
Conditions
the condidons required for an rimental study ma
experiaental yp
pee
the film
measures the film's effect.
From an analysis of the above proce ure. seeing
After
Before
be identified. They are in nhs exists
groups. This possibility
identical
for selecting exactly with human life. It is dif
1. It should be possible sciences, which deal
Target GrOup
sciences. but not so in social
and natural
We may get approximately
similar groups
to find exactly
identical groups of persons. only Difference = Y2 - Y

both the E and C groups

are
This is ensured in phve with control group: In this design.
should be amenable for experimentation. 3. Before-after design ones. This
2. The target groups to experimentation This is better design than the previous
be willing to be Subject and after E is exposed to X.. a
But human
sciences. may not always
beings measured before
of extraneous factors occurring during time period.
all the independent variables
that affect the depene eliminates the impact
3. It should be possible to identif not in social phenomena After
ensured in physical sciences, but Before
variables under study. This again is
mind and behaviour is limited. Ye
our knowledge of human
as Ye
4. It should be possible to keep non-experimental variables
study effec constant so as to the YC YC
controls over the subject variable
of experimental variables on the phenomenon. Such close
are possible in laboratory experimentation. But they are almost impossible in human life Difference in E = YeYe D
situations, which are dynamic 'and complex. Thus, strictly controlled experimentation i Difference in C =

Ye -Ye
=
De
Net Difference D. - D
rarely feasible with human beings.
Research
Nevertheless, useful and fairly valid experimental research is possible in several areas of social Evaluation of Experimental difficult to
sciences such economic development, welfare programmes, social education, teaching technology is complicated. It is
in social science research
as

industrial and agricultural finance, The use of experimental designs limits to experimentation
among
political administration,
and It is
management of enterprises and institutions establish comparable experimental
and control groups. There are
time consuming. It
can be
so on.
possible to achieve reasonable degree of validity by adopting appropriate techniques it is expensive and
human beings. Experiment
is often difficult to design; or the future.
as explained in Section 5.6: Measurement of
Chapter 5, below. for studies of the past
and cannot be used
used to study the present only, can equal
Types of Experimental Designs No other method
has certain unique advantages. The effect of
The Nevertheless, experimentation between variables.
major types
of experimental
designs are: and in studying
causal relationships
experimentation in objectivity than in other designs-
1. After-only design in experimental design
extraneous variables can be controlled more effectively social values.
2. One means for testing
group Before-after design AbOve all, an experimental design offers a

3. Before-after design with control

group.
 S C I E N C E S

SOCIAL
R E S E A R C H
IN
OF TYPES AND METHODS OF
METHODOLOGY

RESEARC
16
Quasi-Experimental Designs to
Rosenbecrg,
may be
classificd
classified into follow, 3.9 ANALYTICAL STUDY OR STATISTICAL METHOD
according
scientists.
studicd by Meaning
The relationships
charactenized by an
independent
pecific
spDes

bete ex Analytical study 1 a system of procedures and techniques of analysis applied to quantta
kinds: Iu is fo it, C.g.,
Telationships Iu may consist of a system of mathematical models or statistical techniques applicable t o nune
1.
Stimulus-response
relationship:

variable being a particular

response

patterns.
rewa data.
data. Hence, i t is alsco known as the Statistical Method. (For detailed discussion see chape
data.
with a dependent consumption
and Statistical Analysis
Variable

and
satistaction:
between
advertisement

involves an
observation
of a single group
at

à study of a
one
point
rural
no:

in tim, Statl
This co
One- shot case study:
have produced
change, e-B., Un Aim
2. a general election
on.
supposed to system
arter
aims at testing hypothesis and specifying and interpreting relationships. It concentrates
This study
event
to a n political
study of
a
usually subsequent ove analyzing data in depth and examining relationships from various angles by bringing in as n a
programme: It has no control
rural development therefore,
after a time of study: variakin on
at the of the independent variables as possible in the analysis plan.
what exists
This is study only of manipulation
allow for Further, a case study analyses a single nn relevant
before-after or control-experimental
a
group
Besides. it does
notcomparison. nus
factors.
and intrinsic
on internal validity and ple Uses
no checks numerical
as well. It has
also
exploratory research This method is extensively used in business and other fields in which quantitative
generalization userul in as sociauon
System, it is weak on
However, this study is t is usea for measuring variables, comparing groups and examining
causal relations. predominant design e data are génerated.
little
use in testing correlation design):
This is the most employ between factors.
in survey
3.
research. It is study
Cross-section an attempt
(or to approximate the after-only control group design by usin pter 1
Data may be collected from either primary sources or secondary sources
correlation and
analysis.(see Chant multi-variate

tabulations and statistical

techniques like There is vast scope for making analytical studies by using data published by various Departments
NABARD,
Statistical Analysis. below) and institutions like the Reserve Bank of India, Bureau of Public Enterprise,
their background characteristics of Government
drawn and data relating Central Statistical Organization.
A sample individuals is
of For example, to test a hypothesis: "the k and
collected from them.
under study are Vs. Experimental Research
dependent variables
socio-economic status."
Data may be collected
from a sample of famiki Analytical Study
with
nei is that the former rey
rates vary inversely
socio-economic levels; the
relations between
variables may be studied by
using One way todistinguish Analytical studies from experimental research or from
belonging to various time order of direction of of data generally collected in a natural or real-life setting
The important limitation
of this analysis is that the heavily on the post-facto-analysis
corelation technique. studies, analytical studies are characterized by rigorous
requirements of
records. Unlike descriptive
causation be easily determined.
cannot
to the model of an experimental design.
variation of the corelational design.
It provides partial measurement and analysis, and design approximated
4. Ex-post-facto-design: This is a
or qafter-the-event study. It looks from the 3.10 HISTORICAL RESEARCH
solution to the time order problem. This is retrospective
past to the present.
It requires information about the past by asking retrospective questions regarding an earlie Meaning
a view to
and other information sources with
period. For example, an investigator desiringg to assess the effect of a family planning publicity Historical study is a study of past records
institution or a movement or a system
and discovering
of
reconstructing the origin and development
an
programme on theartiude of women could ask them about their present views as well as about thei
the trends in the past.
views before their exposure to the publicity programme. The drawback of this approach is the bias inference and logical
arising out of respondent's memory distortions. A partial solution is to introduce checks for detecting It is descriptive in It is a difficult task; it must often depend upon
nature.
evidences rather than upon direct observation. Hence, it is aptly
gross inaccuracies in the memory of respondents. analysis of recorded data and indirect forces which have
research into the past and social
described as "the induction of principles through
shaped the present."

Objective understand
20. Rosengberg, Morris, The Logic of Survey from the past trends in order to
For
Analysis, New York: Basic Books, 1968. Its objective is to draw explanations and generalizations the past and to
detailed discussion of our relationship with
a more
experimental research, see (1) Donald T. Campbell and Julian C. the present and to anticipate the
future. It enables us to grasp
erimental and
Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research, Chicago: Rand Stanely contains the key to the present
and the past and the-
Aronson and JM. Carlsmith, "Experimentation is Social McNally & Co., 1963; (4) plan for the future. The past
intelligently organis-
in visualizing the society as a dynamic
more
Handbook of Social Psychology, Reading, Psychology",
in G. Lindzey and E. Aronson (eds.) Historical study helps us
Mass: Addison
Wesley Publishing Co., 1968, (3) present influences the future. change and transformatior
Experimental Design in Social Research, New York: F. Stuart Cnapn steadily growing and undergoing
Harper && Row Publishers, 1955. and its structures and functions as evolving,
 sCIENCES
METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL

Sources of Dato
of (1) eyewitness accounte
The sources for historical research consists
of data tYPes
actual observer or an cvent. (2) oral testimony by
participant in
clders, (3) records and ohe Ather, in historical research. AND ME THEDS F RESEAR
may be scattered and U
materials and (4) relics. The data available from thc
above sources

and so should be studied with n evertheless, a thorough and prerise

and drawing inferences
menrurements,
systematie historieai venficaisnis and replicabon e
and fragmented. Personal accounts are mostly subjective past for the o sside.
and coroborated with documentary evidences. The origin
and genuineness of the sou c present and stady is of immenee use in
and examined. Their authent future nderstanon the
contained in them should be critically tested
facts authentic sources should be depended upon for collection of data. It i
be tested.of Only
validity 3.11 SUvTS
t is essential Meaning
check and cross-check the data from as many sources as possible. Survey isa fact
finding study. t is
Steps in Historical Method population or
froma a p a
sample thereof at
a
method of
research invoving
routine of gathering and tabulating figures.particular time. t colection of data
First, the feasibiliry of the study should be examined. The researcher should see It
requires
must not be
confused widh he mere dsrecuy
clernca
wh and rational interpretation of the
findings, expert and imaginaive plannung,
selected problem lends itself to histonical analysis. It should be one of tracing and describine pla careful nalysis
Data may be collected by
or relating to the recent past to draw out its significance for the present and the future. It sho p observation, or
be feasible in terms of his research ability, time and cost.
The analysis of
data may be made by interviewing
or
mailing qpestioanaires.
upon the objectives of the study. using simple or
complex statistical techoiques depeog
Second. the selected problem should beformulared and the plan of study should be
Third, the sources af data should be located. designed The Characteristics of
The survey method has certain
Survey Method
Fourth. and the validity of the facts contained in them shoule characteristics:
the genuineness of the sources
ould be 1. It is always conducted in
tested.
a natural setting. it is a field study.
2. It seeks responses directly from the
Fifth, relevant facts should be collected from the authentic sources and they should be chea respondents
and cross-checked. hecked 3. It can cover a
very large population, thanks to
sampling techniqpes.
4. A survey may involve
an extensive
Sixth, the facts should be arranged into a logical sequence and this synthesis of facts is the bad a wider sample. An intensive one
study or an intensive study. An extensive stody coveTs
covers a few
for rebuilding of the past situation. samples and tends to
ends; where generalization or estimation is "dig deeper.
These two
approaches serve different
Last, by adopting induction process meaningful interpretations and generalizations should approach is useful, but where one wants to make an necessary. the extensive
indepth study of some aspects ot a
made. subject-matter, the intensive approach is preferable.
5. A survey covers a definite
The quality of a historical study depends on the relevance, adequacy and completeness of fac geographical area a city, or a district or a state.
collected, their reliability, and the ingenuity of the researcher in classifying and integrating them and The quality of a survey depends upon the thoroughness of the planning. the soundness of
in drawing inferences. sampling, the adequacy and reliability of data, the quality of analysis and the interpretation of the

Limitations and Difficulties aboie spinoleth findings.

As the historical
Steps Involved in a Survey
study is concerned with the past, reliable and adequate data may not be
available. The remoter is the past, the greater is the The sequence of the tasks involved in carrying out a survey from the first of planning to the
difficulty in obtaining relevant facts. final stage of preparing the report is presented below:
It is also dificult to test the
genuineness and authenticity of sources and the data available from
them. Personal biases and 1. Selection of a problem and its formulation,
private interpretations often enter unconsciously.bn ol
It isdificult to establish the time order of events. 2. Preparation of the research design,
n gdt be
The records available are not 3. Operationalisation of concepts and construction of measuring indezec d salec,
kept in the order and with the precision that a researcher expecis
Hence, his inferences may not be full or accurate. 4. Sampling,
The dispersal their pre-test,
of documents
is another limitation. The researcher 5. Construction of tools for collection of data and
all documents. may not succeed in locaing
6. Field work and collection of data,
It is difficult to perceive the real significance of the data because of their 7. Processing of data and tabulation,
remote time period
 SCIENCES
SOCIAL
RESEARCH
IN
M E T H O D O L O G Y
OF

TYPES AND METHODS OF 51

50
AESEARCH
and

8. Analysis
of data. Demographic characteristics include
family composition, marital status, fertlhty a
tion c e n s u s is primarily
census primarily on the demographic aspects of people. All social surveys inciudes some
relevant chapters Population
9. Reporting detail in the demographic aspects.
discussed
in
are
steps
All these
Social environment covers all social factors, housing conditions and social amenities and soCal
of Surveys institutions.
Purposes
The
purposes:
several sure Surveys of opinions and attitudes deal with various issues (e.g., direct Vs. indirect election or
Survey
serves

such as population governmApe

census,
sOCIO-economic

eys, expenditun ead of government, systems (e.g.. democracy) and schemes and programmes (e.g.. fami
of many surveys information to nt ot plannen
. The purpose etc.. is simple
provide to the he
marketing surveys
descripiive purpose. In short. ort, al
all planning).
surveys.

or business
These surveys
enterprises.
surveys-have this purpose.
have a

hu
fact-findina People's activities refer to 'what people do', e.g,, use of leisure time, newspaper reading, ana
people's behaviour is concerned with their consumption pattern, life-style, organizatuona
Their function is to test ereation etc.
hypothe
recre

certain phenomena. dynamics etc.

aim to explain the influences behaviour, group
2. Many enquiries between variables
and to assess

relationships Economic conditions include occupation, income. saving, investment, assets, etc.,
explain the causal labour productivity and o y
factors on a given
phenomenon like job-satisfaction, units reter to shops, business firms, financial institutions, etc. Economic system may
at explanation involve indepth analysis and Economic
behaviour. Surveys aiming to capitalism, cooperative system, socialism and mixed economy.
refer
interpretations.
Fields of Application
of demographic groups (e.g., comparis
to make comparisons
3. Surveys may be designed
or real groups, e.g, work groups in fo
method
income groups) subject-matter of surveys, it is apparent that the survey
From the above discussion of the
low income groups with high
can also be made. For exa to various fields and
disciplines such as sociology, economics, behavioural sciences,
of behavioural or attitudinal groups is applicable
or offices. Comparison
workers toward the company may be comma
example,| science, public health, commerce and management. Surveys may be considered to be belonging
in a factory. the attitudes of high-production
workers.
ompared political
to a particular discipline like sociology or economics or political science. Surveys of group belonging,
with the attitudes of low-production of family life etc., belong to sociology; studies of income, expenditure,
ana
useful for making predictio leader-follower relations,
4. Surveys concerned with and effect relaiionships can be
cause
may be classified as economic surveys; studies of voting, of participation in political
movements
between income increases and purchase of durable goods a saving
For example. relationships
established in ifa consumer behaviour survey, a prediction about future demand for durahia of political attitudes of people belong to political science. And
so on.
nd
are essentially interdisciplinary
be made. A survey Such classification, however, are somewhat arbitrary. All surveys
goods with reference to anticipated income increases can of people's to the integration of separate disciplines. For example, economic or political surveys
future plans and intentions is another approach to make predictions. This is one of the and contribute
have something to do with people's sociological or psychological aspects.
methods adopted for demand forecasts. of social and
Survey research has no specific disciplinary anchor point. Specialists in all fields
fields. It also provides data for
The Subject-matter of Surveys behavioural sciences use it. It broadens the empirical base of various

All aspects of human behaviour, social institutions, economic system, and business undertakings interdisciplinary analysis.
used
and applied research. They are extensively
lend themselves to surveys. The subject matter of surveys may be broadly categorized into:
Surveys can be used as a tool for both basic and programmes
and by policy-makers in govermment both for formulating plans
A: Social Surveys by planning bodies in their
method is also widely used by business enterprises
and for evaluating them. The survey effectiveness
1. Demographic charactenistics of environment, training needs,
group of people research on markets, consumer preferences and buying habits,
a

2. Social environment of people of advertisement and the like.

to the growth of knowledge
3. People's opinions and attitudes Above all, the survey method makes a very significant contribution
4. People's behaviour in social sciences.
and activities.
without the modern
social sciences would have been impossible
B: Economic Surveys Many outstanding researches in
1. Survey method.
Economic conditions of
people Census Vs. Sample
2.
Working of economic units Coverage of Surveys: census survey. If the
universe. Then it is called a
3.
Operations of cover all the units of a given
an economic system. A Survey may
is called sample survey. ((See chapter 6: Sampling).
Survey covers afraction of the universe, then it
 SCIENCES

RESEARCH
IN sOCIAL
METHODOLOGY OF
52 Wel as a broad sen
selected
universc
as
egmen o
TYPES ANO
METHODS OF 53
small, highly
exompie,
Such speciali
alized RESEARCH
Survey may
cover a
stvdied.
For
sample survey designed to represent
A

Populaion depending
on the nature of the problems
managenial
style of top
business cxec
o
stdudies
ives, a study i e adequate
representation 1o population a
over wider
2EvEa
a

as a study of political
leadership. study of
specific
seleelea
sma universe.
he o This means that the intluences any population characteristic, whicn hly localized.
location etc., cover only a cOnsumer behavi
othe a national survey of specific local social groups cannot be ed through
Tactors aftecting industrial expenditure parem, asse
studies, survey of as samntud
hand, general surveys like poverty
of population
and are usuay Oesigned le 7 The survey method alone 1s
inadequate
along method veys
credit surveys,
ne development
sound lines much easier.
erc.. broad segments
cover
of large-scale sampling
methods has
made
1act-colecng

methodologicaly .
ganisation.
Survey is
very
expensive
It is also not

in terms
well
suited to studies of
historical
of time and cost. Hence, an
to analyse adequately the complex
development.
fabtIc
o
social

carry out an extensive survey out of his individual cannot aftora

Research resources.
Advantages/Merits of Survey
The major advantages of a survey method ar 3.12 CASE STUDY
strength. It is
the. only practica
is its greatest Meaning9
1. The versatility of the survey
information from
method
individuals, such
as personal characternstics, ay
Dersonal charactenistic soci to A case study 1s an
in-depih
collect many Dpes of expectations. comprehensive study of a person, a social group. an
experiences and process, aa
situation,
situat a
programme, a community, an institution or episode, a
economic data. attitudes. opinions,

2. The survey method facilitates drawing

generalizations
about
pulations
large populations on the
the
basis It is one of the most popular
types of research methods. Its
any other soCial unit.

svcle of the unit under study or the interaction between factorspurpose may understand be to tne
of studies of representative sample. that explain the present
the use of variouS
methoas of collection of data: h development over a period or time. Some examples of a case status o
3. The survey method is flexible to permit study are: a
social-anthropological
observation interviewing and mailing. eudy of a rural or tridal community: a causative study of a successful
ofthe financial
health of a business cooperative society: a study
unanticipated or unknown problems. The collectio.
tion of undertaking; a study of labour participation in management
4. Surveys sensitize the researcher to
or mailing often uncovers facts previ
a particular enterprise, a
stuay or juvenile delinquency; a ia
of study life-style of working women:
data from respondents through interviewing
unknown to the researcher.
previously v of slum dwellers;
study
a
study of urban poor, a
study of economic offenses; a study of refugees fTom
another country.
5. Surveys are useful instruments for verifving theones
Functions
Limitations The case study method describes a case in terms
of its peculiarities. It
Although survey method is a research instrument of great versatility and extensive application gives us an insight into
the typical or extreme cases whose
unique features are not reflected by the usual statistical method.
it has certain limitations:
A case study helps to secure a wealth of information about the unit of
1. Survey method is primarily meant for collection of data fram primary sources: clues and ideas for further research. It
study, which may provide
households and institutions; hence
individuals, provides an
opportunity for the intensive analysis of many
of the respondents.
its feasibility depends upon the willingness and cooperation specific details that are overlooked in other methods.

It examines complex factors involved in a given situation

2. A sample survey is subject to sampling error. (See Section 6.5 of operating in it.
so as to identify causal factors
must be interpreied in the
Chapter 6). Its findings
light of this error.
A case study aims at studying
3. The survey method depends
primarily on verbal behaviour. The everything about something rather than something about everything
respondent can give untrue as in the case of a statistical method.
or
misleading answers. Hence, a survey is
7.10 of Chapter 7). subject to response errors. (See Sections 7.8 and While in statistical
a
approach the "individual' disappears from the analysis,
in a case study the
4. A
survey is also subject to the individual" representing the 'wholeness' is
preserved, as it is an approach which views any social
abilities, behaviour and other errors of measurement implicit in unit as a
whole. Thus, study gives us a total view of a
personal traits. (See Section 6.5 of quantifying attitudes,
a case
unit or a clear insight into a situation
5. There is or process in its total
a limit of the number
of items of Chapter 6). setting. Thus, the perspective of a case study is both qualitative and organic.
survey. There is
optimal length of time for
an information that can be
collected in a Single
It gives an overall
generic picture of a problem.
weariness sets in. Hence an
interview. Beyond that
level of respondents. the extent of data The case study, as a research method, often
requirement should be delimited point, interview employs more techniques than one. Thus, for tracing
to the
tolerance
a
developmental process, it uses historical method, it employs descriptive method where a factual
picture is needed, it employs interviewing, mail
data, it looks to statistics for testing
questionnaire, check lists, rating scales, etc., to gather
hypotheses.
 SCIENCE3

R E S E A R C H

INSOCIAL
METHODOLOGY
OF d e v e l o p m e n t
of a
Social unit under
sociol

Because or TYPES AND

to
ascertain
the generic

culural
setting. aid in study ME THO0S OF RE
SEARCH4
study is within its as "the
cial microscope
so.
Case studies may
method
of a case e Conaucted in
The aim its life study
that
moulded
termed
the case
practically any kind of social settung
revealing
the factors detail,
Burgess therapeulie
purposes,
C'ase studies offer
specifie instances of tests of
and
in specific,
precise theories
hypothe
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e

behaviour
sometimes
to
es to be 5. Case study is a highly fruitful approa
diagnostic,
process analysis
as
is most
valuable for comdusion
and
concepts.
teste against the analysis ot OCh
individual for the purpone of group or

ideas,
sometimes
leading
to

concepts
o r testing
eXISting traits
alone.
develops new
Case studies give to the
researcher a wider range of
useful for developing insights into human Iife, which canno
also be he gained through a general survey.
may ina.
Vs. Survey study
or a supplementary
invest
Case Study independent the
intensitu8tion. 3.13 FIELD STUDIES
may
be
conducted as a n
study
and a Survey
lie in
and depth o
Case study between a case
distinctions Meanin9

The primary
Survey.
coveras phenomenon,
a case studv
udy is an Field studies are
sCIenturic enguiries aimed at
discovering the relations and interactions
investigation
and its
broad based
investigation
of a
intensiye psychological and educational variables in social institutions and actual life among
:al,
ommunities, schools, factories, organizations and institutions. A social or institutionalsituauons
While a survey
is a
1.
nvestigation. -all u n i t s of
units or a universe o
universe orr a sample
sample ofthe.n, bu situation
a large number of
unitsall lected and the relations among the attitudes, values. perceptions and behaviours of individuais
ups in the selected situation are studied. Some examples of field studies are: Dollard's
covers
2. A survey univgroup
is a study of a single representative stuay
a case study
can be generalized
when it is
d a s e a on a
sample ofcaste and classina southem town," Malinowski's investigations of the Trobriand Islanders
3. The findings of a study c a n n o t be
generalized. .d's study of Middletown*", Jone's study of the socio-economic basis of class in Aknon, Onio
of a c a s e study Kanitkau's study of land and labour in a Deccan village25, Aiyyappan's study of soclat
whereas the findings
about large social aggregates, a c-
case
resting hypotheses Kerala village.27
for revolution in
a
is useful procedural characteristico
4. While a survey
hypotheses about
he structural and
is useful for testing
behaviour, managerial style)
of a specific sociaB unit (e8 Field Study
Vs. Surveys
status relation. interpersonal
is not to
organisation, a
smal group or a
community).
Although it easy
a
draw fine
logical distinction between survey and field study, there
are nractical differences between them. First, a survey attempts to be representative of the universe
Disadvantages/Limitations under study and thus calls for an adeyuate and representative sample. This emphasis on sampling
study are:
The major disadvantages/limitation
of case
may or may not be found in a tield study, because it is more concerned with a thorough account of
studies is generalizability. As co their limited the processes under study than with their ypicality in a large universe.
1. The most prominent disadvantage of case
cases, they are not sufficient
for making meaningtul generalizations to larger Second, while a field study aims at directly studying the interrelations of the parts of social
studies of stray
social aggregates. structure of a single community or a singie group, a survey aims at covering a larger universe, and
2. Case studies are generally more time-consuming than surveys. it may indirectly deal with social and psychological processes, through inference from the statistical

3. Case study method is inadequate for an analysis of macro-problems. analysis rather than through direct observation, thus, field study will provide a more detailed natural
picture of social interrelations of the group than does a survey.
4. The danger of investigator's over-confidence is more in a case study. This leads to varioUs
biases such as errors of perception, judgement and over-emphasis of unusual events, Types of Field Studies
unwaranted extrapolation, and ad hoc theorizing and sweeping generalizations. Katz2 has classified field studies into (1) anthropological studies and (2) quantitative field
studies. In an anthropological study, the researcher lives in the selected community, observes its
Merits
The merits of
people, talks with them at great length, and thus gains a thorough insight into the social structure of
a case
study method far exceeds its limitations.
22. Dollard, J., Caste and Class in a Southern Town, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1937.
1. Case studies flexible with respect to data collection
are
methods. All methods of data 23. Malinowski, B., Crime and Custom in Savage Sociery, New York: Harcourt, 1926.
collection are useful to case studies.
2. A case
24. Lynd, R.S. and H.M. Lynd, Middletown, New York: Harcourt, 1929
study can extend virtually to any dimension 25. Jones, A. W., Life, Liberty and Property, New York: Lippincott, 1941.

be shudied or specific aspects may be emphasized. of the topic studied. All aspects may 26. Mann, H.H., and N.v. Kanitkau, Land and Labour in a Deccan Village, New Delhi: Oxford
27. Aiyyappan, A., Social Revolution in a Kerala Village- A Sudy in Cultural Change, Madras: Asia Publishing
University Press.
21.
"Research
The
Methods inSociology", in Georges Gurvitch and Ww.s. House, 1965.
Philosophical Library, 1949, pp. 25-26. Moore, 'eds.), Twentieth Century 28. Katz, Daniel, "Field Studies" in Seon Festinger and Daniel Katz, Research Methods in the Behavioural Sciences,
Sociog New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966, pp. 56-97.
 SCIENCES
SOCIAL
IN
RESEARCH

OF
the anthopologiccal approach
METHODOLOGY

and ideologies. But TYPES AND METHODS OF 57

56 and AESFEARCH
culture elations,

life,
and the
people"'s vanables
and

ap
sis of materials: Data from observations and interview
es to correlation analysis. Correlation coefficients show the responses
a
the community of specific employ's
quantitative

and in
nature of relationsnP *etween
sudy
meas
m e a s u r e m e n t

field Collco
ot
alm at precise
social-psvhological
research
on
benmington
a
se them By holding factors constant, the
relationships studied
tative studyntain
variabl are
On the
other hand. a Newcomb's conclusions of a quas
1he

and their
interrelationships.

tye of
study. A d v a n t a g e s

vanables
for this
an example
conmuninis There are certain natural advantages of field studies. First, a field study tends to continue over
college
other investigator ved yby UlliZing
utilizing anthronol
anthropological an.
be readily
confirmed by can be rèsonved
a whole can be a period of time,
od of
and so t is possible to maintain
continued observation, ascertaining the timing
Or
approached as
undamental relationship s grasped.
the These insights the
two can yield hypotheses which co dicdnity &
sinuauon

conflict
The
between

in a field
In this stage,
study.
can be tested by and certain variables.

Second. a field study provides opportunity for direct observation of inte raction and of socia
as the initial stage study of a p r orocessing muni in about these
shu their natural occurrence. In only make inferences
quantitative study.
In the
F e s t i n g e r - S c h a c h t e r - B a c k

approach.
he imtial
aropological
anthropological
study serves a
derived from
elationships
but cannot directly observe them.
a survey, we can

detailed

was employed. In
the
combined

study
tests
hypotheses
the exploralon factors,
A third advantage of a field study is the possibility of going beyond measures obtained ron
procedure
quantitative
the subsequent
exploratory stage and ngle instrument. The correlations from a single measuring instrument may be influenced by some
i n its application. A field study permits the obtaining of reciprocal perceptions and interdependent
stage.
the conduct actions from different groups of people whose behaviour is interrelated to make up a social structure.
Steps in Field Study of the
following phases " in ohada fe
a general
model consisting or the anthropological Agreement in perceptions
on the part of
people standing at various points in the hierarchy gives
expedition
Katz suggests
the scouting & of the reporting. For example, when workers, foremen and supervisors
planning. (2) of r e s e a r c h
nstruments and procedur
oreater confidence ina the validity
Study: (1) preliminar
the research design.
(4) the pretestng
n a department of tactory all agree about whether the foreman or supervisor
has the greater power
of of matenals. We are on a much Safer ground than if we had only the foremen or the supervisors
Tormulation
analysis
in that department,
and (6) the
full-scale field operations. with a tentati ve plan covering thes the situation.
start a field study on

Preliminary planning:
it is beter to be n n a l i z e d after the results af reporting
The plan will t interviews with different
and time schedule. Last, a field study facilitates use of diferent independent measures:

of the study. its broad objectives

are available types of people,
study of available records. The relationships discovered
behavioural observations and
scouting expedition involves an informal and free investigation methods are more convincing than if they are derived from a single
method.
The Scouting expedition:
This phase of study
forces in the situati through different
understanding of the important of variables and reliability of
which the field workers try
to get a thorough variables in the situation and gram
Thus, field studies are strong in realism, significance. strength
work is to identify the significant
The objective of this exploratory They may include: consultin
information. findings.
behaviour. Informai procedures can be adopted for gathering
local etc., using discrepancis teachers Limitations
informal leaders; contacting informants like newspaperreporters,
and participating limitations. Its most serious weakness is its ex
basis for further exploration; living in the community Despite these strengths, a field study has serious
in the accounts
of informants as a

statements of relations are weaker than they are in experimental

research.
in its activities: observing specific situations; studying available records and secondary sources. Fieli post facto character. Thus, variables
workers should keep daily full records of their work and observations. of variables. It is difficult to keep extraneous
The field situation always has a plethora
Formulation of the research design: On the basis of the results of thee scouting exploratin constant.
of field variables due
methodological weakness is lack of precision in the
of the final study can be formulated. It is important to delimit the scope of the measurement
the design studyan Another
introduce controls into the data-collecion process
to
through standardization and of tools measurement to the greater complexity of field situations.
sampling and time.
Pretesting of instruments and procedures: The interview schedules and behavioural scas There are also potential weaknesses such as problems of feasibility, cost,
and other types of data forms
required for the should be study constructed and pre-tested.
Field
operation: The full-scale field operation consists of several Usefulness
Chapter 9: Field Work, below. The tasks for the field workers are more activities as explainedi In building psychology, field studies
science of social
have unique roles to play. They
"can

than
for the varied and often morc ifficul and "rich insights and hypotheses" to the experimenter.
interviewers
in a survey. The field
groups in the community and also be worker must be able to enlist the of all give depth of understanding to survey findings" field study. The findings of field
capable of cooperauon here should be a two-way interaction
between experimentation and
the interviewing leaders. more rigorous experimentation. Conversely,
the
29. Newcomb, T.M., Studies may yield hypotheses, which require external validity.
and
30.
Festinger, Personality and Social Change. New York:
L., S. Schachter and results field tests for establishing
require
their reality
31. Katz, K. Back, Social Dryden Press, 1943. CXperimental may
Daniel, Field Studies, Pressures in Informal
op. cit., p. 65. Groups, New York: Harpel 1950
 SCIENCES

sOCIAL
IN
59
RESEARCH

OF TYPES AND METHODS OF

RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY

R E S E A R C H

IN Vimal Shah,
STEPs
rcding to a research process involves the ivitics.
3.14 Accord
following major d
tdentification and selection of the research problem.
clearly dol:
a
numbCr of
lelineated Choice of a theoretical framework for the research problem.

edstey
involving
Introduction process and neir scquence
sequential names
is howeva este
a their
The task
of research
number of steps. No o n e Formulation of the research problem.
in the
suggestions.

some
variations
among
their
in an order. Sa m 4, Design of the experiment or inquiry.
There are
much similanity
anotner

writers. but there is from one step

atter
Some nmay be steps Ma
ditierent
linear. moving
have to
be
relraced;
Definition and measurement of variables,
is truly
the
research process
different order: some steps may
projects
some steps
can
covered quicktieg
be covered
quickly, while 6. Sampling procedures
De t a k e n
in a
omitted: in some vanations it is desirable to outline the
i

may be
these
spite of for
7 Tools and techniques gathering data,
some
Simultaneously:
longer
time. In
and also the order
order in which
they
they may require executing a
project,
have
another cases,
planning and ediung and processing of data,
involved in the task of 8. Coding,
steps of the data, and
to be taken. 9. Analysis
10. Reporting research.
Steps in Research
consists of four major stages:32
the of research.
to Emory, the research
sequence
an area in which the investioae The first three
activVities may be considered as planning stage a
According is in
situation: If the problem of the research has Balsley'" present the following eleven-step outline:
1. Exploration of
the
quickly to the
development Clover and
research. he may
move
is an untfamiliar one he ma of the problem
if the problem posed
conducted aware
previously However, 1. Become
adopt two-stage approach; first
time and budget
to propose a separate exploratory study, second, to move to develnn.
estimates. . will
including the problem and purpose of the research
the availability of data, ete 2. Define
The feasibility,
study is over.
3. Set forth
hypotheses
ofthe main study after the exploratory
be explored at this stage. Determine what information will be required
research plan is develana 4.
research design: At
this stage, the formal
2. Development of the Decide which methods to use in collecting information
in Chapter 5). 5.
5.7: Research Designs
(For details. see Section methods of data collection. information or evidence
collected by adopting appropriate 6. Collect
3. Data collection: Data are in a systematic form
results: After the fieldwork is over, the data are processed, 7. Compile findings
4. Analysis and interpretation of the a report is written for communicating to test hypotheses
tabulated and analysed. Then the findings are interpreted. Finally, 8. Analyse findings
research report
the findings. 9. Write a final
into: (1) Precise formulation of the for actions
Pauline V. Young classifies the phases of research process 10. Make specific recommendation
observation and exploration
selected problem, (2) fomulation of working or exploratory hypothesis, (3) follow-up, if necessary.
of the problem, (4) uniform recording of the data obtained, (5) classification of the data into series, 11. Conduct a
scientific research:
lists twelve steps in
and (6) scienific generalizing.53 G. Francis of the university of Minnesota
Roy
These steps are not mutually exclusive; neither are they separate and distinct. They do not Selection of problem area

follow each other in any and knowledge in the area

necessarily
of them.* For
special order. Some of them may re-enter after preliminary use Acquaintance with current theory
example,
preliminary some observation is inevitable before an adequate working
hypothesis can be formulated. After its Definition of the problem
formulation, systematic observation is indispensable.
Nachmias identify seven - Development of hypotheses
stages in the research process: problem, hypotheses, research desig.
measurement, data collection, data formal argument
analysis and empirical generalizations Development of the
1972,
Development Council,
32. Emory, C. William, Business Research New York: The Agricultural
Designs and Strategies,
Young, Pauline V., Scientific Social Methods,
Research
33. op. cit, p. 66. 36. Shah, Vimal,
34. lbid.. p. 102. Surveys and Research, Pp. 3-4. Methods, op. cit., p. 22.
op. cil., p. 102. Business Research Research, Harrisburg.
L. Balsley, Introduction to Social
.
Clover, Vernon T., and Howard An
Nachmas David, and Chavà Nachmias, Research Methods in
1976, p. 10.
1.
"Nature of Scientific
Research", in John
T. Doby (Ed.),
the Social 0,
Francis,
Science, New York: St. Martin's rieess The Stackploe Co., 1954, pp. 12-16.
 SCIENCES

RESEARCH
Iw sOCIAL
OF
M E T H O D O L O G Y

TYPES AND
METHODS O RESEARC
of data
Delineation of the sources 2. Operatlon

Creation o f instruments Construction of tools of data collection

Pre-testing tools and their revision

- Wriing 'dummy angument revision
instruments and possible Collection of data
Pretest of the
data Processing of data
Formal acquisition of

Analysis of the data Analysis of data and interpretation of resuits

conclusion reached.
Formal write-up of
3. Reporting

A General Model ung the report:

consists of the following
steps: DesCription of the research proces: summary of
findings; Suggestion tor
In general, a research process and for further research.
problem. action
of a research Finalisation of the report.
1. ldentification and selection
review prior to problem selection; Systematic revi

2. Review of literature: Preliminary aftea Forwarding the report copies to the target audience/clients/users.
selection; notes takng
definition of the problem, conceptual mode, delim
All the above steps involved research process do not constitute a time order inear sequence.
in a

3. Formulation of the selected problem:

of the study and the hypotheses/inveeso
Can be overlappings and recyclings depending on the natare of the
stwdy. Nevertheless one
of the study. formulation of the objectives dnot fail to complete the sequence of steps required in scientific
questions.
should
procedure.
or SUGGESTED READINGS
4. Operationalisation of concepts: definition of concepts, construction
indexes/scales o
measuring variables.
1. Festinger, Leon and Katz., Daniel. Research Methods in the Behavioural Sciences. New Yorc Hot Rinehart
of the study, hypothas
5. Preparation of the research plan: statement of the problem, objectives and Winston, 1953.
area of the study, methodology
operational definition of the concepts, Geographical (type 2. Fox. David J.. The Research Process in Education, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 1969.
of research and methods of collection of data), sampling design, tools for collection of da I and 2). (Chaper
data
analysis, over-view of the research report, time-schedule.
plan of
3. Green, Paul, and Tull, Donald, Research for Marketing Decisions, Englewood, NJ. Prentice-Hlall. 1970
6. Constraction of tools of data collection: identification of data needs, delineation of data (Chapterl and 2).
sources, drafing observation schedule, interview schedule/guide, mailed questionnaire and 4. Helmastader, G.C., Research Concepts in Human Behaviour, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1970
or check lists or experimental design, pre-testing and possible revision. (Chapter 2-4).
7. Collection of data: Kerlinger. Fred N., Foundations
Experimental/field work: preparing sample frame, drawing sample of
5. of Behavioural Research, Delhi: Surjeet Publications, 1983 (Part 6 and 7).
respondents; Interviewing them/mailing questionnaires to them and follow-up. 6. Selltiz, Claire et al., Research Methods in Social Relations, New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1959.
8. Processing data: editing, coding, transcription, tabulation, construction of
of (ChapterI to 4).
charts. tables and
9. Analysis of data: statistical QUESTIONS
treatment,
testing hypotheses, interpretation of findings.
10.
Report-writing planning report-writing work, 1. Make an attempt to classify research.
The above drafting the report and its finalisation. 2. "Any typology of research studies is
steps or activities may be inevitably arbitrary." Discuss.
1. Planning
regrouped into the following three
stages: 3. Are different types of research
sharply distinguishable? Discuss.
Selection of the 4. Distinguish between
problemn
Formulation of the selected (a) Pure research and applied research
Operationalisation of conceptsproblem (b) Exploratory and Diagnostic studies
Preparation of the research () Descriptive study and analytical study
Planning report-writing work.design (d) Survey and case study
)Action research and experimental research
( Descriptive and diagnostic studies.
 RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCES
METHODOLOGY OF
62
between pure and applied research absolute? Discuss
5. Is the distinction
research Just represent the polar ends of a cons

6. The terms 'pure' and 'applied

interplay between pure and applied research.
7. Examine the
and need for cxploratory study.
8. State the meaning
in the exploratory study.
9. Explain the steps
nature and usefulness of descriptive studies.
10. Describe the meaning,
11. What is a diagnostic study? How does it differ from a descriptive study?
12. State the meaning and purpose of evaluation studies.
13. Examine the criteria of evaluation research.

14. what is action research? How is it related to evaluation research?

15. Classify action research and briefly describe each type of action research.
16. What are the phases in an action research?
Illustrate with an actual action research.
17. Define "experimental research, and discuss its features.
18. What are the conditions
required for an experimental study?
19. Explain the major types of experimental
designs.
20. What are
quasi-experimental designs? When they are relevant?
21. What are (a) one-shot case studies and (b) cross-sectional studies?
22. What is
ex-post facto-design? How is it
23. What is
an
improvement over correlational designs?
analytical study? How does it differ from
24. What is a historical study? What are its
an
experimental study?
features?
25. What are the steps involved in
històrical method?
26. Examine the limitations and
difficulties of historical method of
27. Define research?
survey and explain its characteristics.
28. What are the purposes of survey?
29.Examine the application of
survey method in different
30. Evaluatc fields.
survey method of research.
31. What is a case
study? What are its features?
32. Evaluate case study
method.
33 What is a field
study? How does it differ from
34. Explain the types of field studies.
a
survey?
35. What are the steps
involved in a field
36. What are the uses of study?
field studies?
37. Evaluate field studies.
38. What are the steps
involved in research
39. Is the
research process truly process?
linear?