Instructional Materials for

APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT AND

EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
(COMP 20253)

Compiled by:
Blances M. Sanchez
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
TAGUIG CITY BRANCH

TABLE OF CONTENTS
MODULE 1 – INTRODUCTION TO ROUTING AND PACKET FORWARDING ..........................6
Overview: ................................................................................................................................6
Objectives: ..............................................................................................................................6
LESSON 1: ROUTERS ARE COMPUTERS ............................................................................6
LESSON 2: EVOLUTION OF ROUTERS ................................................................................7
LESSON 3: ROUTER COMPONENTS....................................................................................7
LESSON 4: ROUTER INTERFACES.......................................................................................7
LESSON 5: ROUTERS AND THE NETWORK LAYER............................................................8
LESSON 6: IMPLEMENTING BASIC ADDRESSING SCHEMES............................................8
LESSON 7: BASIC ROUTER CONFIGURATION ....................................................................9
LESSON 8: INTRODUCING THE ROUTING TABLE ............................................................10
LESSON 9: ROUTING TABLE PRINCIPLES ........................................................................11
LESSON 10: PACKET FIELDS AND FRAME FIELDS ..........................................................11
LESSON 11: BEST PATH AND METRIC ..............................................................................11
LESSON 12: SWITCHING FUNCTION .................................................................................12
Assessment/Activities: ...........................................................................................................12
MODULE 2 – STATIC ROUTING ..............................................................................................14
Overview: ..............................................................................................................................14
Objectives: ............................................................................................................................14
LESSON 1: ROLE OF THE ROUTER ...................................................................................14
LESSON 2: INTRODUCING THE TOPOLOGY .....................................................................14
LESSON 3: EXAMINING ROUTER INTERFACES ................................................................15
LESSON 4: CONFIGURING AN ETHERNET INTERFACE ...................................................15
LESSON 5: LOGGING SYNCHRONOUS COMMAND ..........................................................16
LESSON 6: CONFIGURING A SERIAL INTERFACES..........................................................17
LESSON 7: VERIFYING CHANGES TO THE ROUTING TABLE ..........................................17
LESSON 8: STATIC ROUTING .............................................................................................17
Assessment/Activities: ...........................................................................................................21
MODULE 3 – INTRODUCTION TO DYNAMIC ROUTING PROTOCOL ...................................22
Overview: ..............................................................................................................................22
Objectives: ............................................................................................................................22

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LESSON 1: THE EVOLUTION OF DYNAMIC ROUTING PROTOCOLS ...............................22

LESSON 2: DYNAMIC ROUTING PROTOCOLS ..................................................................23
LESSON 3: IGP and EGP .....................................................................................................25
LESSON 4: CLASSFUL AND CLASSLESS...........................................................................25
LESSON 5: PURPOSE OF A METRIC ..................................................................................26
MODULE 4 – RIP version 1 ......................................................................................................28
Overview: ..............................................................................................................................28
Objectives: ............................................................................................................................28
LESSON 1: RIPv1 .................................................................................................................28
LESSON 2: BASIC RIPV1 CONFIGURATION ......................................................................29
LESSON 3 Verification and Troubleshooting .........................................................................29
LESSON 4: AUTOMATIC SUMMARIZATION .......................................................................29
Assessment/Activities: ...........................................................................................................31
MODULE 5 – VLSM AND CIDR ................................................................................................32
Overview: ..............................................................................................................................32
Objectives: ............................................................................................................................32
LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................32
LESSON 2: Classless IP Addressing .....................................................................................33
LESSON 3: VLSM .................................................................................................................34
LESSON 4: CLASSLESS INTER-DOMAIN ROUTING (CIDR) ..............................................35
LESSON 5: ROUTE FLAPPING ............................................................................................36
Assessment/Activities: ...........................................................................................................36
MODULE 6 – RIPv2 ..................................................................................................................38
Overview: ..............................................................................................................................38
Objectives: ............................................................................................................................38
LESSON 1: RIPV1 LIMITATIONS .........................................................................................38
LESSON 2: RIPV1: DISCONTIGUOUS NETWORKS ...........................................................39
LESSON 3: ENABLING AND VERIFYING RIPV2 .................................................................40
LESSON 4: AUTO-SUMMARY AND RIPV2 ..........................................................................41
LESSON 5: DISABLING AUTO-SUMMARY IN RIPV2 ..........................................................43
LESSON 6: COMPATIBILITY WITH RIP V1 ..........................................................................44
LESSON 7: RIPV2 AND VLSM..............................................................................................46

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LESSON 8: AUTHENTICATION ............................................................................................48

LESSON 9: RIPV2 REDISTRIBUTION ..................................................................................49
LESSON 10: COMMON RIPV2 ISSUES ...............................................................................52
Assessment/Activities: ...........................................................................................................53
MODULE 7 – THE ROUTING TABLE: A CLOSER LOOK.........................................................55
Overview: ..............................................................................................................................55
Objectives: ............................................................................................................................55
LESSON 1: LEVEL 1 ROUTES .............................................................................................55
LESSON 2: ROUTING TABLE STRUCTURE........................................................................55
LESSON 3: CLASSFUL NETWORKS ...................................................................................56
LESSON 4: ROUTING TABLE LOOKUP PROCESS ............................................................57
LESSON 5: ROUTING BEHAVIOR .......................................................................................61
Assessment/Activities: ...........................................................................................................62
MODULE 8 – EIGRP.................................................................................................................64
Overview: ..............................................................................................................................64
Objectives: ............................................................................................................................64
LESSON 1: ROOTS OF EIGRP: IGRP ..................................................................................64
LESSON 2: TRADITIONAL DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING PROTOCOLS .........................64
LESSON 3: EIGRP MESSAGE FORMAT .............................................................................65
LESSON 4: RELIABLE TRANSPORT PROTOCOL (RTP) ....................................................66
LESSON 5: EIGRP PACKET TYPES ....................................................................................67
LESSON 6: DIFFUSING UPDATE ALGORITHM (DUAL) ......................................................70
LESSON 7: BASIC EIGRP CONFIGURATION......................................................................71
LESSON 8: MORE EIGRP CONFIGURATION ......................................................................80
Assessment/Activities: ...........................................................................................................83
MODULE 9 – LINK-STATE ROUTING PROTOCOLS ...............................................................84
Overview: ..............................................................................................................................84
Objectives: ............................................................................................................................84
LESSON 1: LINK-STATE ROUTING .....................................................................................84
LESSON 2: SENDING HELLO PACKETS TO NEIGHBORS .................................................85
LESSON 3: BUILDING THE LINK STATE PACKET ..............................................................86
LESSON 4: ADVANTAGES OF LINK-STATE ROUTING PROTOCOLS ...............................86

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MODULE 10 – OSPF ................................................................................................................88

Overview: ..............................................................................................................................88
Objectives: ............................................................................................................................88
LESSON 1: BACKGROUND OF OSPF .................................................................................88
LESSON 2: OSPF MESSAGE ENCAPSULATION ................................................................89
LESSON 3: OSPF ALGORITHM ...........................................................................................90
LESSON 4: OSPF AUTHENTICATION .................................................................................90
LESSON 5: BASIC OSPF CONFIGURATION .......................................................................90
LESSON 6: OSPF METRIC...................................................................................................92
LESSON 7: OSPF AND MULTI-ACCESS NETWORKS ........................................................93
Assessment/Activities: ...........................................................................................................96
References/Sources: .............................................................................................................97

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MODULE 1 – INTRODUCTION TO ROUTING AND PACKET

FORWARDING
Overview:
This module introduces routing and packet forwarding. Routers are specially configured systems
with multiple physical interfaces that connect the router to more than one local network. Routing
is the process by which systems decide where to send a packet. Routing protocols on a system
“discover” the other systems on the local network. Packet forwarding is the basic method for
sharing information across systems on a network. Packets are transferred between a source
interface and a destination interface, usually on two different systems.

Objectives:
After successful completion the module, you should be able to:
• Identify a router as a computer with an OS and hardware designed for the routing process.
• Demonstrate the ability to configure devices and apply addresses.
• Describe the structure of a routing table.
• Describe how a router determines a path and switches packets.

Course Materials:
LESSON 1: ROUTERS ARE COMPUTERS

Computers that specialize in sending packets over the data network. They are responsible
for interconnecting networks by selecting the best path for a packet to travel and forwarding
packets to their destination.
Routers have many of the same hardware and software components that are found in other
computers including:
• CPU
• RAM
• ROM
• Operating System
Routers are at the network center
• A router connects multiple networks. This means that it has multiple interfaces that each
belong to a different IP network.
• Each network that a router connects to typically requires a separate interface. These
interfaces are used to connect a combination of both Local Area Networks (LANs) and
Wide Area Networks (WANs).
• Routers generally have 2 connections:
o WAN connection (Connection to ISP)
o LAN connection
o PSTN connection

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Routers determine the best path

• The primary responsibility of a router is to direct packets destined for local and remote
networks by:
o Determining the best path to send packets.
o Forwarding packets toward their destination.

LESSON 2: EVOLUTION OF ROUTERS

• Multiprotocol devices providing pure data delivery with minimal access control and QoS.
• Intelligent Network Services, this allowed us to provide security capabilities like integrated
firewall and encryption.
• Integrated voice and data capabilities, allowing routers to provide voice gateway features
for IP telephony.
• Today the router is an integrated platform for providing advanced services in security,
content delivery, and voice.

LESSON 3: ROUTER COMPONENTS

Router components and their functions

• CPU - Executes operating system instructions
• Random access memory (RAM) - Contains the running copy of configuration file. Stores
routing table. RAM contents lost when power is off
• Read-only memory (ROM) - Holds diagnostic software used when router is powered up.
Stores the router’s bootstrap program.
• Non-volatile RAM (NVRAM) - Stores startup configuration. This may include IP addresses
(Routing protocol, Hostname of router)
• Flash memory - Contains the operating system (Cisco IOS)
• Interfaces - There exist multiple physical interfaces that are used to connect network.
Examples of interface types:
o Ethernet / fast Ethernet interfaces
o Serial interfaces
o Management interfaces

LESSON 4: ROUTER INTERFACES

Router Interfaces
• Router Interface is a physical connector that enables a router to send or receive packets
• Each interface connects to a separate network
• Consist of socket or jack found on the outside of a router

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• Types of router interfaces:

o Fixed: Fastethernet
o Modular:
▪ Serial
▪ DSL
▪ ISDN
▪ Fastethernet

LESSON 5: ROUTERS AND THE NETWORK LAYER

• The main purpose of a router is to connect multiple networks and forward packets destined
either for its own networks or other networks.
• A router is considered a Layer 3 device because its primary forwarding decision is based
on the information in the Layer 3 IP packet, specifically the destination IP address. This
process is known as routing.

LESSON 6: IMPLEMENTING BASIC ADDRESSING SCHEMES

• At a minimum, the documentation should include a topology diagram that indicates the
physical connectivity and an addressing table that lists all of the following information:
o Device names.
o Interfaces used in the design.
o IP addresses and subnet masks.
o Default gateway addresses for end devices, such as PCs.

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LESSON 7: BASIC ROUTER CONFIGURATION

• Verifying Basic Router Configuration

o Issue the show running-config command
o Save the basic router configuration by Issuing the copy running-config
startup-config command
o Additional commands that will enable you to further verify router configuration are:
▪ Show running-config - Displays configuration currently in RAM
▪ Show startup-config - Displays configuration file NVRAM
▪ Show IP route - Displays routing table
▪ Show interfaces - Displays all interface configurations
▪ Show IP int brief - Displays abbreviated interface configuration
information

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LESSON 8: INTRODUCING THE ROUTING TABLE

• Routing Table is stored in ram and contains information about:

o Directly connected networks - this occurs when a device is connected to another
router interface
o Remotely connected networks - this is a network that is not directly connected to
a particular router
o Detailed information about the networks include source of information, Network
address & subnet mask, and Ip address of next-hop router
• Show ip route command is used to view a routing table
• The following analogies may help clarify the concept of connected, static, and dynamic
routes:
o Directly Connected Routes.
o Static Routes.
o Dynamic Routes.
Static Routing
• Static routes in the routing table
o Includes: network address and subnet mask and IP address of next hop router or
exit interface.
o Denoted with the code S in the routing table.
o Routing tables must contain directly connected networks used to connect remote
networks before static or dynamic routing can be used.
• When to use static routes
o When network only consists of a few routers.
o Network is connected to internet only through one ISP.
o Hub & spoke topology is used on a large network.

Dynamic Routing
• Dynamic routing protocols are used by routers to share information about the reachability
and status of remote networks. Dynamic routing protocols perform several activities,
including:
o Network discovery.
o Updating and maintaining routing tables.
• Dynamic routing features:
o Automatic Network Discovery.
o Maintaining Routing Tables.
• IP Routing Protocols
o RIP (Routing Information Protocol) .
o IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol).
o EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol).
o OSPF (Open Shortest Path First).
o IS-IS (Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System).
o BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)

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LESSON 9: ROUTING TABLE PRINCIPLES

• 3 principles regarding routing tables:

o Every router makes its decisions alone, based on the information it has in its
routing table.
o One router’s information in the routing table may not be the same as another
router’s routing table.
o Routing information about a path to a network does not provide information on how
to return to the original network.

LESSON 10: PACKET FIELDS AND FRAME FIELDS

• Internet Protocol (IP) packet format contains fields that provide information about the
packet and the sending and receiving hosts
• Fields that are importance for CCNA students:
o Destination IP address.
o Source IP address.
o Version & TTL.
o IP header length.
o Precedence & type of service.
o Packet length
• MAC Layer Frame Format
• MAC Frames are also divided into fields. They include:
o Preamble
o Start of frame delimiter
o Destination MAC address
o Source MAC address
o Type/length
o Data and pad
o Frame check sequence

LESSON 11: BEST PATH AND METRIC

• A Metric is a numerical value used by routing protocols to assess a given route

• Metrics may be based on a single path variable or multiple variables of a path
• 2 types of metrics used by routing protocols are:
o Hop count - this is the number of routers a packet must travel through to get to its
destination.
o Bandwidth - this is the “speed” of a link also known as the data capacity of a link.
• Equal cost metric is a condition where a router has multiple paths to the same destination
that all have the same metric

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• To solve this dilemma, a router will use Equal Cost Load Balancing. This means the router
sends packets over the multiple exit interfaces listed in the routing table.
• Equal Cost Paths and Unequal Cost Paths: a router can send packets over multiple
networks even when the metric is not the same if it is using a routing protocol that has this
capability.
Path Determination
• Path determination enables a router to evaluate paths to a destination & to establish the
preferred way to handle the packet.
• One of 3 things happen when a router searches a routing table to find a route to destination
▪ Next hop determined.
▪ Exit interface determined.
▪ No route determined.

LESSON 12: SWITCHING FUNCTION

Switching Function of Router is the process used by a router to switch a packet from an
incoming interface to an outgoing interface on the same router.
• A packet received by a router will do the following:
o Strips off layer 2 headers.
o Examines destination IP address located in Layer 3 header to find best route to
destination.
o Re-encapsulates layer 3 packet into layer 2 frame. Forwards frame out exit interface.

Assessment/Activities:

Configuring Basic Router Settings with IOS CLI

192.168.0.1
1. Set Up the Topology and Initialize Devices
a. Cable equipment to match the network topology.
b. Initialize and restart the router and switch.
2. Configure Devices and Verify Connectivity
a. Assign static IPv4 information to the PC interfaces.

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b. Configure basic router settings.

c. Verify network connectivity.
d. Configure the router for SSH.
3. Display Router Information
a. Retrieve hardware and software information from the router.
b. Interpret the output from the startup configuration.
c. Interpret the output from the routing table.
d. Verify the status of the interfaces.
4. Configure IPv6 and Verify Connectivity

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MODULE 2 – STATIC ROUTING

Overview:
This module provides an understanding about static routing. static routes are widely used in
networks today. Static routing is a form of routing that occurs when a router uses a manually
configured routing entry, rather than information from a dynamic routing traffic. Static routes are
used in networks of all sizes and are used along with a dynamic routing protocol. For this reason,
a good understanding of static routes is a requirement for implementing routing on a network.

Objectives:
After successful completion the module, you should be able to:
• Define the general role a router plays in networks.
• Describe the directly connected networks, different router interfaces
• Examine directly connected networks in the routing table and use the CDP protocol
• Describe static routes with exit interfaces
• Describe summary and default route
• Examine how packets get forwarded when using static routes
• Identify how to manage and troubleshoot static routes

Course Materials:
LESSON 1: ROLE OF THE ROUTER

The router is a special-purpose computer that plays a key role in the operation of any data
network. Routers are primarily responsible for interconnecting networks by:
• Determining the best path to send packets.
• Forwarding packets toward their destination.

LESSON 2: INTRODUCING THE TOPOLOGY

Topology Lab
• Three 1800 series routers connected via WAN links.
• Each router connected to a LAN represented by a switch and a PC.

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LESSON 3: EXAMINING ROUTER INTERFACES

• show ip route command – used to view routing table

• show interfaces command – used to show status of an interface
• show ip Interface brief command – used to show a portion of the interface
information
• show running-config command – used to show configuration file in RAM

LESSON 4: CONFIGURING AN ETHERNET INTERFACE

• By default all serial and Ethernet interfaces are administrative down.

• To enable an interface use the no shutdown command.

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• Verifying Ethernet interface

o Show interfaces for fastEthernet 0/0 – command used to show status of
fast Ethernet port.
o Show ip interface brief.
o Show running-config.
• Ethernet interfaces participate in ARP

LESSON 5: LOGGING SYNCHRONOUS COMMAND

• In order to keep the unsolicited output separate from your input, enter line configuration
mode for the consoled port and add the logging synchronous command.

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LESSON 6: CONFIGURING A SERIAL INTERFACES

Configuring a Serial interface

• Enter interface configuration mode
• Enter in the ip address and subnet mask
• Enter in the clock rate(DCE) and no shut down command
Example:
o R1(config)#interface serial 0/0
o R1(config-if)#ip address 172.16.2.1 255.255.255.0
o R1(config-if)#clock rate 64000
o R1(config-if)#no shutdown

LESSON 7: VERIFYING CHANGES TO THE ROUTING TABLE

The routing table consists of a list of "known" network addresses these addresses that are
directly connected, configured statically, and learned dynamically.
Observing Routes as They are Added to the Routing Table
• debug ip routing command will let us see any changes that the router performs when
adding or removing routes.
Devices on Directly Connected Networks
• When a router only has its interfaces configured, and the routing table contains the
directly connected networks but no other routes, only devices on those directly
connected networks are reachable.

LESSON 8: STATIC ROUTING

Purpose and Command Syntax of ip route

• Static routes are commonly used when routing from a network to a stub network.
• A stub network is a network accessed by a single route.

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ip route command

• RTR(config)# ip route prefix mask {address | interface}

[distance] [tag tag] [permanent]
Parameter Description
prefix IP route prefix for the destination.
mask Prefix mask for the destination.
address IP address of the “next hop” that can be used to reach
that network.
interface Network interface to use (exit-interface)
distance (Optional) An administrative distance.
tag (Optional) Tag value that can be used as a "match" value
for controlling redistribution via route maps. (CCNP Advanced Routing)
Permanent (Optional) Specifies that the route will not be removed,
even if the interface shuts down. (CCNP Advanced Routing)

Configuring Static Routes

• Installing a Static Route in the Routing Table
• Configuring Routes to Two More Remote Networks

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Routing Table Principles and Static Routes

• Applying the Principles

Resolving to an Exit Interface

• Find a route
• Find an exit interface
Configuring a Static Route with an Exit Interface
• Static routes can be configured with an exit interface, which allows the routing table
to resolve the exit interface in a single search instead of two searches.

Parameter Description
network-address Destination network address of the remote network to be added to
the routing table
subnet-mask Subnet mask of the remote network to be added to the routing
table. The subnet mask can be modified to a summarize a group
of networks
ip-address Commonly referred to as the next-hop router’s IP address
exit-interface Outgoing interface that is used to forward packets to the
destination network

Modifying Static Routes

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• There are times when a previously configured static route needs to be modified:
• The destination network no longer exists, and therefore the static route should be
deleted.
• There is a change in the topology, and either the intermediate address or the exit
interface must be changed.
Verifying the Static Route Configuration
• Use the following commands
o Step 1 show running-config.
o Step 2 verify static route has been entered correctly.
o Step 3 show ip route.
o Step 4 verify route was configured in routing table.
o Step 5 issue ping command to verify packets can reach destination and that
Return path is working.
Static Routes with Ethernet Interfaces
• Ethernet interfaces and ARP. If a static route is configured on an Ethernet link
o If the packet is sent to the next-hop router then the destination MAC address
will be the address of the next hop’s Ethernet interface
o This is found by the router consulting the ARP table. If an entry isn’t found, then
an ARP request will be sent out
• With Ethernet networks, there may be many different devices sharing the same multi
access network, including hosts and even multiple routers. Therefore, router does not
know the next-hop IP address and therefore it cannot determine the destination MAC
address for the Ethernet frame.
Default Static Route
• A default static route is a route that will match all packets. Default static routes are used:
o When no other routes in the routing table match the packet's destination IP address.
In other words, when a more specific match does not exist. A common use is when
connecting a company's edge router to the ISP network.
o When a router has only one other router to which it is connected. This condition is
known as a stub router.
o Using command: ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 {exit Interface, IP NextHop}
Troubleshooting a Missing Route
• Tools that can be used to isolate routing problems include:
o Ping– tests end to end connectivity
o Traceroute– used to discover all of the hops (routers) along the path between 2
points
o Show IP route– used to display routing table & ascertain forwarding process
o Show ip interface brief- used to show status of router interfaces
o Show cdp neighbors detail– used to gather configuration information about
directly connected neighbors

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Assessment/Activities:

Configuring IPv4 Static and Default Routes

Topology

192.168.0.1
1. Set Up the Topology and Initialize Devices
a. Cable equipment to match the network topology.
b. Initialize and restart the router and switch.
2. Configure Devices and Verify Connectivity
a. Assign static IPv4 information to the PC interfaces.
b. Configure basic router settings.
c. Verify network connectivity.
d. Configure the router for SSH.
3. Display Router Information
a. Retrieve hardware and software information from the router.
b. Interpret the output from the startup configuration.
c. Interpret the output from the routing table.
d. Verify the status of the interfaces.
4. Configure and Verify Connectivity

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MODULE 3 – INTRODUCTION TO DYNAMIC ROUTING

PROTOCOL
Overview:
This module provides an introduces dynamic routing protocol. Dynamic routing is a networking
technique that provides optimal data routing. Unlike static routing, dynamic routing enables
routers to select paths according to real-time logical network layout changes. A primary benefit of
dynamic routing protocols is that routers exchange routing information when there is a topology
change. This exchange allows routers to automatically learn about new networks and to find
alternate paths when there is a link failure to a current network.

Objectives:
After successful completion the module, you should be able to:
• Describe the role of dynamic routing protocols and place these protocols in the context of
modern network design.
• Identify several ways to classify routing protocols.
• Describe how metrics are used by routing protocols and identify the metric types used by
dynamic routing protocols.
• Determine the administrative distance of a route and describe its importance in the routing
process.
• Identify the different elements of the routing table.

Course Materials:
LESSON 1: THE EVOLUTION OF DYNAMIC ROUTING PROTOCOLS

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LESSON 2: DYNAMIC ROUTING PROTOCOLS

Dynamic routing protocols help the network administrator overcome the time-consuming
and exacting process of configuring and maintaining static routes.
The Role of Dynamic Routing Protocol
• Routing protocols are used to facilitate the exchange of routing information between
routers.
• Dynamic routing protocols allow routers to dynamically share information about remote
networks and automatically add this information to their own routing tables.
• Routing protocols determine the best path to each network which is then added to the
routing table.
• Consuming system resources (CPU, Memory, bandwidth…).
Network discovery and routing table maintenance
• The purpose of a routing protocol includes:
o Discovery of remote networks.
o Maintaining up-to-date routing information.
o Choosing the best path to destination networks.
o Ability to find a new best path if the current path is no longer available.
• Components of a routing protocol:
o Data structures.
o Algorithm.
o Routing protocol messages
Dynamic routing operation
• The router sends and receives routing messages on its interfaces.
• The router shares routing messages and routing information with other routers that are
using the same routing protocol.
• Routers exchange routing information to learn about remote networks.
• When a router detects a topology change the routing protocol can advertise this change
to other routers.

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Advantages

Dynamic Routing Protocols Classification

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LESSON 3: IGP and EGP

• An autonomous system (AS) - otherwise known as a routing domain - is a collection of

routers under a common administration.
• Two types of routing protocols are: interior and exterior routing protocols.
o Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP) are used for intra-autonomous system routing
- routing inside an autonomous system.
Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs) can be classified as two types:
• Distance vector routing protocols
o Distance vector means that routes are advertised as vectors of
distance and direction.
▪ Distance is defined in terms of a metric such as hop count.
▪ Direction is simply the next-hop router or exit interface.
▪ Algorithm is Bellman-Ford.
o Distance Vector Routing Protocol Features:
▪ The network is simple and flat and does not require a special
hierarchical design.
▪ The administrators do not have enough knowledge to
configure and troubleshoot link-state protocols.
▪ Specific types of networks, such as hub-and-spoke
networks, are being implemented.
▪ Worst-case convergence times in a network are not a
concern.
• Link-state routing protocols
o A link-state router uses the link-state information to create a
topology map and to select the best path to all destination networks
in the topology.
o Link-state protocols Features:
▪ The network design is hierarchical, usually occurring in large
networks.
▪ The administrators have a good knowledge of the
implemented link-state routing protocol.
▪ Fast convergence of the network is crucial.
o Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGP) are used for inter-autonomous system routing
- routing between autonomous systems.

LESSON 4: CLASSFUL AND CLASSLESS

Classful Routing Protocols

▪ Classful routing protocols do not send subnet mask information in routing updates.
▪ Classful routing protocols cannot be used when a network is subnetted using more
than one subnet mask, in other words classful routing protocols do not support variable
length subnet masks (VLSM) and inability to support discontiguous networks.

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Classless Routing Protocols

▪ Classless routing protocols include the subnet mask with the network address in
routing updates.
▪ Classless routing protocols are required in most networks today because of their
support for VLSM, discontiguous networks and other features which will be discussed
in later chapters.
▪ Classless routing protocols are RIPv2, EIGRP, OSPF, IS-IS, BGP.
Convergence
▪ Convergence is when all routers' routing tables are at a state of consistency.
▪ The network has converged when all routers have complete and accurate information
about the network.
▪ Convergence time is the time it takes routers to share information, calculate best paths,
and update their routing tables.
▪ Convergence properties include the speed of propagation of routing information and the
calculation of optimal paths.

LESSON 5: PURPOSE OF A METRIC

▪ A metric is a value used by routing protocols to assign costs to reach remote networks.
▪ The metric is used to determine which path is most preferable when there are multiple
paths to the same remote network.
Metrics and Routing Protocols
The Metric Parameters
▪ Different routing protocols use different metrics. Two different routing protocols
might choose different paths to the same destination due to using different
metrics.
▪ Metrics used in IP routing protocols include: Hop count, Bandwidth, Load,
Delay, Reliability, Cost.
The Metric Field in the Routing Table
▪ The metric for each routing protocol is:
o RIP: Hop count
o IGRP and EIGRP: Bandwidth, Delay, Reliability, and Load
o IS-IS and OSPF: Cost
Load Balancing
▪ But what happens when two or more routes to the same destination have identical metric
values? How will the router decide which path to use for packet forwarding?
▪ In this case, the router does not choose only one route. Instead, the router "load balances"
between these equal cost paths. The packets are forwarded using all equal-cost paths.
Purpose of Administrative Distance

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Multiple Routing Sources

▪ How does a router determine which route to install in the routing table when it has
learned about the same network from more than one routing source?
The Purpose of Administrative Distance
▪ Administrative distance (AD) defines the preference of a routing source. Administrative
distance is an integer value from 0 to 255.
▪ Each routing source - including specific routing protocols, static routes, and even
directly connected networks - is prioritized in order of most to least-pre
Static Routes
▪ Static routes are entered by an administrator who wants to manually configure the best
path to the destination.
▪ Static routes have a default AD value of 1.
▪ Directly connected networks, which have a default AD value of 0.
Directly Connected Networks
▪ Directly connected networks appear in the routing table as soon as the IP address on the
interface is configured and the interface is enabled and operational.
▪ The AD value of directly connected networks is 0, meaning that this is the most preferred
routing source.
▪ Administrative distance of a directly connected network cannot be changed and no other
route source can have an administrative distance of 0.

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MODULE 4 – RIP version 1

Overview:
This module provides an understanding about RIP version 1. Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
is a dynamic routing protocol which uses hop count as a routing metric to find the best path
between the source and the destination network.

Objectives:
After successful completion the module, you should be able to:
▪ Describe the functions, characteristics, and operation of the RIPv1 protocol.
▪ Configure a device for using RIPv1.
▪ Verify proper RIPv1 operation.
▪ Describe how RIPv1 performs automatic summarization.
▪ Configure, verify, and troubleshoot default routes propagated in a routed network
implementing RIPv1.
▪ Use recommended techniques to solve problems related to RIPv1

Course Materials:
LESSON 1: RIPv1
▪ RIP Characteristics
o A classful, Distance Vector (DV) routing protocol
o Metric = hop count
o Routes with a hop count > 15 are unreachable
o Updates are broadcast every 30 seconds
▪ RIP Message Format
o RIP header – divided into 3 fields
▪ Command field
▪ Version field
▪ Must be zero
o Route Entry - composed of 3 fields
▪ Address family identifier
▪ IP address
▪ Metric
▪ RIP Operation
o RIP uses 2 message types:
▪ Request message
• This is sent out on startup by each RIP enabled interface
• Requests all RIP enabled neighbors to send routing table.
▪ Response message
• Message sent to requesting router containing routing table
▪ IP addresses initially divided into classes
o Class A
o Class B
o Class C
▪ RIP is a classful routing protocol: Does not send subnet masks in routing updates

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▪ Administrative Distance
o RIP’s default administrative distance is 120. When compared to other interior
gateway protocols, RIP is the least-preferred routing protocol. IS-IS, OSPF,
IGRP, and EIGRP all have lower default AD values.

LESSON 2: BASIC RIPV1 CONFIGURATION

▪ A typical topology suitable for use by RIPv1 includes:

o Three routers set up
o No PCs attached to LANs
o Use of 5 different IP subnets
▪ Router RIP Command
o To enable RIP enter:
▪ Router rip at the global configuration prompt.
▪ Prompt will look like R1(config-router)#.
o To remove RIP process, enter no router rip in global configuration mode.
▪ Specifying Networks
o Use the network command to:
▪ Router(config-router)#network directly-connected-
classfulnetwork-address
o Enable RIP on all interfaces that belong to this network
o Advertise this network in RIP updates sent to other routers every 30 seconds

LESSON 3 Verification and Troubleshooting

▪ Show ip Route
o To verify and troubleshoot routing, Use the following commands:
▪ Show ip route
▪ Show ip protocols
▪ Debug ip rip
▪ show ip protocols command: Displays routing protocol configured on router
▪ Debug ip rip command: Used to display RIP routing updates as they are happening
▪ Passive interface command
o Used to prevent a router from sending updates through an interface.
o Example:
▪ Router(config-router)#passive-interface interface-type
interface-number

LESSON 4: AUTOMATIC SUMMARIZATION

▪ Boundary Routers
o RIP automatically summarizes classful networks

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o Boundary routers summarize RIP subnets from one major network to another.
▪ Processing RIP Updates
o 2 rules govern RIPv1 updates:
▪ If a routing update and the interface it’s received on belong to the same
major network, then the subnet mask of the interface is applied to the
network in the routing update.
▪ If a routing update and the interface it’s received on belong to a different
network then the classful subnet mask of the network is applied to the
network in the routing update.
▪ Sending RIP Updates
o RIP uses automatic summarization to reduce the size of a routing table.
▪ Advantages of automatic summarization:
o The size of routing updates is reduced
o Single routes are used to represent multiple routes which results in faster lookup
in the routing table.
▪ Disadvantage of Automatic Summarization:
o Does not support discontiguous networks
▪ Discontiguous Topologies do not converge with RIPv1
o A router will only advertise major network addresses out interfaces that do not
belong to the advertised route.
Default Route and RIPv1
▪ Default routes
o Packets that are not defined specifically in a routing table will go to the specified
interface for the default route
o Example: Customer routers use default routes to connect to an ISP router.
o Command used to configure a default route is ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0
s0/0/1
▪ Propagating the Default Route in RIPv1
o Default-information originate command in router mode
▪ This command is used to specify that the router is to originate default
information, by propagating the static default route in RIP update.

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Assessment/Activities:

Challenge RIP Configuration

1. Subnet the Address Space.

a. Examine the network requirements.
b. Consider the following questions when creating your network design:
2. Determine Interface Addresses.
a. Assign appropriate addresses to the device interfaces.
b. Document the addresses to be used in the table provided under the Topology
Diagram.
3. Prepare the Network.
4. Perform Basic Router Configurations.
5. Configure and Activate Serial and Ethernet Addresses.
a. Configure the BRANCH, HQ, and ISP routers.
b. Configure the Ethernet interfaces of PC1, PC2, and PC3.
6. Verify Connectivity to Next-Hop Device.
a. Verify BRANCH connectivity.
b. Verify Ethernet interface connectivity.
7. Configure RIP Routing on the BRANCH Router.
8. Configure RIP and Static Routing on the HQ Router
9. Configure Static Routing on the ISP Router
10. Verify the Configurations

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MODULE 5 – VLSM AND CIDR

Overview:
This module provides an understanding about VLSM and CIDR. Classless Inter Domain Routing
(CIDR) and Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM) were introduced to use the IP addressing
space in a more efficient way, but also to improve the scalability for the global routing mechanism.

Objectives:
After successful completion the module, you should be able to:
▪ Compare and contrast classful and classless IP addressing.
▪ Review VLSM and explain the benefits of classless IP addressing.
▪ Describe the role of the Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) standard in making
efficient use of scarce IPv4 addresses.

Course Materials:
LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION

• Prior to 1981, IP addresses used only the first 8 bits to specify the network portion of the
address
• In 1981, RFC 791 modified the IPv4 32-bit address to allow for three different classes
• IP address space was depleting rapidly
o the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) introduced Classless Inter-Domain
Routing (CIDR)
▪ CIDR uses Variable Length Subnet Masking (VLSM) to help conserve
address space.
• VLSM is simply subnetting a subnet
Classful and Classless IP Addressing
Classful IP addressing
• As of January 2007, there are over 433 million hosts on internet
• Initiatives to conserve IPv4 address space include:
o VLSM & CIDR notation (1993, RFC 1519).
o Network Address Translation (1994, RFC 1631).
o Private Addressing (1996, RFC 1918).
• The High Order Bits
o These are the leftmost bits in a 32 bit address
• Classes of IP addresses are identified by the decimal number of the 1st octet
o Class A address begin with a 0 bit
▪ Range of class A addresses = 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255
o Class B address begin with a 1 bit and a 0 bit
▪ Range of class B addresses = 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255
o Class C addresses begin with two 1 bits & a 0 bit
▪ Range of class C addresses = 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255.

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• The IPv4 Classful Addressing Structure (RFC 790)

• An IP address has 2 parts:
o The network portion: Found on the left side of an IP address
o The host portion: Found on the right side of an IP address

• Classful Routing Updates

o Recall that classful routing protocols (i.e. RIPv1) do not send subnet masks in
their routing updates
▪ The reason is that the Subnet mask is directly related to the network
address
• Classless Inter-domain Routing (CIDR – RFC 1517)
• Allows for:
o More efficient use of IPv4 address space.
o Route summarization.
• Requires subnet mask to be included in routing update because address class is
meaningless.

LESSON 2: Classless IP Addressing

• CIDR & Route Summarization:

o Variable Length Subnet Masking (VLSM): Allows a subnet to be further sub-
netted according to individual needs.
o Prefix Aggregation a.k.a. Route Summarization.
o CIDR allows for routes to be summarized as a single route.
• Classless Routing Protocol
o Characteristics of classless routing protocols:

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▪ Routing updates include the subnet mask

▪ Supports VLSM
▪ Supports Route Summarization

LESSON 3: VLSM

• Classful routing
o Only allows for one subnet mask for all networks
• VLSM & classless routing
o This is the process of subnetting a subnet
o More than one subnet mask can be used.

• VLSM – the process of sub-netting a subnet to fit your needs

o Example:
▪ Subnet 10.1.0.0/16, 8 more bits are borrowed again, to create 256
subnets with a /24 mask.
▪ Mask allows for 254 host addresses per subnet
▪ Subnets range from: 10.1.0.0 / 24 to 10.1.255.0 / 24
All Zeros and All Ones Subnets

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• There is no command to enable or disable the use of the all-ones subnet, it is enabled by
default.
o Router(config)#ip subnet-zero
• The use of the all-ones subnet has always been explicitly allowed and the use of subnet
zero is explicitly allowed since Cisco IOS version 12.0.
• RFC 1878 states, "This practice (of excluding all-zeros and all-ones subnets) is obsolete!
Modern software will be able to utilize all definable networks." Today, the use of subnet
zero and the all-ones subnet is generally accepted and most vendors support their use,
though, on certain networks, particularly the ones using legacy software, the use of subnet
zero and the all-ones subnet can lead to problems.

LESSON 4: CLASSLESS INTER-DOMAIN ROUTING (CIDR)

• Route summarization done by CIDR

o Routes are summarized with masks that are less than that of the default classful
mask.
o Example:
▪ 172.16.0.0 /13 is the summarized route for the 172.16.0.0 /16 to 172.23.0.0
/16 classful networks

• Steps to calculate a route summary

o List networks in binary format
o Count number of left most matching bits to determine summary route’s mask
o Copy the matching bits and add zero bits to determine the summarized network
address
• By using a prefix address to summarizes routes, administrators can keep routing table
entries manageable, which means the following
o More efficient routing
o A reduced number of CPU cycles when recalculating a routing table, or when
sorting through the routing table entries to find a match
o Reduced router memory requirements

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• Route summarization is also known as:

o Route aggregation
o Supernetting
• Supernetting is essentially the inverse of subnetting
CIDR Restrictions
o Dynamic routing protocols must send network address and mask (prefix-length)
information in their routing updates.
o In other words, CIDR requires classless routing protocols for dynamic routing.

LESSON 5: ROUTE FLAPPING

o Route flapping occurs when a router interface alternates rapidly between the up and down
states.
o Route flapping, and it can cripple a router with excessive updates and recalculations.
o However, the summarization configuration prevents the RTC route flapping from affecting
any other routers.
o The loss of one network does not invalidate the route to the supernet.
o While RTC may be kept busy dealing with its own route flap, RTZ, and all upstream routers,
are unaware of any downstream problem.
o Summarization effectively insulates the other routers from the problem of route flapping.

Assessment/Activities:

Designing and Implementing IPv4 Addressing with VLSM

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172.16.128.0/17
1. Examine the Network Requirements
a. Determine how many host addresses are available and how many subnets are
needed.
b. Determine the largest subnet needed.
c. Determine the second largest subnet needed.
d. Determine the next largest subnet needed.
e. Determine the next largest subnet needed.
f. Determine the next largest subnet needed.
g. Determine the next largest subnet needed.
h. Determine the subnets needed to support the serial links.
2. Design the VLSM Address Scheme
a. Calculate the subnet information.
b. Complete the device interface address table.
3. Cable and Configure the IPv4 Network
a. Cable the network as shown in the topology.
b. Configure basic settings on each router.
c. Configure the interfaces on each router.
4. Save the configuration on all devices.
5. Test Connectivity.

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MODULE 6 – RIPv2
Overview:
This module provides an understanding about RIP version 2. Routing Information Protocol (RIP),
version 2, is a non-proprietary distance vector protocol that is easy to implement in a network
infrastructure. When it comes to internal routing protocols, Routing Information Protocol version
2 (RIPv2) is one of the most common routing protocols in use today. In addition, RIPv2 is one of
the easiest protocols to configure.

Objectives:
After successful completion the module, you should be able to:
▪ Encounter and describe the limitations of RIPv1’s limitations.
▪ Apply the basic Routing Information Protocol Version 2 (RIPv2) configuration commands
and evaluate RIPv2 classless routing updates.
▪ Analyze router output to see RIPv2 support for VLSM and CIDR
▪ Identify RIPv2 verification commands and common RIPv2 issues.
▪ Configure, verify, and troubleshoot RIPv2.

Course Materials:
LESSON 1: RIPV1 LIMITATIONS

o This topology is discontiguous and will not converge because 172.30.0.0/16 is divided by
the 209.165.200.0/24.

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o R2 router has a static summary route to the 192.168.0.0/16 network. For now, understand
that this summary route will cause problems with RIPv1 because 192.168.0.0/16 is not a
major classful address and includes all of the /24 versions of 192.168.0.0/16.

LESSON 2: RIPV1: DISCONTIGUOUS NETWORKS

o You already know that RIPv1 is a classful routing protocol.

o As you can see in the RIPv1 message format, It does not include the subnet masks in its
routing updates.
o Therefore, RIPv1 cannot support discontiguous networks, VLSM, or Classless Inter-
Domain Routing (CIDR) supernets.

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o Because the subnet mask is not included in the update, RIPv1 and other classful routing
protocols must summarize networks at major network boundaries.

LESSON 3: ENABLING AND VERIFYING RIPV2

o The Next Hop address is used to identify a better next-hop address - if one exists - than
the address of the sending router.
o If the field is set to all zeros (0.0.0.0), the address of the sending router is the best next-
hop address.

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LESSON 4: AUTO-SUMMARY AND RIPV2

o By default, RIPv2 automatically summarizes networks at major network boundaries, just

like RIPv1.

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o Remember, the 192.168.0.0/16 route could not be distributed with RIPv1 because the
subnet mask was less than the classful mask.
o Because the mask is not included in RIPv1 updates, there was no way for the RIPv1 router
to determine what that mask should be. Therefore, the update was never sent.

LESSON 5: DISABLING AUTO-SUMMARY IN RIPV2

Verifying RIPv2 Updates

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LESSON 6: COMPATIBILITY WITH RIP V1

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NewYork
interface fastethernet0/0
ip address 192.168.50.129 255.255.255.192
ip rip send version 1
ip rip receive version 1
interface fastethernet0/1
ip address 172.25.150.193 255.255.255.240
ip rip send version 1 2
interface fastethernet0/2
ip address 172.25.150.225 225.255.255.240
router rip
version 2
network 172.25.0.0
network 192.168.50.0

o Interface FastEthernet0/0 is configured to send and receive RIP v1 updates.

o FastEthernet0/1 is configured to send both version 1 and 2 updates.
o FastEthernet0/2 has no special configuration and therefore sends and receives version 2
by default.
Propagating a default Routes in RIPv2
o Two steps to propagate default route into RIPv2:
o Create default route in propagator.
o Implement default-information originate in router mode.

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ISP
router rip
redistribute static
network 10.0.0.0
network 192.168.4.0
version 2
no auto-summary
default-information originate
ip route 207.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 null0
ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 10.0.0.2
etherenet0

LESSON 7: RIPV2 AND VLSM

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• One of the goals of Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) as stated by RFC 1519 is "to
provide a mechanism for the aggregation of routing information." This goal includes the
concept of supernetting.
• A supernet is a block of contiguous classful networks that is addressed as a single network.

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LESSON 8: AUTHENTICATION

• Whatever the reason, it is good practice to authenticate routing information transmitted

between routers.
• RIPv2, EIGRP, OSPF, IS-IS, and BGP can be configured to authenticate routing
• information.

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• This practice ensures routers will only accept routing information from other routers that
have been configured with the same password or authentication information.
• Note: Authentication does not encrypt the routing table.
Configuring authentication
• The steps for setting up RIP v2 authentication are as follows:
o Define a key chain with a name
o Define the key or keys on the keychain
o Enable authentication on an interface and specify the key chain to be used
o Specify whether the interface will use clear text or MD5 authentication
o Optionally configure key management
Router(config)#key chain Romeo
Router(config-keychain)#key 1
Router(config-keychain-key)#key-string Juliet

• The password must be the same on both routers (Juliet), but the name of the key (Romeo)
can be different.

Router(config)#interface fastethernet 0/0

Router(config-if)#ip rip authentication key-chain Romeo
Router(config-if)#ip rip authentication mode md5

• If the command ip rip authentication mode md5 is not added, the interface will use the
default clear text authentication. Although clear text authentication may be necessary to
communicate with some RIP v2 implementations, for security concerns use the more
secure MD5 authentication whenever possible.

LESSON 9: RIPV2 REDISTRIBUTION

• Planning Redistribution

• Locate the boundary router between two routing processes.

• Determine which routing process is the core or backbone process
• Determine which routing process is the edge or migration process

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• Select a method for injecting the required edge protocol routes into the core.
Configuring Redistribution into RIP
• Use this command to redistribute routes into RIP:
o Router(config-router)# redistribute protocol [process-id]
[match route-type] [metric metric-value] [route-map map-
tag]
• Default metric is infinity
The redistribute command parameters for RIP
Parameter Description
protocol Source protocol from which routes are being redistributed.
process-id This value is an AS number. For OSPF, this value is an OSPF
process ID.
match route-type (Optional) Command parameter used for redistributing OSPF
routes into another routing protocol. For OSPF, the criterion by
which OSPF routes are redistributed into other routing
domains.
metric metric-value (Optional) Parameter used to specify the RIP seed metric for
the redistributed route. When you are redistributing into RIP,
this value is not specified and no value is specified using the
default-metric router configuration command, then the default
metric is 0, which is interpreted as infinity, and routes will not
be redistributed. The metric for RIP is the hop count.
route-map map-tag (Optional) Identifier of a configured route map to be
interrogated to filter the importation of routes from this source
routing protocol to the current routing protocol.

Verification and Troubleshooting Commands

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o There are several ways to verify and troubleshoot RIPv2. Many of the same commands
used for RIPv2 can be used to verify and troubleshoot other routing protocols.
o It is always best to begin with the basics:
o Make sure all of the links (interfaces) are up and operational.
o Check the cabling.
o Check to make sure you have the correct IP address and subnet mask on each
interface.
o Remove any unnecessary configuration commands that are no longer necessary
or have been replaced by other commands.

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o The show ip rip database command to check summary address entries in the RIP
database.
o These entries will appear in the database if there are only relevant child or specific
routes being summarized.
o When the last child route for a summary address becomes invalid, the summary address
is also removed from the routing table.

LESSON 10: COMMON RIPV2 ISSUES

o The network statement does two things:

o It enables the routing protocol to send and receive updates on any local
interfaces that belong to that network.
o It includes that network in its routing updates to its neighboring routers.

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Assessment/Activities:

RIPv2 Troubleshooting Lab

1. Cable, Erase, and Reload the Routers.

a. Cable a network.
b. Clear the configuration on each router
2. Load Routers with the Supplied Scripts
3. Troubleshoot the BRANCH1 Router
a. Begin troubleshooting at the Host connected to BRANCH1.
b. Examine BRANCH1 to find possible configuration errors.
c. View summary of the status information.
d. Troubleshoot the routing configuration on BRANCH1.

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e. View the routing information.

f. Attempt to ping between the hosts again.
4. Troubleshoot HQ
a. Begin troubleshooting at the host PC3.
b. Examine the HQ router to find possible configuration errors.
c. Troubleshoot the routing configuration on HQ.
5. Troubleshoot BRANCH2
a. Begin troubleshooting at the Host PC5.
b. Examine BRANCH2 to find possible configuration errors.
c. View the summary of the status information.
d. Troubleshoot the routing configuration on BRANCH

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MODULE 7 – THE ROUTING TABLE: A CLOSER LOOK

Overview:
This module provides an understanding about the routing table. A routing table, or routing
information base, is a data table stored in a router or a network host that lists the routes to network
destinations, and in some cases, metrics associated with those routes. Routers use Routing
Tables to determine out which interface the packet will be sent. A routing table lists all networks
for which routes are known.

Objectives:
After successful completion the module, you should be able to:
▪ Describe the various route types found in the routing table structure
▪ Describe the routing table lookup process.
▪ Describe routing behavior in routed networks

Course Materials:
o Routing table entries come from the following sources
o Directly connected networks
o Static routes
o Dynamic routing protocols

LESSON 1: LEVEL 1 ROUTES

o As soon as the no shutdown command is issued the route is added to routing table
o Cisco IP routing table is a hierarchical structure. The reason for this is to speed up
lookup process

LESSON 2: ROUTING TABLE STRUCTURE

o A level 1 route is a route with a subnet mask equal to or less than the classful mask of the
network address. 192.168.1.0/24 is a level 1 network route, because the subnet mask is
equal to the network's classful mask. /24 is the classful mask for class C networks, such
as the 192.168.1.0 network.
o A level 1 route can function as a:
o Default route - A default route is a static route with the address 0.0.0.0/0.
o Supernet route - A supernet route is a network address with a mask less than the
classful mask.
o Network route - A network route is a route that has a subnet mask equal to that of
the classful mask. A network route can also be a parent route. Parent routes will
be discussed in the next section.

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Ultimate Route
o The level 1 route 192.168.1.0/24 can be further defined as an ultimate route. An ultimate
route is a route that includes:
o Either a next-hop IP address (another path)
o And/or an exit interface
o Parent and Child Routes
o A parent route is a level 1 route
o A parent route does not contain any next-hop IP address or exit interface
information
o The subnet is the level 2 child route of the parent route.

LESSON 3: CLASSFUL NETWORKS

o Automatic creation of parent routes

o Occurs any time a subnet is added to the routing table
o Child routes
o Child routes are level 2 routes.
o Child routes are a subnet of a classful network address.
Parent & Child Routes in classless & classful network
Network Type Parent route’s Term variably Includes the # of Subnet mask
Classful mask is subnetted is different masks included with
Displayed seen in parent of child routes each child route
route in routing entry
table
Classful No No No No
Classless Yes Yes Yes Yes
Parent & Child Routes: Classless Networks

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LESSON 4: ROUTING TABLE LOOKUP PROCESS

o Let's examine in more depth how the routers determine the best routes to use when
sending packets and why classful routing protocols do not work with discontiguous
designs. We will consider:
o What happens when a router receives an IP packet, examines the IP
destination address, and looks that address up in the routing table?
o How does the router decide which route in the routing table is the best match?
o What effect does the subnet mask have on the routing table lookup process?
o How does the router decide whether or not to use a supernet or default route
if a better match is not found?
o Examine level 1 routes
o If best match a level 1 ultimate route and is not a parent route this route is used
to forward packet
o If the best match is a level 1 parent route examines level 2 routes
o Router examines level 2 (child) routes
o If there is a match with level 2 child route then that subnet is used to forward
packet
o If no match then
o Determine routing behavior type
o Router determines classful or classless routing behavior
o If classful then packet is dropped
o If classless then router searches level one supernet and default routes
o If there exists a level 1 supernet or default route match then packet is forwarded.
If not packet is dropped

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o Longest Match: Level 1 Network Routes

o Best match is also known as the longest match.
o The best match is the one that has the most number of left most bits matching
between the destination IP address and the route in the routing table.

o Finding the subnet mask used to determine the longest match

o Scenario:
▪ PC1 pings 192.168.1.2
▪ Router examines level 1 route for best match
▪ There exist a match between192.168.1.2 & 192.168.1.0 / 24
▪ Router forwards packets out s0/0/0

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o The process of matching

o 1st there must be a match made between the parent route & destination IP
▪ If a match is made then an attempt at finding a match between the
destination IP and the child route is made.

o Finding a match between packet’s destination IP address and the next route in the
routing table
o The figure shows a match between the destination IP of 192.168.1.0 and the
level one IP of 192.168.1.0 / 24 then packet forwarded out s0/0/0

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Level 1 Parent & Level 2 Child Routes

o Before level 2 child routes are examined, there must be a match between classful
level one parent route and destination IP address.
o After the match with parent route has been made Level 2 child routes will be
examined for a match.
o Route lookup process searches for child routes with a match with destination IP.

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o How a router finds a match with one of the level 2 child routes
o First router examines parent routes for a match
o If a match exists then:
▪ Child routes are examined
▪ Child route chosen is the one with the longest match

LESSON 5: ROUTING BEHAVIOR

o Classful & classless routing protocols

o Influence how routing table is populated
o Classful & classless routing behaviors
o Determines how routing table is searched after it is filled
o Classful Routing Behavior: no ip classless
o What happens if there is not a match with any level 2 child routes of the parent?
▪ Router must determine if the routing behavior is classless or classful.
▪ If router is utilizing classful routing behavior, then lookup process is
terminated and packet is dropped.
o The commands no ip classless and ip classless are global configuration
commands and can be viewed by typing show running-config.
o In IOS versions 11.3 and later, the command ip classless is the default,
implementing a classless route lookup process.
o Classful Routing Behavior – Search Process

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o The routing table process will not use the default route, 0.0.0.0/0, or any other
route.
o A common error is to assume that a default route will always be used if the router
does not have a better route. In our example, R2's default route is not examined
nor used, although it is a match. This is often a very surprising result when a
network administrator does not understand the difference between classful and
classless routing behavior.
o The reason why the router will not search beyond the child routes
▪ Originally networks were all classful.
▪ This meant an organization could subnet a major network address and
“enlighten” all the organization’s routers about the subnetting.
▪ Therefore, if the subnet was not in the routing table, the subnet did not exist
and packet was dropped.
Routing Behavior: ip classless
o Commands: Router(config)#ip classless
o Beginning with IOS 11.3, ip classless was configured by default
o Classless routing behavior works for:
o Discontiguous networks.
o CIDR supernets.

o Route lookup process when ip classless is in use

o If classless routing behavior in effect then
▪ Search level 1 routes
▪ Supernet routes Checked first
• If a match exists then forward packet
• Default routes Checked second
o If there is no match or no default route then the packet is dropped.

Assessment/Activities:

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Quiz
1. Which two major areas can be used when discussing the high-level overview of a typical
enterprise network? Choose two
a. Building distribution
b. Building access
c. Enterprise edge
d. Enterprise campus
2. Which of the following is used when choosing a dynamic routing protocol? Choose two.
a. Knowledge level of a specific routing protocol
b. Scalability
c. Type of links supported
d. Cost of equipment
3. Which two factors can influence convergence time for a routing protocol? Choose two.
a. Fine tuning routing protocol timers
b. Type of link between routers
c. Configuring route summarization
d. Size of the routing table
4. Scalability of a network includes which two factors? Choose two.
a. Number of routers
b. Ability to do auto summarization
c. Number of adjacent neighbors
d. Distance between routers
5. Which of the following traffic types is not supported by IPv6?
a. Broadcast
b. Multicast
c. Anycast
d. Unicast

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MODULE 8 – EIGRP
Overview:
This module provides an understanding about EIGRP. Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing
Protocol (EIGRP) is an advanced distance-vector routing protocol that is used on a computer
network for automating routing decisions and configuration. Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing
Protocol (EIGRP) is an interior gateway protocol suited for many different topologies and media.
In a well-designed network, EIGRP scales well and provides extremely quick convergence times
with minimal network traffic.

Objectives:
After successful completion the module, you should be able to:
▪ Describe the background and history of Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
(EIGRP).
▪ Examine the basic EIGRP configuration commands and identify their purposes.
▪ Calculate the composite metric used by EIGRP.
▪ Describe the concepts and operation of DUAL.
▪ Describe the uses of additional configuration commands in EIGRP.

Course Materials:
LESSON 1: ROOTS OF EIGRP: IGRP

o Developed in 1985 to overcome RIPv1’s limited hop count

o Distance vector routing protocol
o Metrics used by IGRP
o Bandwidth (used by default).
o Delay (used by default).
o Reliability.
o Load.
o Discontinued support starting with IOS 12.2(13)T &
12.2(R1s4)S.

LESSON 2: TRADITIONAL DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING PROTOCOLS

o Use the Bellman-Ford or Ford-Fulkerson algorithm.

o Age out routing entries and uses periodic updates.
o Keep track of only the best routes; the best path to a destination network.
o When a route becomes unavailable, the router must wait for a new routing update.
o Slower convergence due to hold down timers.
Enhanced Distance Vector Routing Protocol: EIGRP
o Uses the Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL)

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o Does not age out routing entries nor uses periodic updates.
o Maintains a topology table separate from the routing table, which includes the best path
and any loopfree backup paths.
o When a route becomes unavailable, DUAL will use a backup path if one exists in the
topology table.
o Faster convergence due to the absence of holddown timers and a system of coordinated
route calculations.

LESSON 3: EIGRP MESSAGE FORMAT

o EIGRP Header

o EIGRP packet header contains:

▪ Opcode field
▪ Autonomous System number(AS).
o EIGRP Parameters contains:
▪ Weights.
▪ Hold time.
o TLV: IP internal contains
▪ Metric field.
▪ Subnet mask field.
▪ Destination field.
o TLV: IP external contains
▪ Fields used when external.
▪ Routes are imported into EIGRP routing process.

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LESSON 4: RELIABLE TRANSPORT PROTOCOL (RTP)

o Purpose of RTP
o Used by EIGRP to transmit and receive EIGRP packets.
o Characteristics of RTP
o Involves both reliable & unreliable delivery of EIGRP packet
▪ Reliable delivery requires acknowledgment from destination.
▪ Unreliable delivery does not require an acknowledgement from destination.
o Packets can be sent
▪ Unicast.
▪ Multicast: Using address 224.0.0.10

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LESSON 5: EIGRP PACKET TYPES

o Hello packets
o Used to discover & form adjacencies with neighbors
o Update packets
o Used to propagate routing information.
o Acknowledgement packets
o Used to acknowledge receipt of update, query & reply packets.

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o Query & Reply packets

o Used by DUAL for searching for networks.
o Query packets
▪ Can use
• Unicast.
• Multicast.
o Reply packet
▪ Use only unicast.

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EIGRP
o Purpose of Hello Protocol
o To discover & establish adjacencies with neighbor routers
o Characteristics of hello protocol
o Time interval for sending hello packet
▪ Most networks it is every 5 seconds.
▪ Multipoint non broadcast multi-access networks: Unicast every 60
seconds.
o Holdtime
o This is the maximum time router should wait before declaring a neighbor down
o Default holdtime: 3 times hello interval.
EIGRP bounded updates

o EIGRP only sends update when there is a change in route status

o Partial update
o A partial update includes only the route information that has changed – the whole
routing table is NOT sent.
o Bounded update
o When a route changes, only those devices that are impacted will be notified of
the change
o EIGRP’s use of partial bounded updates minimizes use of bandwidth.
EIGRP routing algothrim – DUAL

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LESSON 6: DIFFUSING UPDATE ALGORITHM (DUAL)

o Purpose
o EIGRP’s primary method for preventing routing loops
o Advantage of using DUAL
o Provides for fast convergence time by keeping a list of loop-free backup routes
o Administrative Distance (AD)
o Defined as the trustworthiness of the source route.
o EIGRP default administrative distances
o Summary routes = 5.
o Internal routes = 90.
o Imported routes = 170.

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EIGRP authentication
o Authentication
o EIGRP can
▪ Encrypt routing information.
▪ Authenticate routing information.
o Note: Authentication does not encrypt the router's routing table.

LESSON 7: BASIC EIGRP CONFIGURATION

Network Topology

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o Topology used is the same as previous chapters with the addition of an ISP router.
Autonomous System (AS) & Process IDs

o This is a collection of networks under the control of a single authority (reference RFC
1930).
o AS Numbers are assigned by IANA.
o Entities needing AS numbers
o ISP.
o Internet Backbone prodiers.
o Institutions connecting to other institutions using AS numbers.
o EIGRP autonomous system number actually functions as a process ID.
o Process ID represents an instance of the routing protocol running on a router.
o Command: Router(config)#router eigrp autonomous-system.
o Example:
o Router(config)#router eigrp 10
The router eigrp command
o The global command that enables eigrp is
o Router eigrp autonomous-system
o All routers in the EIGRP routing domain must use the same process ID number
(autonomous-system number).
The network Command
o Functions of the network command
o Enables interfaces to transmit & receive EIGRP updates.
o Includes network or subnet in EIGRP updates.
o Example
o Router(config-router)#network 192.168.10.0
o The network Command with a Wildcard Mask
o This option is used when you want to configure EIGRP to advertise specific
subnets.

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o Example
o Router(config-router)#network network-address [wildcard-
mask]
Verifying EIGRP
o EIGRP routers must establish adjacencies with their neighbors before any updates can
be sent or received
o Command used to view neighbor table and verify that EIGRP has established adjacencies
with neighbors is

o The show ip protocols command is used to verify that EIGRP is enabled

Examining the Routing Table

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o The show ip route command is also used to verify EIGRP.

o EIGRP routes are denoted in a routing table by the letter “D”.
o By default, EIGRP automatically summarizes routes at major network boundary.
Introducing the Null0 Summary Route
o Null0 is not a physical interface.
o In the routing table summary routes are sourced from Null0
o Reason: routes are used for advertisement purposes.
o EIGRP will automatically include a null0 summary route as child route when 2 conditions
are met
o At least one subnet is learned via EIGRP.
o Automatic summarization is enabled.
EIGRP Metric Calculation
EIGRP Composite Metric & the K Values
o EIGRP uses the following values in its composite metric
o Bandwidth, delay, reliability, and load.
o The composite metric used by EIGRP: Formula used has values K1 -> K5.
o K1 & K3 = 1.
o All other K values = 0.
o Use the show ip protocols command to verify the K values

o Use the show interfaces command to view metrics

o EIGRP Metrics

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o Bandwidth – EIGRP uses a static bandwidth to calculate metric.

o Most serial interfaces use a default bandwidth value of 1.544Mbps (T1).
Delay
o Delay is the defined as the measure of time it takes for a packet to traverse a route
o It is a static value based on link type to which interface is connected.

o Reliability (not a default EIGRP metric)

o A measure of the likelihood that a link will fail.
o Measure dynamically & expressed as a fraction of 255 the higher the fraction the
better the reliability.
o Load (not a default EIGRP metric)
o A number that reflects how much traffic is using a link.
o Number is determined dynamically and is expressed as a fraction of 255.
o The lower the fraction the less the load on the link.

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Using the Bandwidth Command

o Modifying the interface bandwidth
o Use the bandwidth command
o Command: Router(config-if)#bandwidth kilobits
o Verifying bandwidth
o Use the show interface command
o Note – bandwidth command does not change the link’s physical bandwidth.
o The EIGRP metric can be determined by examining the bandwidth and delay
o EIGRP uses the lowest bandwidth (BW) in its metric calculation:
o Calculated BW = reference BW / lowest BW(kbps)
o Delay – EIGRP uses the cumulative sum of all outgoing interfaces:
o Calculated Delay = the sum of outgoing interface delays
o EIGRP Metric = calculated BW + calculated delay
o (Note: reference BW = 107)
Calculate the metric from R2 to 192.168.1.0/24

DUAL Concepts
o The Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) is used to prevent looping:
o Successor.
▪ The best least cost route to a destination found in the routing table.
o Feasible Distance (FD).
▪ The lowest calculated metric along a path to a destination network.
o Feasible Successor (FS).
▪ This is a loop free backup route to same destination as successor route.

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o Reported Distance (RD) or Advertised Distance (AD).

▪ The metric that a router reports to a neighbor about its own cost to that
network.
o Feasible Condition or Feasibility Condition (FC).
▪ Met when a neighbor’s RD is less than the local router’s FD to the same
destination network.
o Finite Sate Machine (FSM)
o An abstract machine that defines a set of possible states something can go through,
what event causes those states and what events result from those states.
o FSMs are used to describe how a device, computer program, or routing algorithm
will react to a set of input events.
Successors and Feasible Successors

o RTY is successor with a computed cost of 31.

o “31” is the Feasible Distance (FD).
o RTX is a feasible successor because its RD is less than or equal to the FD.
o RTX’s RD (30) is less than the FD (31).
Example of a Loop

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Topology Table: Successor & Feasible Successor

EIGRP Topology table
o Viewed using the show ip eigrp topology command
o Contents of table include:
▪ All successor routes
▪ All feasible successor routes

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o EIGRP Topology Table dissected

Topology Table: No Feasible Successor

o A feasible successor may not be present because the feasibility condition may not be
met
o In other words, the reported distance of the neighbor is greater than or equal to
the current feasible distance.

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DUAL FSM
o Selects a best loop-free path to a destination
o Selects alternate routes by using information in EIGRP tables

LESSON 8: MORE EIGRP CONFIGURATION

The Null0 Summary Route

o By default, EIGRP uses the Null0 interface to discard any packets that match the parent
route but do not match any of the child routes
o EIGRP automatically includes a null0 summary route as a child route whenever both of
the following conditions exist
o One or subnets exists that was learned via EIGRP
o Automatic summarization is enabled
Disabling Automatic Summarization
o The auto-summary command permits EIGRP to automatically summarize at major
network boundaries
o The no auto-summary command is used to disable automatic summarization
o This causes all EIGRP neighbors to send updates that will not be automatically
summarized
▪ this will cause changes to appear in both

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• Routing tables.
• Topology tables.
Manual Summarization
o Manual summarization can include supernets
o Reason: EIGRP is a classless routing protocol & include subnet mask in update
o Command used to configure manual summarization
o Router(config-if)# ip summary-address eigrp as-number network-address subnet-
mask
EIGRP Default Routes
o “quad zero” static default route
o Can be used with any currently supported routing protocol/
o Is usually configured on a router that is connected a network outside the EIGRP
domain/
o EIGRP & the “Quad zero” static default route
o Requires the use of the redistribute static command to disseminate default route
in EIGRP updates/
Fine-Tuning EIGRP
o EIGRP bandwidth utilization
o By default, EIGRP uses only up to 50% of interface bandwidth for EIGRP
information.
o The command to change the percentage of bandwidth used by EIGRP is
▪ Router(config-if)#ip bandwidth-percent eigrp as-number
percent

Configuring EIRGP authentication

o Step 1: Enter configuration mode for the interface on which you want to enable
authentication.
o Step 2: Specify MD5 authentication for EIGRP packets using the ip authentication mode
eigrp 100 md5 command.
o Step 3: Enable the authentication of EIGRP packets with a key specified in a key chain by
using the in-authentication keychain eigrp ASNumber key-chain command.

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o Step 4: Enter the configuration mode for the key chain using the key chain keychain
(keychain can be different in each side).
o Step 5: Identify a key ID to use and enter configuration mode for that key using the key
key-id command.
o Step 6: Identify the key string (password) for this key using the key-string {key-string}
command. (key-string must be the same on both side of EIGRP routers)
EIGRP redistribution
o Planning Redistribution

o Locate the boundary router between two routing processes.

o Determine which routing process is the core or backbone process
o Determine which routing process is the edge or migration process
o Select a method for injecting the required edge protocol routes into the core.
Configuring redistribution into EIGRP
o Use this command to redistribute routes into EIGRP:
o Router(config-router)# redistribute protocol [process-id]
[match {internal | external 1 | external 2}] [metric metric-
value] [route-map maptag]
o Default metric is infinity

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Assessment/Activities:

Configuring Basic EIGRP for IPv4

1. Build the Network and Verify Connectivity

a. Cable the network as shown in the topology.
b. Configure PC hosts
c. Initialize and reload the routers as necessary.
d. Configure basic settings for each router
e. Verify connectivity
2. Configure EIGRP Routing
a. Enable EIGRP routing on R1. Use AS number 10.
b. Advertise the directly connected networks on R1 using the wildcard mask.
c. Enable EIGRP routing and advertise the directly connected networks on R2 and
R3.
d. Verify end-to-end connectivity
3. Verify EIGRP Routing
a. Examine the EIGRP neighbor table.
b. Examine the IP EIGRP routing table.
c. Examine the EIGRP topology table
d. Verify the EIGRP routing parameters and networks advertised.
4. Configure Bandwidth and Passive Interfaces
a. Observe the current routing settings.
b. Modify the bandwidth on the routers.
c. Verify the bandwidth modifications.
d. Configure G0/0 interface as passive on R1, R2, and R3.
e. Verify the passive interface configuration.

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MODULE 9 – LINK-STATE ROUTING PROTOCOLS

Overview:
This module provides an understanding on Link-State Routing Protocols. Link-state routing
protocols are one of the two main classes of routing protocols used in packet switching networks
for computer communications, the other being distance-vector routing protocols. The basic idea
of link-state routing protocols is that each node sends local topology information to its neighbors.
This information then is propagated using sophisticated “flooding” mechanisms through the
network.

Objectives:
After successful completion the module, you should be able to:
▪ Describe the basic features & concepts of link-state routing protocols.
▪ List the benefits and requirements of link-state routing protocols.

Course Materials:
LESSON 1: LINK-STATE ROUTING

o Link state routing protocols

o Also known as shortest path first algorithms.
o These protocols built around Dijkstra’s SPF.

o Dikjstra’s algorithm also known as the Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm. This
algorithm accumulates costs along each path, from source to destination.

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o The shortest path to a destination is not necessarily the path with the least number of hops.
o How routers using Link State Routing Protocols reach convergence
o Each router learns about its own directly connected networks
o Link state routers exchange hello packet to “meet” other directly connected link
state routers.
o Each router builds its own Link State Packet (LSP) which includes information
about neighbors such as neighbor ID, link type, & bandwidth.
o After the LSP is created the router floods it to all neighbors who then store the
information and then immediately forward it until all routers have the same
information.
o Once all the routers have received all the LSPs, the routers then construct a
topological map of the network which is used to determine the best routes to a
destination.
o Routers with link-state routing protocols use a Hello protocol to discover any neighbors on
its links. A neighbor is any other router that is enabled with the same link-state routing
protocol.

LESSON 2: SENDING HELLO PACKETS TO NEIGHBORS

o Connected interfaces that are using the same link state routing protocols will exchange
hello packets.
o Once routers learn it has neighbors they form an adjacency
o 2 adjacent neighbors will exchange hello packets.
o These packets will serve as a keep alive function.

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LESSON 3: BUILDING THE LINK STATE PACKET

o Each router builds its own Link State Packet (LSP)

o Contents of LSP:
o State of each directly connected link
o Includes information about neighbors such as neighbor ID, link type, &
bandwidth.
Flooding LSPs to Neighbors
o Once LSP are created they are forwarded out to neighbors.
o After receiving the LSP the neighbor continues to forward it throughout routing
area.
o LSPs are sent out under the following conditions
o Initial router start up or routing process.
o When there is a change in topology.
o Constructing a link state database
o Routers use a database to construct a topology map of the network.

LESSON 4: ADVANTAGES OF LINK-STATE ROUTING PROTOCOLS

Routing Builds Router can Convergence Event Use

driven
protocol Topological independently of
determine routing
map LSP
the shortest updates
path to
every
network.

Distance No No Slow Generally No No

vector

Link State Yes Yes Fast Yes Yes

Requirements for Link-State Routing Protocols

o Memory requirements
o Typically link state routing protocols use more memory.
o Processing Requirements
o More CPU processing is required of link state routing protocols.

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o Bandwidth Requirements
o Initial startup of link state routing protocols can consume lots of bandwidth.
Areas in Link-State Routing Protocols
o Modern LSR protocols are designed to minimize the effects on memory, CPU, and
bandwidth. Multiple areas can reduce the size of the link-state databases. It limits the
amount of link-state information flooding in a routing domain and send LSPs only to those
routers that need them.
2 link state routing protocols used for routing IP
o Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).
o Intermediate System-Intermediate System (IS-IS)

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MODULE 10 – OSPF
Overview:
This module provides an understanding about OSPF. The OSPF routing algorithm was created
to provide an alternative to RIP, based on Shortest Path First algorithms instead of the Bellman-
Ford algorithm. It uses a tree that describes the network topology to define the shortest path from
each router to each destination address. Unlike RIP protocol that has only 15 hops at most, OSPF
has no limitations in hop count.

Objectives:
After successful completion the module, you should be able to:
▪ Describe the background and basic features of OSPF
▪ Identify and apply the basic OSPF configuration commands
▪ Describe, modify and calculate the metric used by OSPF
▪ Describe the Designated Router/Backup Designated Router (DR/BDR) election process
in multi-access networks
▪ Describe the uses of additional configuration commands in OSPF

Course Materials:
LESSON 1: BACKGROUND OF OSPF

o Began in 1987.
o 1989 OSPFv1 released in RFC 113.
o This version was experimental & never deployed
o 1991 OSPFv2 released in RFC 1247.
o 1998 OSPFv2 updated in RFC 2328.
o 1999 OSPFv3 published in RFC 2740.

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LESSON 2: OSPF MESSAGE ENCAPSULATION

o OSPF packet type

o There exist 5 types.
o OSPF packet header
o Router ID.
o Area ID.
o Type code(packet type).
o IP packet header
o Source IP address.
o Destination IP address.
o Protocol field (set to 89 ).
o Data link frame header
o Source MAC address.
o Destination MAC address.

Hello Protocol
o OSPF Hello Packet
o Purpose of Hello Packet
▪ Discover OSPF neighbors & establish adjacencies.
▪ Advertise guidelines on which routers must agree to become neighbors.
▪ Used by multi-access networks to elect a designated router(DR) and a
backup designated router(BDR).
OSPF timers

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o Hello Packets continued

o Router ID of transmitting router.
o Sent every 10 seconds on multiaccess & point to point serial link.
o OSPF Hello Intervals
o Usually multicast (224.0.0.5).
o Sent every 30 seconds for NBMA segments.
o OSPF Dead Intervals
o This is the time that must be expired before the neighbor is considered down.
o Default time is 4 times the hello interval
DR and BDR
o Hello protocol packets contain information that is used in electing
o Designated Router (DR)
▪ DR is responsible for updating all other OSPF routers
o Backup Designated Router (BDR)
▪ This router takes over DR’s responsibilities if DR fails
OSPF Link-state Updates
o Purpose of a Link State Update (LSU)
o Used to deliver link state advertisements
o Purpose of a Link State Advertisement (LSA)
o Contains information about neighbors & path costs

LESSON 3: OSPF ALGORITHM

o OSPF routers build & maintain link-state database containing LSA received from other
routers
o Information found in database is utilized upon execution of Dijkstra SPF algorithm.
o SPF algorithm used to create SPF tree.
o SPF tree used to populate routing table.

LESSON 4: OSPF AUTHENTICATION

o Purpose is to encrypt & authenticate routing information

o This is an interface specific configuration.
o Routers will only accept routing information from other routers that have been configured
with the same password or authentication information

LESSON 5: BASIC OSPF CONFIGURATION

Enable OSPF
The router ospf command

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o To enable OSPF on a router use the following command

o R1(config)#router ospf process-id
o Process id
▪ A locally significant number between 1 and 65535.
▪ Does not have to match other OSPF routers.
o RA(config-router)#network network-address wildcardmask area
area-id
▪ wildcard mask - the inverse of the subnet mask
▪ area-id
• Area-id refers to the OSPF area.
• OSPF area is a group of routers that share link state information.
OSPF Router ID
o Commands used to verify current router ID
o Show ip protocols.
o Show ip ospf.
o Show ip ospf interface.
o Router ID & Loopback addresses
o Highest loopback address will be used as router ID if router-id command
isn’t used.
o Advantage: loopback interface cannot fail OSPF stability
o The OSPF router-id command
o Introduced in IOS 12.0
o Command syntax
▪ Router(config)#router ospf process-id.
▪ Router(config-router)#router-id ip-address.
o Modifying the Router ID
o Use the command Router#clear ip ospf process.
Show ip ospf neighbor command
o Neighbor ID - The router ID of the neighboring router.
o Pri - The OSPF priority of the interface. This is discussed in a later section.
o State - The OSPF state of the interface. FULL state means that the router and its
neighbor have identical OSPF link-state databases. OSPF states are discussed in
CCNP.
o Dead Time - The amount of time remaining that the router will wait to receive an
OSPF Hello packet from the neighbor before declaring the neighbor down. This
value is reset when the interface receives a Hello packet.
o Address - The IP address of the neighbor's interface to which this router is directly
connected.
o Interface - The interface on which this router has formed adjacency with the
neighbor.
Verifying OSPF
o Use the show ip ospf command to verify & trouble shoot OSPF networks
o Neighbor adjacency

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o No adjacency indicated by
▪ Neighboring router’s Router ID is not displayed.
▪ A state of full is not displayed.
o Consequence of no adjacency
▪ No link state information exchanged.
▪ Inaccurate SPF trees & routing tables.
Reasons of no adjacency
o Two routers may not form an OSPF adjacency if:
o The subnet masks do not match, causing the routers to be on
separate networks.
o OSPF Hello or Dead Timers do not match.
o OSPF Network Types do not match.
o There is a missing or incorrect OSPF network command.
Command Description
Show ip protocols Displays OSPF process ID, router ID, networks router is
advertising & administrative distance
Show ip ospf Displays OSPF process ID, router ID, OSPF area information
& the last time SPF algorithm calculated
Show ip ospf interface Displays hello interval and dead interval

Show ip route – Examining the routing table

o Use the show ip route command to display the routing table
o “O’ at the beginning of a route indicates that the router source is OSPF
o Note OSPF does not automatically summarize at major network
boundaries.

LESSON 6: OSPF METRIC

o OSPF uses cost as the metric for determining the best route
o Best route ~ lowest cost
o Cost:
▪ 108 / bandwidth
o Reference bandwidth
▪ Defaults to 100Mbps
▪ Can be modified using auto-cost reference bandwidth command.
o COST of an OSPF route
o Is the accumulated value from one router to the next
o Usually the actual speed of a link is different than the default bandwidth
o This makes it imperative that the bandwidth value reflects link’s actual speed.

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▪ Reason: so routing table has best path information.

o The show interface command will display interface’s bandwidth
o Most serial link default to 1.544Mbps.
Modify OSPF Cost value
Modifying the Cost of the link
o Both sides of a serial link should be configured with the same bandwidth
o Commands used to modify bandwidth value
▪ Router(config-if)#bandwidth bandwidth-kbps
▪ R1(config)#interface serial 0/0/0
▪ R1(config-if)#ip ospf cost 1562
o Difference between bandwidth command & the ip ospf cost command:
o Ip ospf cost command
▪ Sets cost to a specific value.
o Bandwidth command
▪ Link cost is calculated.

LESSON 7: OSPF AND MULTI-ACCESS NETWORKS

Challenges in Multi-access Networks

o OSPF defines five network types:
o Point-to-point.
o Broadcast Multiaccess.
o Nonbroadcast Multiaccess (NBMA).
o Point-to-multipoint.
o Virtual links.
o 2 challenges presented by multi-access networks
o Multiple adjacencies
o Extensive LSA flooding
o Extensive flooding of LSAs
o For every LSA sent out there must be an acknowledgement of receipt sent
back to transmitting router.
o lots of bandwidth consumed and chaotic traffic
o Solution to LSA flooding issue is the use of:
o Designated router(DR).
o Backup designated router(BDR)
o DR & BDR selection
o Routers are elected to send & receive LSA.
o Sending & Receiving LSA
o DRothers send LSAs via multicast 224.0.0.6 to DR & BDR.
o DR forward LSA via multicast address 224.0.0.5 to all other routers.
DR/BDR Election Process

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o DR/BDR elections DO NOT occur in point to point networks

o DR/BDR elections will take place on multi-access networks
o Criteria for getting elected DR/BDR
o DR: Router with the highest OSPF interface priority.
o BDR: Router with the second highest OSPF interface priority.
o If OSPF interface priorities are equal, the highest router ID is used to break the
tie.
o Timing of DR/BDR Election
o Occurs as soon as 1st router has its interface enabled on multi-access network.
o When a DR is elected it remains as the DR until one of the following occurs
▪ The DR fails.
▪ The OSPF process on the DR fails.
▪ The multiaccess interface on the DR fails.
o Manipulating the election process
o If you want to influence the election of DR & BDR then do one of the following
▪ Boot up the DR first, followed by the BDR, and then boot all other
routers, OR
▪ Shut down the interface on all routers, followed by a no shutdown on
the DR, then the BDR, and then all other routers.
Manipulating the DR/BDR election
OSPF Interface Priority
o Manipulating the DR/BDR election process continued
o Use the ip ospf priority interface command.
o Example:Router(config-if)#ip ospf priority {0 - 255}
▪ Priority number range 0 to 255
• 0 means the router cannot become the DR or BDR.
• 1 is the default priority value.
Redistributing an OSPF Default Route
Topology includes a link to ISP
o Router connected to ISP
o Called an Autonomous System Border Router(ASBR).
o Used to propagate a default route
o Example of static default route
o R1(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 loopback 1
o Requires the use of the default-information originate command.
o Example of default-information originate command
o R1(config-router)#default-information originate
Fine-Tuning OSPF
o Since link speeds are getting faster it may be necessary to change reference bandwidth
values
o Do this using the auto-cost reference-bandwidth (Mbps) command

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o Example:
o R1(config-router)#autocost reference-bandwidth 10000
Modifying OSPF timers
o Reason to modify timers
o Faster detection of network failures
o Manually modifying Hello & Dead intervals
o Router(config-if)#ip ospf hello-interval seconds
o Router(config-if)#ip ospf dead-interval seconds
o Point to be made
o Hello & Dead intervals must be the same between neighbors.
Configuring OSPF authentication
o By default, a router trusts that routing information is coming from a router that should be
sending the information
o To guarantee this trust, routers in a specific area can be configured to authenticate
o each other.
o Each OSPF interface can present an authentication key for use by routers sending OSPF
information to other routers on the segment.
o The authentication key, known as a password, is a shared secret between the routers.
This key is used to generate the authentication data in the OSPF packet header. The
password can be up to eight characters.
o Router(config-if)#ip ospf authentication-key password
o After the password is configured, authentication must be enabled:
o Router(config-router)#area area-number authentication
o Note: With simple authentication, the password is sent as plain text. This means that it
can be easily decoded if a packet sniffer captures an OSPF packet.
OSPF redistribution
o Planning Redistribution

o Locate the boundary router between two routing processes.

o Determine which routing process is the core or backbone process
o Determine which routing process is the edge or migration process
o Select a method for injecting the required edge protocol routes into the core.
Configuring Redistribution into OSPF
o Use this command to redistribute routes into OSPF:

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o Router(config-router)# redistribute protocol [process-id]

[metric metric-value] [metric-type type-value] [route-map
maptag] [subnets] [tag tag-value]
o Default metric is 20.
o Default metric type is 2.
o Subnets do not redistribute by default.

Assessment/Activities:

Troubleshooting Basic Single-Area OSPFv2 and OSPFv3

1. Build the Network and Load Device Configurations

a. Cable the network as shown in the topology.
b. Configure PC hosts
c. Load router configurations.
2. Troubleshoot Layer 3 Connectivity
a. Verify that the interfaces listed in the Addressing Table are active and configured
with the correct IP address information.
3. Troubleshoot OSPFv2
a. Test IPv4 end-to-end connectivity
b. Verify that all interfaces are assigned to OSPFv2 area 0 on R1
c. Verify that all interfaces are assigned to OSPFv2 area 0 on R2
d. Verify that all interfaces are assigned to OSPFv2 area 0 on R3.
e. Verify OSPF neighbor information.
f. Verify OSPFv2 Routing Information.

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g. Verify IPv4 end-to-end connectivity.

4. Troubleshoot OSPFv3
a. Test IPv6 end-to-end connectivity.
b. Verify that IPv6 unicast routing has been enabled on all routers.

References/Sources:
• http://bkacad.com/ - CCNA Exploration 4.0 Presentations

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