General Mathematics

Module 10

LOGIC
Logic has been studied since the classical Greek period (600 – 300 BC). The Greeks, most
notably Thales, were the first to formally analyze the reasoning process. Aristotle (384 – 322BC),
the “father of logic”, and many other Greeks searched for universal truths that were irrefutable.
A second great period for logic came with the use of symbols to simplify complicated logical
arguments. George Boole (1815 – 1864) is considered the “father of symbolic logic”. He
developed logic as an abstract mathematical system consisting of defined terms (propositions),
operations (conjunction, disjunction, and negation), and rules for using the operations.

This module discusses the key concepts of propositional logic, syllogisms, and fallacies in
real – life arguments.

What I Know (Pretest)

Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer and write this on your answer sheet.

1. Which of the following sentences is a proposition?

a. The man is faithful and responsible.
b. Am I ready?
c. STOP! You are not allowed to leave the house.
d. Buy one kilo of rice when you go to the market.
2. Conjunction is a compound proposition connected by the word ______?
a. and c. if … then
b. or d. if and only if
3. Disjunction proposition can be written in symbol as
a. ~p c. p ˄ q
b. p → q d. p ˅ q
4. A statement: “It is not the case that Joemar can play the piano or Ariel can play the
guitar” can be written in symbolic statement as
a. p ˅ q c. ~ (p ˅ q)
b. p ˄ ~ q d. ~ (p ˄ q)
5. If constructing the truth table of the statement (p → q) ↔ (~p → q), which will be the
result in the last column?
a. T, T, T, T c. T, T, F, F
b. T, F, T, F d. F, F, F, F
6. The truth table final answer if p is true and q is false for inclusive disjunction is?
a. True c. maybe
b. False d. cannot be determined

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 Lesson
Propositions and Symbols
1

What I Need to Know

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Illustrates and symbolizes propositions.

2. Distinguishes between simple and compound propositions.
3. Performs the different types of operations on propositions.

What’s In

Identify and label each sentence as declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.

1. Frontlines are considered heroes during COVID–19 pandemic.

2. Stop COVID-19!
3. Why does it spread that fast?
4. Have you heard of the good news?
5. Please stay home.

Sentences classified according to the purpose of the speaker or writer:

1. Declarative Sentence makes a statement and give information that normally end with
a full – stop/period.
2. Interrogative Sentence ask a question of something or some information and always
end with a question mark.
3. Imperative Sentence give a command telling someone to do something and end with
a full-stop/period or exclamation mark/point.
4. Exclamative Sentence express strong emotion/surprise – an exclamation – and always
end with an exclamation mark/point.

What’s New
Activity 1 Determine whether this sentence answerable by True or False.
1. Department of Education announces this school year class start on August 24.
2. May 30, 2021 will be the last day of school.
3. When will you allowed to go to school?
4. Answer pages 5 to 15 of this module.
5. log 2 2 = 1

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Definition 1:
A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both.

Notation: Variables are used to represent propositions. The most common variables used
are p, q, and r. If a proposition is true, then its truth value is true, which is denoted by T;
otherwise, its true value is false, which is denoted by F.

What is It

In the Activity, sentences 1, 2 and 5 are proportions. The truth or falsity of each can be
determined by a direct check. However, sentence 3 and 4 cannot be answered as being true or
false. Sentence 3 is a question (interrogative sentence) and sentence 4 is a command (imperative
sentence).

There are some sentences that are not propositions.

1. “Do you want to go to the movies?” Since a question is not a declarative sentence,
it fails to be a proposition.
2. “Clean up your room.” Likewise, an imperative is not a declarative sentence; hence,
fails to be a proposition.
3. “2x = 2 + x.” This is a declarative sentence, but unless x is assigned a value or is
otherwise prescribed, the sentence neither true nor false, hence, not a proposition.
4. “this sentence is false.” What happens if you assume this statement is true? False?
This example is called a paradox and is not a proposition, because it is neither true nor
false.

What’s More
Enrichment Activities

Activity 2 Decide whether each of the following is a proposition or is not a

proposition.

1. Rudrego R. Dutente is the president of the Philippines.

2. 6 x 6 = 36
3. The number 4 is even and less than 12
4. Ouch!
5. What time is it?
6. x + 2 = 4
7. y – z = z – y
8. Joan’s solution is incorrect.
9. Rheza Mae is passing Statistics
10. Rheza Mae is passing Statistics but she is falling in 21st Century Literature.

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Solution:

Question no. 1, 2 and 3 are propositions, because each of them is either true or false (but not
both).
Question no. 4 and 5 are not propositions because they do not proclaim anything; they are
exclamation and question, respectively.
Question no. 6 is not a statement because we cannot tell whether it is true or false unless we
know the value of x. It is true when x = 2; it is false for other x – values. Since the sentence is
sometimes true and sometimes false, it cannot be a statement.
Question no. 7 since y – z = z – y, is sometimes true and sometimes false; it cannot be a
statement.
Question no. 8 is not a proposition. It is a paradox. It is neither true nor false.
Question no. 9 is a proposition and an example of a simple proposition.
Question no. 10 is a compound proposition. It is a combination of two simple propositions
“Rheza Mae is passing Statistics” and “she is falling in 21st Century Literature”.

Definition 2:

Simple Proposition – a proposition that conveys one thought with no connecting words.

Example:
“2 is an even number”
“A square has all its sides equal”

Compound Proposition – contains two or more simple propositions that are put together using
connective words.
Example:
“11 is both an odd and prime number” can be broken into two propositions.
“11 is an odd number” and “11 is a prime number” so it is a compound statement.

Simple proposition can be combined to form compound propositions by using logical

connectives or simply, connectives. Words such as and, or, nor and if… then are example of
connectives.

Basic Logical Connectives

If the proposition is compound, then it must be one of the following: conjunction,

disjunction, conditional, biconditional, or negation.

Conjunction
If two simple propositions p and q are connected by the word ‘and’, then the resulting
compound proposition “p and q” is called a conjunction of p and q and is written in symbolic
form as “p ˄ q”.
Example: Form the conjunction of the following simple propositions:
p: Jethro is a boy.
q: He is a grade 5 pupil.

Solution: The conjunction of the proposition p and q is given by

p ˄ q: Jethro is a boy and he is a grade 5 pupil.

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Disjunction
If two simple propositions p and q are connected by the word ‘or’, then the resulting
compound proposition “p or q” is called a disjunction of p and q and is written in symbolic form
as “p ˅ q”.

Example: Form the disjunction of the following simple propositions:

p: Joyce will pass all her subject.
q: She will be retained

Solution: The disjunction of the proposition p and q is given by

p ˅ q: Joyce will pass all her subject or she will be retained.

Conditional
If two simple propositions p and q are joined by a connectivity ‘if then’, then the resulting
compound proposition “if p then q” is called a conditional proposition or an implication and is
written in symbolic form as “p → q” or “p  q”. Here, p is called hypothesis (or antecedent) and
q is called conclusion (or consequent) of the conditional proposition (p  q). The conditional p
→q may also be read “p implies q”.

Example:
1. If Ariel work hard then he will be successful.
2. If you eat more then you lost your diet.
3. If ABC is a triangle, then A + B + C = 180ᵒ.
4. If Jonathan is in Grade 11, then he is a Senior High School student

Biconditional
If two proposition p and q are connected by the connective ‘if and only if” then the
resulting compound proposition “p if and only if q” is called a biconditional of p and q and is
written in symbolic form as p ↔ q. The proposition may also be written as “p iff q”. The
propositions p and q are the components of the biconditional.

Example:
1. “Two sides of a triangle are congruent if and only if two angles opposite them are
congruent.
2. Larseny is a STEM student if and only if she likes Science.

Negation
An assertion that a statement fails, or denial of a statement is called the negation of the
statement. The negative of a statement is generally formed by introducing the word “not” at some
proper place in the statement or by prefixing the statement with “it is not the case that” or “It is
false that”. The negation of a statement p in symbolic form is written as “~p”.

Example: Write the negation of the statement.

p: School year 2020 – 2021 will start on June 1.

Solution: The negation of p is given by

~p: School year 2020 – 2021 will not start on June 1.
or ~p: It is not the case that the school year 2020 – 2021 will start on June 1.
or ~p: It is false that the school year 2020 – 2021 will start on June 1.

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Negation of the Disjunction p or q
~ (p ˅ q) means ~ p ˄ ~ q

Negation of the Disjunction p or q

~ (p ˄ q) means ~ p ˅ ~ q

Example: Let p represent the proposition “Bang is beautiful”, and

Let q represent the proposition “Joan is cute”.

1. Write the following in symbols and then in words.

a. The conjunction of the negation of p and q

Solution:
In symbol: The negation of p and q are ~ p and ~ q, respectively. Thus, the conjunction of the
negations of p and q in symbols is ~ p ˄ ~ q.
In words: Bang is not beautiful, and Joan is not cute.

b. The disjunction of the negation of p and q

Solution:
In symbol: ~ p ˅ ~ q.
In words: Either Bang is not beautiful, or Joan is not cute.

c. The negation of the conjunction of p and q

Solution:
In symbol: ~ (p ˄ q).
In words: It is not the case that Bang is beautiful and Joan is cute.

d. The negation of the disjunction of p and q

Solution:
In symbol: ~ (p ˅ q).
In words: It is not the case that either Bang is beautiful, or Joan is cute.

Symbols

If x and y are the frequently used letters in algebra, the letters p, q, or r are often used to
represent propositions in logic. The table below shows the several symbols for connectives,
together with the respective types of compound proposition.

Table 1 : Types of compound proposition

Connective Symbol Type of Statement
and ˄ Conjunction
or ˅ Disjunction
not ~ Negation
If … then → Conditional
If and only if ↔ Biconditional
(iff)

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 Activity 3 Convert each compound proposition into symbols.

Let p represent the proposition “Facebook is a source of information.”

q represent the proposition “Social Media spread fake news.”

a. Facebook is a source of information and social media spread fake news.

b. Facebook is not a source of information or social media do not spread fake news.
c. It is not the case that social media spread fake news and Facebook is a source of
information.
d. If Facebook is a source of information, then social media spread fake news.
e. Social Media spread fake news if and only if Facebook is a source of information.

Solution:

a. p˄q b. ~p ˅ ~q c. ~q ˄ p
d. p→q e. q ↔ p

Activity 4 Let p represent the proposition “Television network remains shut down” and
q represent the proposition “The network paid their taxes”.
Write each symbolic statement in words.

a. p ˅ q b. ~q ˄ p c. p→q d. ~ (p ˄ q) e. ~ (q ˅ p)

Solution:

a.
Television network remain shut down or the network paid their taxes.
b.
The network did not pay their taxes and television network remain shut down.
c.
If television network remains shut down, then the network paid their taxes.
d.
It is not the case that television network remains shut down and the network paid their
taxes.
Another solution of letter d: by Negation of the Conjunction p and q
Television network did not remains shutting down or the network did not pay their taxes.
e. It is not the case that the network paid their taxes or television network remains shut
down.
Another solution of letter e: by Negation of the Disjunction p or q
The network did not pay their taxes and the television network did not remains shutting
down.

Note:
Commas indicates which simple statement are grouped together.
Parentheses in symbolic statements are used to tell what type of statements are being
considered. If there are no parentheses, we follow the dominance of connectives (Biconditional,
Conditional, Disjunction or Conjunction (equal in value), and last will be Negation.

Example:
a. Irene is a Math teacher (d) or Science teacher (e), and work at Talisayan National High
School (f).
Solution: (d ˅ e) ˄ f

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 Lesson
Truth Tables
2

What I Need to Know

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Determine the truth values of proportions.

What’s In
Let O = Kenny is loyal and N = Jefred is loyal. Write each statement in symbolic form.

a. If Jefred is Loyal, then Kenny is not loyal

b. Both Kenny and Jefred are loyal.
c. Either Kenny or Jefred is loyal.
d. Jefred is not loyal or Kenny is not loyal.
e. It is not the case that Jefred is loyal or Kenny is loyal.

Solution:
Let O = Kenny is loyal Let N = Jefred is loyal
a. N → O
b. O ˄ N
c. O ˅ N
d. ~N ˅ ~O
e. ~ (N ˅ O)

Recall: Table 2: Types of Statements and their Connective Symbol

Connective Symbol Type of Statement Meaning

And ˄ Conjunction “p and q”
Or ˅ Disjunction “p or q (or both)”
Or Exclusive Or p q
Not ~ Negation “not p”
If … then → Conditional “if p then q”
If and only if ↔ Biconditional “p if and only if q”
(iff)

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Connectives in their dominant order:
1. Biconditional (↔)
2. Conditional (→)
3. Conjunction (˄) and Disjunction (˅)
4. Negation (~)

What’s New

Activity 1 Answer the following algebra question by True or False

1. ((22)3) = 25
2. The additive inverse of – 10 is 10.
3. The absolute value of a real number is negative.
4. 5 > 10 or 5 < 7
5. 320 + 320 + 320 = 321

What is It

In the Activity 1, with the following algebra question no. 2,4 and 6 are true. While,
question no. 1 (26) and 3 (positive or zero) are false. In Algebra, unknown values are represented
by letters of the alphabet which we call variables while fixed numbers are called constant.
In logic, variables are also use to present proportions in the same way that we use variables
to represent numbers in algebra. A value in logic has only TRUE or FALSE for its value. In fact,
true and false are the “numerical constants” in logic.

Definition 1:

The truth table displays the relationship between the possible truth values of the
propositions.

Steps in Constructing Truth Tables:

a. Recall dominant connectives and the use of parentheses then determine if the
result is a conjunction, disjunction, or negation.
b. Complete the columns under
1. The simple statements (P, Q, …)
2. The connectives negations inside parentheses
3. Any remaining statements and their negations
4. Any remaining connectives
Reaching the final column as determined in Step 1.
Number the columns in the order they are completed and highlight the column containing
the final answer.
c. The truth table of compound proportion of n component statements, each
represented by a different letter, has 2n number of rows. For example,
- A compound proposition with two different letters (simple statements)
has 22 or 4 rows.

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 - A compound proposition with three different letters (simple statement
has 23 or 8 rows.

Definition 2:

Conjunction
The connective and implies the idea of “both”. The table below answers the question,
“When is a conjunction true?”. For the conjunction to be true, both P and Q must be true. The
propositions p and q are called conjuncts. Conjunction is defined through its truth table

p q p˄q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Disjunction
Disjunction is defined through its truth table. The proposition p and q are called disjuncts.
The use of or in this case is called the inclusive or (inclusive disjunction).

p q p˅q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Unless otherwise meant or stated, a distinction is considered inclusive by default. There

are also cases that the statement will only be true when exactly one of the two components is true.
Otherwise, it will be false. When this is the case, we shall refer to the or as the exclusive or or the
exclusive disjunction. Its truth table is

p q p q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F

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Conditional
Conditional is defined through its truth table

p q p →q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Biconditional
Biconditional is defined through its truth table

p q p ↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Negation
Negation is defined through its truth table

p ~p
T F
F T

What’s More
Enrichment Activities

Activity 2 Let p and q be propositions, construct the truth table for the compound
proposition.
a. ~ (p ˄ q)
b. (p→ q) ˄ (q→ p)
c. p ˅ ~ (p ˄ q)
d. (p ˄ q) ↔ (~p→ q)

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Solution:
a. ~ (p ˄ q)

p q p˄q ~ (p ˄ q)
T T T F
T F F T
F T F T
F F F T

b. (p→ q) ˄ (q→ p)

p q p →q q →p (p→ q) ˄ (q→ p)

T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T

c. p ˅ ~ (p ˄ q)

p q p˄q ~ (p ˄ q) p ˅ ~ (p ˄ q)
T T T F T
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F F T T

d. (p ˄ q) ↔ (~p→ q)

p q ~p p˄q ~p→ q (p ˄ q) ↔ (~ p → q)
T T F T T T
T F F F T F
F T T F T F
F F T F F T

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 Lesson
Forms of Conditional Proposition
3

What I Need to Know

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Illustrate the different forms of conditional propositions.

What’s In
Write the following statement in if-then form.

1. Marelle studied last night so she can pass the exam.

2. I am thirsty, I need to drink a glass of water.
3. Ethel live at Opol, Cagayan de Oro City.
4. Students should know basic concept of Mathematics to be able to answer Mathematics
problem.
5. Perpendicular lines form right angles.

Solution:
1. If Marelle studied last night, then she will pass the exam.
2. If I am thirsty, then I need to drink a glass of water.
3. If Ethel is from Opol then Ethel is from Cagayan de Oro City.
4. If students know the basic concept in Mathematics, then they can answer Mathematics
Problems.
5. If it is perpendicular lines, then it forms right angles.

Recall:

Conditional Propositions are compound statements. We denote them as p → q that means

that “if p then q”. These are sometimes called implications, where p is called the hypothesis
(antecedent) and q is called the conclusion (consequent).

Example in our first activity no. 2.

If I am thirsty, then I need to drink a glass of water.

p q

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 Conditional proposition is either TRUE or FALSE. Construct a logical argument using
reason to show that it is true. And, if it is false, find one example (called a counter example) in
which the hypothesis is fulfilled, and the condition is not fulfilled.

What’s New

Activity 1 Construct the truth table of the following statement and compare their
results.

1. p ˄ q and q ˄ p
2. p ˅ q and q ˅ p
3. p →q and q → p

What is It
Activity 1 shows the comparison of conjunction to its converse, disjunction to its
converse and conditional to its converse.

Illustration:

1. p ˄ q and q ˄ p

p q p˄q q˄p
T T T T
T F F F
F T F F
F F F F

Question: What did you observe? _______________________________________

2. p ˅ q and q ˅ p

p q p˅q q˅p
T T T T
T F T T
F T T T
F F F F

Question: What did you observe? _______________________________________

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 3. p →q and q → p

p q p →q q →p
T T T T
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T

Question: What did you observe? _______________________________________

Definition 1:

The converse of the conditional statement p →q and q → p.

Biconditional statement or a biconditional is the combination of a conditional statement and its

converse if both are true. The parts of a biconditional statement are connected by the phrase if and
only if.

Conditional Statement If p, then q p →q

Converse: If q, then p q →p
Biconditional Statement p if and only if q p↔q

Inverse and its Contrapositive

Conditional Statement If p, then q p →q

Inverse: If not p, then not q ~p→~q
Contrapositive If not q, then not p ~q→~p

Example: Write the conditional statement, identify its hypothesis and conclusion. Form its
converse, inverse and contrapositive of the statement below and tell whether each is true or false.

Statement: “the triangle has three congruent sides; it is an equilateral triangle”.

Conditional Statement:
“If a triangle has three congruent sides, then it is an equilateral triangle”
Hypothesis: If a triangle has three congruent sides
Conclusion: It is an equilateral triangle.

Converse: “If it is an equilateral triangle, then a triangle has three congruent sides”. (True)
Inverse: “If a triangle does not have three congruent sides, then it is not an equilateral
triangle” (True)
Contrapositive: “if it is not an equilateral triangle, then a triangle does not have three congruent
sides”. (True).

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 Table 3 shows the statement related to the conditional statement:

Converse of p →q q→p
Inverse of p →q ~p→~q
Contrapositive of p →q ~q→~p

Conditional Equivalents: Other interpretations of p →q

If p, then q p implies q p is sufficient for q

If p, q q whenever p q is necessary for p
q if p p only if q q is implied by p

Table 4: Truth table for conditional “p →q” and the related terms.

Conditional Converse Inverse Contrapositive

p q p →q q→p ~p→~q ~q→~p
T T T T T T
T F F T T F
F T T F F T
F F T T T T

Note: Conditional and contrapositive are equivalent, and converse and Inverse are also equivalent.

Definition 2:

Two propositions p and q that have the same truth values are said to be logically equivalent and
denoted by p  q or p  q.

What’s More
Enrichment Activities

Activity 2 Determine whether the two given compound propositions are equivalent.

1. ~ p ˅ ~q and ~ (p ˄ q) negation of the conjunction p and q

2. p → q and ~p ˄ q
3. p ˅ (q ˄ r) and (p ˅ q) ˄ (p ˅ r)

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 Lesson
Types of Tautologies and Fallacies
4

What I Need to Know

After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. Illustrate the different types of tautologies and fallacies.

What’s In
Complete the truth table and prove that (p ˄ ~ q) and ~ (p → q) are logically equivalent.
p q ~q (p ˄ ~ q) (p → q) ~ (p → q)
T T
T F
F T
F F

Are (p ˄ ~ q) and ~ (p → q) logically equivalent? Yes _____ or No _____

Recall:
Equivalent – Two propositions p and q that have the same truth table values are said to be
logically equivalent denoted by p  q or p  q.

What’s New

Activity 1 Construct the truth table of the following and observe their final column
entries. State your observation in the space provided.

1. (p ˄ q) → (q ˄ p)

p q p˄q q˄p (p ˄ q) → (q ˄ p)
T T
T F
F T
F F

Observation: __________________________________________________

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 2. [p ˄ (p → q)] → q

p q p→q p ˄ (p → q)] [p ˄ (p → q)] → q

T T
T F
F T
F F

Observation: __________________________________________________

3. (p →q) → (~ q→~ p)

p ~p q ~q p→q ~ q→~ p (p →q) → (~ q→~ p)

T T
T F
F T
F F

Observation: __________________________________________________

What is It
In activity 1 no. 1 truth table of (p ˄ q) → (q ˄ p)

p q p˄q q˄p (p ˄ q) → (q ˄ p)
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T F F T
F F F F T

Notice that the last column consists of all true values. This implies that regardless of the
truth value combination of p and q, compound proposition (p ˄ q) → (q ˄ p) is always
true and it is called commutative for and. We call such proposition as a tautology.

Definition 1:

Tautology is a compound proposition that is always true for all possible truth values of the
propositions that occur in it.

Contradiction is a proposition that always false.

Contingency is a proposition that neither a tautology nor a contradiction.

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 Table 5: LIST OF TAUTOLOGIES
Let p, q, r, and s be propositions, then the following logical equivalences holds:

Name Tautology
Associative for or (˅) [(p ˅ q) ˅ r] → [p ˅ (q ˅ r)]
for and (˄) [(p ˄ q) ˄ r] → [p ˄ (q ˄ r)]
Commutative for or (˅) (p ˅ q) → (q ˅ p)
for and (˄) (p ˄ q) → (q ˄ p)
Distributive for or (˅) [(p ˄ q) ˅ r] → (p ˅ r) ˄ (q ˅ r)
for and (˄) [(p ˅ q) ˄ r] → (p ˄ r) ˅ (q ˄ r)
Law of biconditional propositions [(p →q) ˄ (q → p)] → (p ↔ q)
Modus Ponens [p ˄ (p → q)] → q
Modus Tollens [(~q ˄ (p → q)] → ~ p
Exportation [(p ˄ q) → r)] → (p → (q → r)]
Transposition or Contraposition (p → q) → (~ q → ~ p)
Addition p → (p ˅ q)
Simplification (p ˄ q) → p
Conjunction (p ˄ q) → (p ˄ q)
Double Negation p → ~ (~p)
Absorption (p → q) → [p → (p ˄ q)]
Disjunctive Syllogism [(p ˅ q) ˄ ~p] → q
[(p ˅ q) ˄ ~q] → p
Material Implication (p → q) → (~ p ˅ q)
Disjunctive Simplification (p ˅ p) → p
Resolution (p ˅ q) ˄ (~ p ˅ r) → (q ˅ r)
Hypothetical Syllogism [(p → q) ˄ (q → r)] → (p → r)
Constructive Dilemma [(p → q) ˄ (r → s)] ˄ [(p ˅ r) → (q ˅ s)]
Destructive Dilemma [(p → q) ˄ (r → s)] ˄ (~ q ˅ ~ s) → (~ p ˅ ~ r)

Definition 2:

Valid Argument is when the conclusion is true whenever the premises are assumed to be true.
Fallacy is an argument that is not valid or said to be an invalid argument.

Example 1: Let p, q and r be the proposition:

p: It is raining.
q: There is typhoon
r: Classes are suspended.

Construct a truth table for the statement: r → (p ˅ q). Then determine whether the statement is a
tautology.

25
Solution:
For the compound statement consisting of three statement, there are 23 or 8 different true-
false combinations. The dominant connective is →.

p q r p˅q r → (p ˅ q)
T T T T T
T T F T T
T F T T T
T F F T T
F T T T T
F T F T T
F F T F F
F F F F T

Since the truth table of the statement r → (p ˅ q) is not true in all possible cases; it shows us that,
Classes are suspended (r is true), but It is raining (p is false) or there is typhoon (q is false) is a
false claim.

The claim expresses in symbol as r → (p ˅ q) and can be written in words as:

“If classes are suspended, then it is raining or there is typhoon”.

Therefore, the claim is not a tautology, hence, making the argument not valid or it is a
fallacy.

Example 2: Use truth table to determine whether the argument is a tautology and whether it is
valid or a fallacy.
Representing each simple statement with a variable:
p: Daisy loves biology
q: She loves plants

Argument: in symbol form, we have.

Premise 1: Daisy loves biology Premise 1: p
Premise 2: If Daisy loves biology, then she loves plants Premise 2: p → q
Conclusion: Therefore, she loves plants Conclusion: q

In symbolic form: [p ˄ (p → q)] → q

p q p→q [p ˄ (p → q)] [p ˄ (p → q)] → q

T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T

Since it true in all cases, then the statement is a tautology and the argument is valid.

26
 Lesson
Valid arguments and Fallacies
5

What I Need to Know

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Determines the validity of categorical syllogisms.

2. Establishes the validity and falsity of real-life arguments using logical
propositions, syllogisms, and fallacies.

What’s In
Use truth table to determine whether the symbolic form of the argument is a
tautology and whether it is valid or a fallacy.
p→q
p
 q

Recall:

Compound proposition tautology if and only if for all possible assignments of truth values
to its variables, the compound proposition’s truth value is T.
Compound proposition is a contradiction if and only if for all possible assignments of
truth values to its variables, the compound proposition’s truth value is F.
Two propositions p and q that have the same truth values are said to be logically
equivalent and denoted by p q or p  q.

What’s New

Activity 1 Make a truth table to determine whether the given argument is valid or not.
Argument: “if I go to the mall, then I will see Gladjorie. I did go to the mall. Therefore.
Isaw Gladjorie”.
In symbol: _________________________________

30
 p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

The argument is valid or not ____________________________

Write this argument in standard form:
Premise 1:
Premise 2:
Conclusion:

What is It
As we recall from earlier discussion, this argument in the first activity is valid
because it is known as Modus Ponens which is a tautology.

Definition 1:
An argument is a compound proposition of the form (p1 ˄ p2 ˄ … ˄ pn) → q. The propositions p1
˄ p2 ˄ … ˄ pn are the premises of the argument, and q is the conclusion.
Argument can be written in proportional form, in column or standard form:
p1
p2
.
.
.
pn
q
The premises of an argument are intended to act as reasons to establish the validity or
acceptability of the conclusion.

Difference between an existential argument and an argument form.

An argument form has no specific content, while existential arguments do.
The above argument in activity 1 is about going to the mall and seeing Gladjorie, but these
references are logically irrelevant to its formal structure. The form of the argument could be
expressed as follows:

If p then q
p
Therefore q

Given that this argument form is valid, any existential argument that is a substitution instance of
it, like the one about Gladjorie and the mall, is also valid. As you see, being familiar with
argument forms is a great resource for evaluating the validity of existential arguments.

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Example:
Identify if the set of propositions is an argument.

If Dr. Jose P. Rizal is our national hero, then he shot death at Bagumbayan last December
30, 1896. Dr. Jose P. Rizal is our national hero. Therefore, he shot death at Bagumbayan last
December 30, 1896.

Solution: Yes, it is an argument because the statement follows an argument form with two
premises and a conclusion.
Premise1: If Dr. Jose P. Rizal is our national hero, then he shot death at Bagumbayan
last December 30, 1896.
Premise2: Dr. Jose P. Rizal is our national hero.
Conclusion: Dr. Jose P. Rizal shot death at Bagumbayan last December 30, 1896.

In symbol: p→q
p
 q
Is the argument valid? Is it sound? ______________________________________

Example: There are two arguments given below with the equivalent logical forms but do not have
the same content.

Consider the argument x and y:

x:
p→q If I will spend too much, then I will be broke.
p I spend too much.
 q Therefore, I became broke.

y:
p→q If I will spend too much, then I will be broke.
q I became broke.
 p Therefore, I spent too much.

Definition:

An argument is valid if it satisfies the validity condition.

Is it logically impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false?

If the answer is YES, we say that the argument satisfies the validity condition. Thus, the argument
is valid.

Solution:

Argument x
Can p → q and p both be true, and q be false?

Suppose that the premises p → q and p are true. The truth table below shows that both p → q and
p are true only in the first row. In this row, q is also true.

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 p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Then, it is logically impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion is false. Hence,
argument x satisfies the validity condition, and so it is valid.
In practical terms, this means that if I spent too much money, then I surely will be broke.

Argument y
Can p → q and q both be true, and p be false?

Suppose that the premises p → q and q are true. The truth table below shows that both p → q and
q are true in the first and third rows. However, in the third row, the conclusion p is false, even if
the premises are true.

p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

In this situation, argument y does not satisfy the validity condition.

In practical terms, it is possible that I become broke, but I did not spend too much money.

Definition 2:

A valid argument satisfies the validity condition; that is, the conclusion q is true whenever the
premises p1, p2, …, pn are all true. Put another way, for a valid argument, the conditional (p1, p2,
…, pn) → q is a tautology.

What’s More
Enrichment Activities
Activity 2 Prove that the argument [(p → q) ˄ p] → q is valid. This argument is known
as Modus Ponens (or Rule of Detachment). Draw the truth table.

p q p→q (p → q) ˄ p [(p → q) ˄ p] → q
T T
T F
F T
F F

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 [(p → q) ˄ p] → q is valid? Yes _______ or No _______

Reason: ______________________________________________________________
Asserting that the argument is valid, does it mean that the conclusions are true? Yes ____ or
No ______.

Table 6: RULES OF INFERENCE

Let p, q, and r be propositions.

Propositional Form Standard Form

p˄q
Rule of Simplification (p ˄ q) → p  p

p
Rule of Addition P → (p ˅ q)  p˅q

p
Rule of Conjunction (p ˄ q) → (p ˄ q) q
 p˄q
p→q
Modus Ponens ((p → q) ˄ p) → q p
 q
p→q
Modus Tollens ((p → q) ˄ (~ q) → ~ p ~q
~p
p→q
Law of Syllogism ((p → q) ˄ (q→ r) → (p → r) q→ r
p→r
p˅q
Rule of Disjunctive Syllogism ((p ˅ q) ˄ (~ p)) → q ~p
q
(~ p) → )
Rule of Contradiction ((~ p) → ) → p q

p→r
Rule of proof by Cases ((p → r) ˄ (q→ r) → (p ˅ q) → r) q→ r
 (p ˅ q) → r

Example: Determine which rule is the basis of each argument below.

1. Meljean is a doctor.
Therefore, Meljean or Elma is a doctor.
2. Emerald and Jeremy enjoyed watching “Crash Landing on You”.
Therefore, Emerald enjoyed watching “Crash Landing on You”.
3. If Kleene Mae is teaching online, then she is teaching virtually.
If she is teaching virtually, then she is earning dollars.
Therefore, if Kleene Mae is teaching online, then she is earning dollars.

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Solution:
1. Let p: “Meljean is a doctor”.
q: “Elma is a doctor”. The given argument is of the form
p
 p˅q
By the Rule of Addition, the argument is valid.
2. Let p: Emerald watching “Crash Landing on You”.
q: Jeremy watching “Crash Landing on You”. The given argument is of the form
p˄q
 p
By the Rule of Simplification, the argument is valid.
3. Let p: “Kleene Mae is teaching online.”
q: “She is teaching virtually.”
r: “She is earning dollars.”
The given argument is of the form
p→q
q→ r
p→r
By the Law of Syllogism, the argument is valid.

Activity 3 Prove that the argument [(p → q) ˄ q] → p is fallacy. This argument is

known as Fallacy of the Converse. Draw the truth table.

p q p→q (p → q) ˄ q [(p → q) ˄ q] → p
T T
T F
F T
F F

[(p → q) ˄ p] → q is a tautology? Yes _______ or No _______

[(p → q) ˄ p] → q is valid? Yes _______ or No _______
Reason: ______________________________________________________________

Definition 3:
An argument (p1 ˄ p2, ˄ …, ˄ pn) → q which is not valid is called a fallacy. In a fallacy, it is
possible for the premises p1, p2, …, pn to be true, while the conclusion q is false. In this case, the
conditional (p1 ˄ p2, ˄ …, ˄ pn) → q is not a tautology.

As we observe in the third activity that the argument given is invalid because it is not a tautology.
Therefore, it is an example of fallacy. Note that it is sufficient to find the truth values of p and q
that will make the premises simultaneously true, but the conclusion is false. We call such set of
values a counterexample. In this case, the counterexample is the case when p is false, and q is
true (see the third row of the truth table above).

35
 Example:
Show that the following arguments are fallacies.
a. If I go to the market, then I ride a cab.
I ride a cab.
Therefore, I went to the market.

b. If a student failed the exam, then he needs to study.

He needs to study.
Therefore, a student failed the exam.

Solution:
The argument follows the form of fallacy of converse:
p→q
q
 p

Table 6: COMMON FALLACIES IN LOGIC

Let p, q, and r be propositions.

Propositional Form Standard Form

p→q
Fallacy of the Converse [(p → q) ˄ q] → p q
 p
p→q
Fallacy of the Inverse [(p → q) ˄ (~ p)] → (~ q) ~p
 ~q
p˅q
Affirming the Disjunct [(p ˅ q) ˄ p] → (~ q) p
 ~q
p→q
Fallacy of the Consequent ((p → q) → (q → p) q→p

~ (p ˄ q)
Denying a Conjunct [~ (p ˄ q) ˄ (~ p)] → q ~p
q
p→q
Improper Transposition ((p → q) → [(~ p) → (~ q)]  (~ p) → (~ q)

Example: Determine whether the given is a valid argument or a fallacy.

1. Either Llany eat salad or drink water
Llany eat salad.
Therefore, Llany did not drink water.

2. Either Llany eat salad or drink water.

Llany did not drink water.
Therefore, Llany eat salad.

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Solution:
Let p: “Llany eat salad.” and q: “Llany drink water.”

1. The argument is of the form [(p ˅ q) ˄ p] → (~ q)].

This is the fallacy of Affirming the disjunct.

Alternative Solution: We can prove that the argument is not valid by finding a
counterexample (that is, truth table shows that the tautology is false). This shown when both p and
q are false, as the following table shows.

p q ~q p˅q (p ˅ q) ˄ p (p ˅ q) ˄ p] → (~ q)].
T T F T T F

2. The given argument is of the form

p˅q
~q
 p

The first premise can be written as q ˅ p, by the Commutative Law, and so we can write

q˅p
~q
 p
Which adheres to the Rule of Disjunctive Syllogism, the argument is valid.

Definition: VALID AND SOUND ARGUMENTS

An argument is said to be satisfy the truth condition if its premises are generally true.

Definition: A sound argument is a valid argument which also satisfies the truth condition. An
argument which does not satisfy either the validity condition or the truth condition is called a bad
argument.

Example: Determine whether each of the following arguments is valid, and if each is sound.
a. If Digong decide not to have the class on August 24, then we will not be having our class.
Digong decide bot to have the class on August 24.
Therefore, we will not be having our class.
b. If Carlo study during summer, then, Carlo will gain more knowledge.
Carlo study during summer.
Therefore, Carlo will gain more knowledge.

Solution: Both arguments are Modus Ponens. They are tautology and are valid. Now, we will
check the soundness through the truth table.

a. Even though Digong decided not to have the class on August 24, it does not mean that
we will not have our class because the Department of Education plans to have
alternative ways to have the discussion such as through internet, module, television
and radio. Hence, the argument is a bad argument.

37
 Let A be the proposition representing “student like HUMSS strand”
Let B be the proposition representing “student taking SMAW strand”
Let C be the proposition representing “student pursuing STEM strand”
1. A ˄ B
Answer: The student like HUMSS strand and taking SMAW strand.
2. C ˅ A
Answer: Student pursuing STEM strand or HUMSS strand.
3. ~ C
Answer: The student did not pursue STEM strand.
4. It is not the case that the student like HUMSS strand or student taking SMAW strand.
Answer: ~ (A ˅ B)
5. Student like HUMSS strand and taking SMAW, or pursuing STEM strand.
Answer: (A ˄ B) ˅ C

Lesson 2
Activity no. 3

1. ~ (p ˄ ~q)

p q ~q p ˄ ~q ~ (p ˄ ~q)
T T F F T
T F T T F
F T F F T
F F T F T

2. ~ q → ~ p

p q ~p ~q ~q→~p
T T F F T
T F F T F
F T T F T
F F T T T

3. q ˅ (~p ˅ q)

p q ~p (~p ˅ q) q ˅ (~p ˅ q)
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T

4. (p ˅ ~ q) ˄ (~ p → q)

p q ~p ~q p˅~q ~p→q (p ˅ ~ q) ˄ (~ p → q)
T T F F T T T
T F F F T T T
F T T T T T T
F F T T T F F

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 5. (~p ˄ ~ q) ↔ ~ (p ˄ q)

p q ~p ~q ~p ˄ ~ q p˄q ~ (p ˄ q) (~p ˄ ~ q) ↔ ~ (p ˄ q)
T T F F F T F T
T F F F F F T T
F T T T T F T T
F F T T T F T T
Application:

[(j → o) ˄ (y → j)] → [ (y ˅ o) ↔ j].

j o y j→o y→j (j → o) ˄ (y → y˅o (y ˅ o) ↔ [(j → o) ˄ (y → j)] → [ (y ˅ o) ↔

j]
j) j
T T T T T T T T T
T T F T T T T T T
T F T F T F T T T
T F F F T F F F T
F T T T F F T F T
F T F T T T T F F
F F T T F F T F T
F F F T T T F T T

Lesson 3

Activity no. 3 Equivalent or not

1. (p→ q) ˄ (q → p) and p ↔ q

(p→ q) ˄ (q → p) p↔q

p q p→ q q→p (p→ q) ˄ (q → p) p q p↔q

T T T T T T T T
T F F T F T F F
F T T F F F T F
F F T T T F F T

Therefore (p→ q) ˄ (q → p) and p ↔ q are equivalent

44
 2. ~ p ˅ ~ q and p ˄ ~q

~p˅~q p ˄ ~q

p q ~p ~q ~p˅~q p q ~q p ˄ ~q
T T F F F T T F F
T F F T T T F T T
F T T F T F T F F
F F T T T F F T F

Therefore ~ p ˅ ~ q and p ˄ ~q are NOT equivalent

3. p ˅ (q ˅ r) and (p ˅ q) ˅ r

p ˅ (q ˅ r) (p ˅ q) ˅ r

p q r q˅r p ˅ (q ˅ r) p q r p˅q (p ˅ q) ˅ r
T T T T T T T T T T
T T F T T T T F T T
T F T T T T F T T T
T F F F T T F F T T
F T T T T F T T T T
F T F T T F T F T T
F F T T T F F T F T
F F F F F F F F F F

Therefore p ˅ (q ˅ r) and (p ˅ q) ˅ r are equivalent

4. (p ˄ q) → r and (~ p ˅ ~q) ˅ r

(p ˄ q) → r

p q r (p ˄ q) (p ˄ q) → r
T T T T T
T T F T T
T F T F F
T F F F T
F T T F F
F T F F T
F F T F F
F F F F T

(~ p ˅ ~q) ˅ r

p q r ~p ~q ~p˅~q (~ p ˅ ~q) ˅ r

T T T F F F T
T T F F F F F
T F T F T T T
T F F F T T T
F T T T F T T
F T F T F 45 T T
F F T T T T T
F F F T T T T
 Therefore (p ˄ q) → r and (~ p ˅ ~q) ˅ r are NOT equivalent

Application:

1. We throw our garbage properly; it will help make our place clean.
Hypothesis: We throw our garbage properly.
Conclusion: It will help make our place clean.
Converse: If it will help our place clean, then we throw our garbage properly.
Inverse: If we do not throw our garbage properly, then it will not help make our place
clean.
Contrapositive: If it will not help make our place clean, then we do not throw our
garbage properly.

2. People should think first before they post, it will lessen spreading fake news.
Hypothesis: People should think first before they post.
Conclusion: It will lessen spreading fake news.
Converse: If it will lessen spreading fake news, then people should think first before
they post.
Inverse: If people should not think first before they post, then it will not lessen spreading
fake news.
Contrapositive: If it will not lessen spreading of fake news, then people should not think
first before they post.

3. Mary Grace like foods and enjoy street foods.

Hypothesis: Mary Grace like foods
Conclusion: Mary Grace enjoy street foods.
Converse: If Mary Grace enjoy street foods, then Mary Grace like foods.
Inverse: If Mary Grace do not like foods, then Mary Grace do not like street foods.
Contrapositive: If Mary Grace do not like street foods, then Mary Grace do not like
foods.

4. All people are hardworking, it will make them successful.

Hypothesis: All people are hardworking.
Conclusion: It will make them successful.
Converse: If it will make them successful, then all people are hardworking.
Inverse: If all people are not hardworking, then it will not make them successful.
Contrapositive: If it will not make them successful, then all people are not hardworking.

46
 5. Mary Ann like decorating her room. It will make her classroom attractive and
clean.

Hypothesis: Mary Ann like decorating her room.

Conclusion: It will make her classroom attractive and clean.
Converse: If it will make her classroom attractive and clean, then Mary Ann like
decorating her room.
Inverse: If Mary Ann do not like decorating her room, then it will not make her
classroom attractive and clean.
Contrapositive: If it will not make her classroom attractive and clean, then Mary Ann do
not like decorating her room.

Lesson 4

Activity no. 3 Translate in symbolic form

1. To pass General Mathematics, then it is necessary that you answer all the exercises.
Izyan passed General Mathematics. Therefore, Izyan answer all the exercises.
Symbolic form: p → q
p
q

From table 6, the argument is valid by the direct reasoning or Modus Ponens

2. If Joses do not go to school, then his mother will get mad. Joses went to school.
Therefore, his mother will not get mad.
Symbolic form: ~p → q
p
~q
Validate by truth table:
p q ~p ~p → q ~q (~p → q) ˄ p (~p → q) ˄ p →~ q
T T F T F T F
T F F T T T T
F T T T F F T
F F T F T F T

Therefore, it is not valid since it is not true in all cases.

3. If you buy luxurious things, then you will go hungry. You did not go hungry. Therefore,
you did not buy luxurious things.
Symbolic form: p → q
~q
 ~p

From table 6, the argument is valid by contrapositive reasoning or Modus Tolens.

47
Application:
Draw a valid conclusion from the given premises.

1. You study or you can answer the exam.

I did not study.
Therefore, you can answer the exam Rule of disjunctive syllogism
2. If Dafney is a teacher, then she has a college degree.
Dafney does not have a college degree.
Therefore, she is not a teacher Modus Tollens

3. The writers were told to submit their modules or be deducted by their salaries.
The writers did not submit their modules.
Therefore, they will be deducted by their salaries. Rule of disjunctive syllogism

4. If I am happy, then I can concentrate.

I am happy.
Therefore,I can concentrate. Modus Ponens

Lesson 5

Activity no. 3

1. The set of whole number is finite, or the set of positive integers is finite. It is
known that the set of positive integers is infinite. Therefore, the set of whole
numbers is finite.

Solution: The argument is valid by Disjunctive Syllogism. However, it is not sound

because there are infinitely satisfies the truth condition. Hence, the argument is sound.

2. If I live at Cagayan de Oro City, then I am not from Mindanao. I live at Cagayan
de Oro City. Therefore, I am not from Mindanao.

Solution: by Modus Ponens, the argument is valid. The first statement “I live at
Cagayan de Oro City does not mean that I really came from that place (you can
probably think of some examples). Hence, the given argument is a bad argument.

3. If 4 is less than 5, then 4 is not a prime number. 4 is a prime number. Therefore, 4

is not less than 5.
Solution: The argument is valid by Modus Tollens, buy the second premise not true
that 4 is a prime number. Hence, the argument is not sound.

4. If I been using my cellphone the whole day, then it will be damaged. I been using
my cellphone the whole day. Therefore, it will be damaged.

Solution: It is accepted as true by Modus Ponens that if using my cellphone, the

whole day will be damaged it. It is true, then the argument is sound.

48
Application:
1. If it is Monday today, then it is June 1. It is Monday today, therefore, it is June 1.
Solution: Let p: “It is Monday today” and q: “It is June 1”. In propositional form, the
argument assumes the form [p →q) ˄ p] →q. Hence, the argument is valid by virtue
of Modus Ponens.

2. Either Aimee or Jannah will report about Logic. Aimee did not report. Therefore,
Jannah must have taken the report about Logic.
Solution: Let p: “Aimee will report about Logic” and q: “Jannah will report about
Logic”. In propositional form, the argument assumes the form [p ˅ q) ˄ (~ p)] →q.
Hence, the argument is valid by Rule of Disjunction Syllogism.

3. If it is not the case that x is an odd number and y is a prime number. Furthermore, x is
not an odd number. Therefore, y is a prime number.
Solution: Let p:”x is an odd number,” and q: “y is a prime number.” The argument is
of the form
~ (p ˄ q)
~p
 q
This it is fallacy of Denying a Conjunct.

4. If f is a polynomial function, then it is also a rational function. Therefore, if f is a

rational function, it is also a polynomial function.
Solution: Let p:” f is a polynomial function” and q: “f is a rational function.” The
argument is of the form
p˄q
 q→p
This it is fallacy of the Consequent.

5. If Julian wins the singing competition, then he will perform in national T.V.
He performed in national T.V. It follows that Julian won the singing competition.
Solution: Let p:” Julian wins the singing competition” and q: “he will perform in
national T.V.” The argument is of the form
p→q
q
p
This it is fallacy of the Converse.

-End of Module-

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