Data and Computer

Communications

Tenth Edition
by William Stallings
 CHAPTER 11

Local Area Network Overview

 Bus Topology
➢ Topology
⚫ Refers to the way in which the endpoints, or stations,

attached to the network are interconnected

➢ Bus topology
⚫ All stations attach, through a tap, directly to a linear

transmission medium, or bus

⚫ Full-duplex operation between the station and the tap

allows data to be transmitted onto the bus and received

from the bus
⚫ A transmission from any station propagates the length

of the medium in both directions and can be received

by all other stations
⚫ At each end of the bus is a terminator, which absorbs

any signal, removing it from the bus

3
 A

A B C

C transmits frame addressed to A

A B C

Frame is not addressed to B; B ignores it

A B C

A copies frame as it goes by

Figure 11.1 Frame Transmission on a Bus LAN 4

 Star Topology
➢ Each station connects to common central node
⚫ Usually via two point-to-point links

• One for transmission and one for reception

Central node

• Operate in broadcast fashion

• Physical star, logical bus
• Only one station can transmit at a time (hub)
• Can act as frame switch
5
 Central Hub,
switch,
or repeater

Figure 11.2 Star Topology 6

 OSI Reference
Model

Application

Presentation
IEEE 802
Reference
Session Model

Transport Upper
Layer LLC Service
Protocols Access Point
(LSAP)
Network
( ) ( ) ( )
Logical Link Control
Data Link Medium Access
Control
Scope
of
Physical Physical IEEE 802
Standards

Medium Medium

Figure 11.3 IEEE 802 Protocol Layers Compared to OSI Model 7

 IEEE 802 Reference Model
➢ Lowest layer corresponds to
the physical layer of the OSI Includes functions
such as:
model
Encoding/decoding of
signals
➢ Includes a specification of the
transmission medium and the
Preamble
topology generation/removal

Bit
transmission/reception

8
 IEEE 802 Layers
➢ Logical Link Control ➢ Media Access Control
Layer (LLC) (MAC)
⚫ Provide interface to ⚫ On transmit assemble

higher levels data into frame

⚫ Perform flow and error ⚫ On reception

control disassemble frame,

perform address
recognition and error
detection
⚫ Govern access to LAN

transmission medium

9
 Application data Application Layer

TCP
header TCP Layer

IP
header IP Layer

LLC
header LLC Layer

MAC MAC
header trailer MAC Layer

TCP segment

IP datagram

LLC protocol data unit

MAC frame

Figure 11.4 LAN Protocols in Context

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 Logical Link Control
➢ Transmission of link level PDUs between stations
➢ Must support multi-access, shared medium
➢ Relieved of some details of link access by the MAC layer
➢ Addressing involves specifying source and destination
LLC users
⚫ Referred to as service access points (SAPs)

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 LLC Services
Unacknowledged connectionless service
• Datagram-style service
• Delivery of data is not guaranteed

Connection-mode service
• Logical connection is set up between two users
• Flow and error control are provided

Acknowledged connectionless service

• Datagrams are to be acknowledged, but no logical
connection is set up
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 LLC Service Alternatives
Unacknowledged connectionless service
• Requires minimum logic
• Avoids duplication of mechanisms
• Preferred option in most cases
Connection-mode service
• Used in simple devices
• Provides flow control and reliability mechanisms
Acknowledged connectionless service
• Guaranteed delivery is needed for large number of
destinations
• Time critical or emergency control signals
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 LLC Protocol
➢ Modeled after HDLC
➢ Asynchronous balanced mode
⚫ Connection mode (type 2) LLC service

➢ Unacknowledged connectionless service

⚫ Using unnumbered information PDUs (type 1)

➢ Acknowledged connectionless service

⚫ Using 2 new unnumbered PDUs (type 3)

➢ Permits multiplexing using LSAPs

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MAC MAC Destination Source
Control MAC Address MAC Address LLC PDU CRC
Frame

1 octet 1 1 or 2 variable
LLC
DSAP SSAP LLC Control Information
PDU

LLC
I/G DSAP value C/R SSAP value
Address Fields
I/G = Individual/Group
C/R = Command/Response

Figure 11.5 LLC PDU in a Generic MAC Frame Format

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 Medium Access Control
(MAC) Protocol
➢ Controls access to the transmission medium
➢ Key parameters:
⚫ Where

• Central: Greater control, single point of failure

• Distributed: More complex, but more redundant
⚫ How

• Synchronous
⚫ Capacity dedicated to connection, not optimal

• Asynchronous
⚫ Response to demand

⚫ Round robin, reservation, contention 16

 Asynchronous Systems

Round robin Reservation Contention

• Each station • Divide medium • All stations
given turn to into slots contend for time
transmit data • Good for stream • Good for bursty
traffic traffic
• Simple to
implement
• Tends to collapse
under heavy load

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 MAC Frame Handling
➢ MAC layer receives
data from LLC layer
➢ PDU is referred to as a • MAC control
MAC frame • Destination MAC
address
➢ MAC layer detects
Fields: • Source MAC
errors and discards address
frames • LLC
➢ LLC optionally • CRC
retransmits
unsuccessful frames

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 Bridges
➢ Connects similar LANs with identical physical and link
layer protocols
➢ Minimal processing
➢ Reasons for use:
⚫ Reliability

⚫ Performance

⚫ Security

⚫ Geography

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LAN A
Frames with
addresses 11 through
20 are accepted and
repeated on LAN B

Bridge

Station 1 Station 2 Station 10

Frames with
addresses 1 through
10 are accepted and
repeated on LAN A
LAN B

Station 11 Station 12 Station 20

Figure 11.6 Bridge Operation

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 Bridge Design Aspects
➢ Makes no modification to the content or format of the
frames it receives
➢ Should contain enough buffer space to meet peak
demands
➢ Must contain routing and addressing intelligence
➢ May connect more than two LANs
➢ Bridging is transparent to stations

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 User User
t1 t8
LLC LLC
t2 t7
MAC MAC MAC
t3 t4 t5 t6
Physical LAN Physical Physical LAN Physical

(a) Architecture

t1, t8 User Data

t2, t7 LLC-H User Data

t3, t4, t5, t6 MAC-H LLC-H User Data MAC-T

(b) Operation

Figure 11.7 Connection of Two LANs by a Bridge

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 Station 1 Station 2 Station 3

LAN A

Bridge Bridge
101 Bridge 102
107

LAN B LAN C

Bridge Bridge
Bridge Bridge 105 106
103 104

LAN D LAN E LAN F LAN G

Station 4 Station 5 Station 6 Station 7

Figure 11.8 Configuration of Bridges and LANs, with Alternate Routes 23

 Fixed Routing
➢ Simplest and most common strategy
➢ Suitable for small internets and internets that are
relatively stable
➢ A fixed route is selected for each pair of LANs
• Usually least hop route
➢ Only change when topology changes
➢ Widely used but limited flexibility

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 Spanning Tree
➢ Bridge automatically develops routing table
➢ Automatically updates routing table in response to
changing topology

Algorithm consists of
three mechanisms:

Frame forwarding Address learning Loop resolution

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 Frame Forwarding
➢ Maintain forwarding database for each port attached to a
LAN
➢ For a frame arriving on port X:

Search forwarding database to see if MAC address is listed for

any port except port X

If destination MAC address is not found, forward frame out all

ports except the one from which it was received

If the destination address is in the forwarding database for some

port y, check port y for blocking or forwarding state

If port y is not blocked, transmit frame through port y onto the LAN
to which that port attaches
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 Address Learning
➢ Can preload forwarding database
➢ When frame arrives at port X, it has come from the LAN
attached to port X
➢ Use source address to update forwarding database for
port X to include that address
➢ Have a timer on each entry in database
➢ If timer expires, entry is removed
➢ Each time frame arrives, source address checked
against forwarding database
⚫ If present timer is reset and direction recorded

⚫ If not present entry is created and timer set

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 Spanning Tree Algorithm
➢ Address learning works for tree layout if there are no
alternate routes in the network
⚫ Alternate route means there is a closed loop

➢ For any connected graph there is a spanning tree

maintaining connectivity with no closed loops
➢ Algorithm must be dynamic

IEEE 802.1 Spanning Tree Algorithm:

• Each bridge assigned unique identifier

• Cost assigned to each bridge port
• Exchange information between bridges to find spanning tree
• Automatically updated whenever topology changes
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29
 Hubs
➢ Active central element of star layout
➢ Each station connected to hub by two lines
➢ Hub acts as a repeater
➢ Length of a line is limited to about 100m
➢ Optical fiber may be used to about 500m
➢ Physically a star, logically a bus
➢ Transmission from any one station is received by all
other stations
➢ If two stations transmit at the same time there will be a
collision

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 HHUB
Two cables
(twisted pair or
optical fiber)

IHUB IHUB Station

Transmit

Receive

Station Station Station Station

Figure 11.10 Two-Level Star Topology 31

 Shared Bus - 10 Mbps

10 Mbps

10 Mbps

10 Mbps

10 Mbps
A B C D

(a) Shared medium bus

Total capacity
up to 10 Mbps

10 Mbps 10 Mbps

10 Mbps 10 Mbps

A B C D

(b) Shared medium hub

Total capacity
N 10 Mbps

10 Mbps 10 Mbps

10 Mbps 10 Mbps

A B C D

(c) Layer 2 switch

Figure 15.11 LAN Hubs and Switches 32

 Layer 2 Switch Benefits
➢ No change is required to the software or hardware of the
attached devices to convert a bus LAN or a hub LAN to a
switched LAN
➢ Have dedicated capacity equal to original LAN
⚫ Assuming switch has sufficient capacity to keep up

with all devices

➢ Scales easily
⚫ Additional devices attached to switch by increasing

capacity of layer 2 switch

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 Types of Layer 2 Switches
➢ Store-and-forward switch ➢ Cut-through switch
⚫ Accepts frame on ⚫ Use destination

input line, buffers address at beginning

briefly, routes to of frame
appropriate output line ⚫ Switch begins

⚫ Involves delay repeating frame onto

between sender and output line as soon as
receiver destination address is
⚫ Boosts overall integrity recognized
of network ⚫ Yields highest possible

throughput
⚫ Risk of propagating

bad frames
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 Layer 2 Switch vs. Bridge
➢ Differences between
switches and bridges: ➢ Layer 2 switch can be
viewed as full-duplex hub
➢ Incorporates logic to
Bridge Switch function as multiport
bridge
Performs frame ➢ New installations typically
Frame handling forwarding in
done in software hardware include layer 2 switches
with bridge functionality
Analyzes and Can handle rather than bridges
forwards one multiple frames
frame at a time at a time

Uses store-and- Can have cut-

forward operation through operation 35