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‘Study of Plant Population
: To study population density and percentage frequency of different
plant species of a given area
Study of Mitosis in Onion Root Tip
: To prepare temporary acetocarmine stained mount of onion root tip
to study various stages of mitosis
|. Action of Salivary Amylase on Starch
: To study the action of salivary amylase on starch
: To study the effect of different temperatures on the activity of
salivary amylase on starch
: To study the effect of different pH on the activity of salivary
amylase on starch
. Isolation of DNA from Plant Materials
: To isolate DNA from available plant material such as spinach
leaves, green pea seeds, papaya etc.
of Adaptations of Flowers for Pollination are
: To study the flowers adapted to pollination by different agencies
(wind, insect and bi
Pollen Germination and Growth of Pollen Tube an
37-4]
37
41
42-45
43 me, ee Study of Plant
2, Population
INTRODUCTION
() Population is defined as a nearly permanent aggregation of individuals of the same kind
which inhibit a particular space or geographical area at a particular time. It is subordinate
toa species as a unit of cooperative aggregation of individuals.
(W ‘The number of individuals in a population never remain constant. Itmay increase or decrease
due to many factors like birth rate, death rz
1, migration ete.
(Wi) Thenumber of individuals of a species present per unit area or space of agiven time is called
population density.
(iv) Population density is calculated by counting all the individuals present at a given time in a
sven space or area divided by the number of units of area or space.
De—
8
Here, D = population density, N = number of individuals and S = units of space.
(v) ‘The population density and percentage frequency of different plant species can be determined
by laying quadrats/segments of suitable size and recording the number of individuals of
each species occurring in the quadrat.
(vi) The percentage frequency is calculated as follows :
Percentage frequency
Total number of quadrats/segments in which species occurred
i I)
Total number of quadrats/segments studied
Metre scale, string or cord, nails, paper, pencil ete.
ROCEDURE
(@) Determination of the size of Quadrat, Prepare a L. shaped structure in the field of 1m
x 1 m by using 3 nails and tying a string with them, Now measure 10 em on one side of
the arm of L and then the other, Prepare 10 x 10 sq. cm area using another piece of string.
sie 38 Comprehensive Laboratory Manual in Biology—xi, |
Count the number of species occurring in this area. Increase this area to 20 x 20 sq. cm and
similarly record additional species occurring in this area. Repeat the same procedure til]
1x 1sq, m area covered. Record the observations as follows :
im
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
0 10 20 30 «40 50 60 70 80 90 1m
Fig. 5.1. Procedure to find out minimum size of the quadrat.
Table 5.1. Total number of species and the area o
o 25 50 75 100 cm
Fig. 5.2. Species area curve to determine the size of the quadrat.
(b) Determination of Population density and percentage frequency. Take a quadrat of
suitable size, lay it randomly at number of places. Count the number of each plant species
present in the quadrat. If the number of plants in the quadrat is large, the quadrat canbe
divided into smaller sub-units and the sum total of all the sub-units will give the number
of individuals of a species in the quadrat. Record the data in the observation table.
Total No. of individuals in all the quadrats studied ae
ulation Density =
eon Total No, of quadrats studied
Total No. of quadrats in which species occurr
Percentage Frequency = 2 40 Comprehensive Laboratory Manual in Biology—xy, |
¥ Species No. 1
'& Species No. 2
AE species no. 3
VY Species No. 4
Species No. 5
Bree area
Plants outside
the quadrat
Fig. 5.4. Occurrence of plant species in a quadrat.
OBSERVATION AND RESULT
Table 5.2. Different plant species, their population density
and percentage frequency occurring in a given area
8. | Plant | No. ofindividuals | Totalno. of|Totalno. of Total no. of| Population | Frequency
No. | species per quadrat
I) \|miwviv
quadrats | density
studied (B) N/B A/B x 100
a | able
COUN AG Soutd be dons ¢) eott Core Experiments
ga Define population.
‘Ans, The sum total of all the individuals of a species occuring in an area
of that species.
What is population density ?
‘Ans. It is the number of individuals per unit area of a species.
Q.3. Why a quadrat of large size is generally further divided
|Ans. In smaller units, the individuals of different species can be counted more
Q.4. What is demography ?
‘Ans. Statistical study of human population is called demography.
Q.5. What is natality ? =
Ans. Natality is the birth rate of a species or the
population by birth.
Q.6. What is mortality ?
Mortality is the death rate or the rate by
What is a quadrat ?
Aquadrat is a sample plot of a specific: i eevee
pacer"
Seu, i Study of Adaptations '
a a | of Flowers for ¥
3 a Pollination
a ties of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of either the same flower or vA
another flower of the same species is called pollination.
2. Pollen grains are immobile, hence require external agencies to reach to the stigma.
3. The external agencies involved in pollination may be abiotic (e.g., wind, water) or biotic (eg,
insects, birds, bats, snails, birds).
EXPERIMENT 9.1 )
AIM: To study the flowers adapted to pollination by different agencies (wind, insect and birds),
REQUIREMENTS
Fresh flowers of maize or any other cereal/grass, Salvia/Ocimum and Brassica (mustard) forceps,
hand lens, slide, needle ete.
PROCEDURE
Place the given flower on a slide and observe it with the help of hand lens. Note down the
adaptations of the flowers meant for pollination by the external agencies,
Maize Flowers (Anemophilous or Wind Pollinated Flowers)
‘The flowers of maize show following adaptations for pollination by wind.
2 ‘Themaize plants monoecious and bears unisexual flowers. The male flowers are born in terminal
inflorescence while the female flowers are born in axillary inflorescence.
Flowers are small and inconscipicous,
‘The flowers are colourless, odourless and nectarless,
Flowers are produced above the foliage or placed in hanging position,
Both the stigmas and anthers are exerted (ie, hang outside the perianth),
Anthers are versatile, and pollen grains ae light, small and dusty,
‘The pollen grains are produced in very large numbers.
NOR ewD 59
sxperiments
stigma is hairy, feathery or branched to catch wind born pollen grains.
Male flowers.
Pollen grains
Versatile
anther
Elongated
styles —> ered
Polen grains _
of another plant 7. Te, Stigmas Ovary
h
Fig. 9.1. Anemophily in maize. Fig. 9.2. Feathery stigmas and versatile
anthers in a flower of grass.
Salvia Flowers (Entomophilous or Insect Pollinated Flowers)
The flowers of Saliva show following adaptations for pollination by insects.
‘The flowers are showy or brightly coloured for attracting pollinating insects.
‘The flowers are born in verticellaster inflorescence to become conspicuous.
Flowers secrete nectar to feed visiting insects. Nectar glands are placed in such a position that
an insect must touch both the anthers and stigmas.
‘The flowers have landing platform for the insects.
The flowers are protandrons with bilipped corolla and have turn pipe or lever mechanism.
Each stamen has long connective which bears a fertile anther lobe at the upper end and sterile
plate like anther lobe at the lower end. The two sterile anther plates block the path of insect.
As the insect moves inward a young flower in search of nectar, its head pushes, the anther plates
and forces the fertile anther lobes to strike against its back.
In older flowers the style brings the stigma in such a position that it brushes against the back
of insect and collect pollen grains brought by the insect from a young flower. 60 Comprehensive Laboratory Manual in Biology—X))
Closed stigma aK
anther lobo
Shedding of
pollan grains
Zon the back
of insect
Sterile B
A. anther lobe
Nectariferous. Mature
disc stigma
Stigma
receiving
pollen grains
from the back
of insect
ie: Withering P
anther
9.3. Pollination in Salvia, A. Flower with mature anthers, enclosed stigma and short style.
B. Shedding of pollen grains on the back of entering insect. C. Flower with mature stigma and withering
anthers, D. Stigma receiving pollen grains from the back of entering insect,
Bignonia/Callistemon (Bottle brush) Flowers (Ornithophilous or Bird Pollinated
Flowers)
‘The flowers of Bignonia show following adaptations for pollination by birds,
‘The flowers are usually brightly coloured-red, orange, yellow or blue.
2. The floral parts are commonly leathery.
Humming bird
pen ‘
Pollination in Bignonia, Humming bird collecting nectar
"© Bignonia Hower and thus polinating tn 61
In some cases, the corolla are leathery.
The flowers secrete abundant watery nectar or have edible parts
‘The nectar is secreted in such abundance that drops of it can be brought down by shaking
"ranches.
The flowers are generally odourless or without fragrance.
VIVAVOCE oe
bs
. What is meant by pollination ?
‘The process of transference of pollen grains from anther to the stigma is called pollination.
3s. Self pollination and cross pollination.
}. What is autogamy ?
"It is a type of self-pollination in which an intersexual flower is pollinated by its own pollen.
st is geitonogamy ?
s a type of pollination in which pollen grains of one flower are transferred to oes
re flower belonging to either the same plant or genetically similar plant.
allogamy or xenogamy ?
of pollination in which pollen grains from anther of one flower are t
of a genetically different flower. a
See. Study of Pollen
Germination and
Growth of Pollen
Tube
1. Pollen grains are the male reproductive structures of spermatophytes. A pollen grain is a partly
germinated microspore representing the male gametophyte,
PE,
e Rin,
OniL>
Each pollen grain of a flowering plant (angiosperm) possesses two cells—(i) vegetative cell and
(i) generative cell. It has two layered wall—() the exeine, which is the outer layer and chiefly
composed of sporopollenin and (ji) the intine, which is the inner layer and chiefly composed
of plecto-cellulose, At one or more places the exine is very thin or absent. These regions are
called apertures through which the pollen tube emerges at the time of germination.
‘The germination of pollen grain occurs, when it is deposited to the receptive surface of the
carpel called stigma through the process of pollination,
On the stigma, the pollen grain germinates and gives out a pollen tube from its vegetative cell
‘The pollen tube grows between cells of stigma and transmitting tissue of the style, Later, the
generative cell moves down to the pollen tube and devide to give rise two male nuclei (male
gametes),
‘The germination of pollen grain and the growth of pollen tube can be studied through a teased
Preparation/longitudinal section of a pollinated carpel,
AIM: To study the pollen germination and, of pollen tube:
ep ae sab pollen tube in a pollinated pistil (in Portulaca/
REQUIREMENTS :
Fresh pollinated flowers of Portulaca/grass or
needles, forceps, brush, dropper, safranin, glycerine,
PROCEDURE
any other suitable flower, glass slide, coverslip,
petridish, water, blotting paper, microscope et
Portulaca/grass or any other suitable flowe!
Gently tease it with the help of needles or pick
Section of it, Place the section on a glass core Experiments 63
a2 — Pollen grains
_— Pollen grain "> Stigma
Pollen tubes
Style
Pollen
tube
Antipodal cells
Secondary
nucleus
Male
gametes Male gametes
A B
Fig. 10.1. Pollen germination. A. Pollen grains germinating on stigma (a teased preparation).
B. Growth of pollen tube in the carpel (L.S.).
2. Pour a drop of safranin on the teased carpel or its section and wash it with water.
3. Put a drop of glycerine and cover the teased carpel or its section with coverslip. Remove the
extra glycerine with blotting paper. Observe the preparation under the high power of microscope
and draw the diagrams of different stages of pollen germination.
OBSERVATION
Different stages of germinating pollens are observed in the stigma and style regions of the carpel.
Some pollens are in their initial stage of germination others have quite long pollen tube containing tube
hucleus and two male nuclei.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Only pollinated carpels should be selected for the experiment,
2. Teasing should be done gently, so that the pollen tubes are not ruptured.
3. Excess of glycerine/water should be removed by blotting paper. Ans.
Q2
Ans.
Q3.
Ans.
Qa
Ans.
Qs.
Ans.
Qe.
Ans.
Q7.
Ans.
. What are pollen grains ?
Comprehensive Laboratory Manual in Biology.
Pollen grains are partly germinated microspore, which represent male gametophyte of
spermatophyte.
What are the cells present in a pollen grain?
A pollen grain possess a tube cell (vegetative cell) and a generative cell.
Which of the two cells of the pollen grain produces pollen tube?
‘The vegetative cell (tube cell) of the pollen grain gives rise to the pollen tube.
From where does the pollen tube obtain its nourishment during growth ?
Pollen tube obtain its nourishment from the transmitting tissue of the style during its grow |
What is the role of pollen tube in the reproduction of flowering plants?
Pollen tube carries the male gametes to the female gametes in the embryo sac for
Which layer of the pollen wall grows out as pollen tube ?
Intine.
What stimulates the germination of pollen grain ?
Sugary substance present on the stigma stimulates the germination of pollen grain. Study of Gamete
Development in
Mouse (Mammal)
INTRODUCTION
1, Gametes are the sex cells involved in the pri al reproduction
2, The gametes differ from all other cells (= cells) of the body tn that thet niches comtsine
rratic cls
3. Meiosis forms the most significant part of process of gametogenesis
4. Gametogenesis for the formation of sperms is termed epermatogenasts, vfiile that A ova is
called oogenesis,
only half the number of chromosomes found in the nucl
5, Spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes, whereas oogenesis occurs is
AIM: To study and identify the stages of gamete development tn mouse (mammal) Le., 7-5. of
: testis and L.5. of ovary through permanent slide.
QUIREMENTS
Permanent slide of TS, of testis and L.5. of ovary, microscope.
the ovaries
Fix the permanent slide under the microscope. First observe it under the low power and then
‘The testis of a mouse (mammal) is covered by a thick fibrous tissue called tunica albuginea.
The testis consists of numerous seminiferous tubules embedded in the interstitial tisoue.
b ‘Various types of germinal cells are present from outside towards lumen in the following sequence, 66 Comprckensine Laboratory Manual in Biology—
A large number of spermatozoa with their heads embedded in sertoli cells are present i
lumen of seminiferous tubule
‘The interstitial tissue also contain leydigs cells, which produce male sexhormone testosterone
Visceral
peritoneum —
Tunica
albuginea
Spermatozoa
Blood vessel
‘Seminiferous Spermatid
tubule. ——
__ Secondary
Sertoli cell — ‘spermatocyte
_ Primary
Connective: ‘Spermatocyte
tissue
Germinal epithelium — H— Sertoli cet
‘Spermatogonium
‘Spermatogonia —
Spermatocytes
Spermatids
Spermatozoa —4
a calle
11.1. A. A Part of transverse section of testis of mouse (mammal).
B, Sectional view of a part of seminiferous tubule (enlarged)
VS. of Ovary
1. A mouse ovary is a solid structure bounded by germinal epithelium followed by a thick layer of
fibrous tissue, the tunica albuginia
Visceral
Peritoneum
Graatian follicle Core Experiments
2. The ovary consists of outer cortex and inner medulla.
The medulla contains many rounded or oval bodies called ovarian or Graafian follicles at various
stages of development.
‘The medulla also contains blood vessels, nerves fibres and some smooth muscles.
Bach follicle contains a large ovum surrounded by many layers of follicle cells.
The cortex contains young and mature follicles.
aoe e
The cortex may also contain a large mass of yellow cells termed corpus luteum, formed in an
empty Graafian follicle after the release of its ovum.
PRECAUTIONS
1.
2
First observe the slide under low power and then under the high power of the microscope.
Use fine adjustment of the microscope for focussing the slide under high power.
Q.1. What is gametogenesis ?
Ans. Gametogenesis is the process by which male and female sex cells or gametes ie., sperms and
ova are formed respectively in the testes and ovaries.
Q.2. What is spermatogenesis ?
Ans. The process of formation of sperms in the testis is called spermatogenesis.
Q.3. What is oogenesis ?
Ans. ‘The process of formation of ova in the ovary is called oogenesis.
Q.4. What are the main parts of a spermatozoa ?
Ans. A typical mammalian spermatozoa consists of a head, neck, middle piece and tail.
Q.5. At what stage does the human ovum is released from the ovary ?
Ans. The ovum is released from the ovary in the secondary oocyte stage. Sa, «Study of Meiosis in
§ + Floral Buds of Onion
2 ® and Testis of
Grasshopper
INTRODUCTION
1. Meiosis is a double division which occurs in dipoid cells and gives rise to four haploid cells each
having half the number of chromosomes as compared to the parent cell.
2. It occurs in cells that produce gametes in sexually reproducing organisms.
3, The male gametes (sperms) are produced in testes and the female gametes (eggs) are produced
in ovaries through meiosis.
4. Meiosis comprises of two division—meiosis I and meiosis II. Meiosis I results in the reduction
of chromosome number to half i.e., from 2n to n, hence, is also called reductional division. Meiosis II
maintains same number of chromosome, hence, is called equational division.
5. The various phases of the meitoic division are as follows
A. Meiosis |
(Heterotypic or Reductional division)
(1) Prophase I
(i) Leptotene. Appearance of beaded chromosome.
(ii) Zygotene. Pairing of homologous chromosomes.
(iii) Pachytene, Formation of tetrad, crossing over and chiasmata formation.
(iv) Diplotene. Two chromosomes of each bivalent move away and chiasmata disappear.
(v) Diakinesis. Nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear and spindle begins to formed.
(2) Metaphase I. Formation of spindle and arrangement of chromosomes at equator.
(3) Anaphase I Separation of homologous chromosomes and their movement towards opposite
poles of the spindle.
(4) Telophase I. Formation of two haploid nuclei,
B. Meiosis I
(Homotypic or equational division)
(1) Prophase II. Sister chromatids of each chromosome begin to condense.
(2) Metaphase II. Formation of spindle, arrangement of chromosome at equator.
nto en towards pole of spindle. Core Experiments
AIM: To study meiosis in onion bud cells through permanent slide.
REQUIREMENTS
Permanent slide of different stages of meiosis in onion bud cells, microscope.
PROCEDURE
Fix the permanent slide under the microscope.
First observe the slide under the low power and then under high power of the microscope.
OBSERVATIONS
Under the high power of microscope, following stages of meiosis are distinctly observed :
A. Meiosis I
A It is of long duration and has five sub stages =
Leptotene
@ ‘Chromatin fibres condense and form thick thread like structures called daromosomes.
(i) Nuclear envelop and nucleolus are distinct.
Sh Zygotene
@ Homologous chromosomes form pairs called bivalent. This pairing is called synapsis.
(i The individual of a pair are similar in length and in position of their centromers.
2 ee
(p The two chromatids of each chromosome become visible, so that a bivalent becomes
atetrad.
id) Ceossing over (exchange of chromatid segments between homologous chromosomes)
takes place between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes.
’ _ JOP Totsael
b (9 The two chromosomes ofeach bivalent move away and homologues are held together
at one or more points called chiasmata. er
70 Comprehensive Laboratory Manval in Biology, core EPO” a
A Telophase I
() The chromosome at each pole uncoil, and nucleolus and nuclear envelope reappear
(ii) Cytokinesis occurs to form two haploid daughter cells.
Interkinesis
Avery short interphase may intervene between meiosis I and meiosis II.
o --
Leptotene Zygotene Pachytene B periments
Votogy | ce bxpeine nt 4
B meiosis I!
Feappear, Itincludes following, four stapes
1. Prophase II
(i) The chromosoy
of daughter cell begin to condense a
(ii) Nuclear envelope and nucleolus begin to disappear
(AE Metaphase It
(i) The chromosomes are arranged on the equator of the »
(ii) Bach chromosome is held by the spindle at the centromere to both the poles
AS. hoaphase Il
(i) The sister chromatids (daughter chromosomes) of each chromovomes separate and
migrate towards the opposite poles,
(ii) Bach pole, thus receives haploid number of chromosomes.
\-& telophase 11
(i) The chromosomes begin to uncoil and become thin.
(ii) The nuclear envelope and nucleolus are reconstituted.
Cytokinesis occurs and four daughter cellsare formed, each with haploid number of chromosomes.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Floral buds should be fixed between 8 to 10 A.M.
2. Slide should be warmed gently to avoid over heating,
AIM: To study meiosis in grasshopper testis through permanent slide.
REQUIREMENTS
Permanent slide of different stages of meiosis in grasshopper testis, microscope
PROCEDURE
1. Fixthe permanent slide under the microscope:
; Observe theslide under the low power of iemnicroscape and chen high power ofthe
OBSERVATIONS
1 Spherical cells with various
2 Locate different stages of meiosis
stages of meiosis can be observed.
with the help of diagram, Comprehensive Laboratory Manyay
in By
NK),
72
Nuclear Chrom: Is
Centriole Nucleolus I ) @
Pachytene
Leptotene Zygotene
Equatorial
