MODUL

PENETRANT TESTING
Level 1
(FROM GENERAL DYNAMIC)
 CONTENTS
page

CHAPTER ONE 5

Introduction 5

Basic Principles 7

The Nature of Discontinuity 8

Surface Conditioning 9

History 10

Commercially Available Liquid Penetrant Materials 11

Chapter One Review 15

CHAPTER TWO 16

Introduction 16

Surface Preparation 16

Detergent Cleaning 17

Vapor Degreasing 17

Steam Cleaning 17

Solvent Cleaning 17

Rust and Scale Remover 18

Paint Removal 18

Etching 18

Ultrasonic Cleaning 18

Mechanical Cleaning 18

Stationary Penetrant Test Equipment 20

Portable Penetrant Test Equipment 21

Black Light Equipment 22

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 Penetrant Material Combinations 23

Penetrant Testing Materials 24

Safety Precaution 26

Chapter Two Review 29

CHAPTER THREE 28

Introduction 28

Cleaning 28

Penetrant Application 29

Penetration (Dwell) Time 31

Penetrant Testing Processes 33

Leak-through Technique 37

Filtered Particle Technique 37

Fixing and Recording Indications 38

Chapter Three Review 39

CHAPTER FOUR 40

Introduction 40

Post-emulsifiable Penetrant (PE Penetrant) 40

Lipophilic Method 43

Hydrophilic Method 44

Developers Application 45

Dry Developers 45

Wet Developers 46

Guidelines to Choose Developer 48

Chapter Four Review 49

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CHAPTER FIVE 50

Introduction 50

Inspection 50

Interpretation and Evaluation of Indications 50

Typical Indications in Penetrant Inspection 51

False Indications 51

Nonrelevant Indications 52

True Indications 52

Depth Determination of Penetrant Discontinuities 56

Post Cleaning 56

Quality Control of Penetrant Process Variables 56

Aluminum Test Block 56

Sensitivity Test 57

Meniscus Test 57

Ceramic Block Test 58

Water Content Test 58

Viscosity Test 58

Fluorescent Penetrant Fade Test 59

Water Washability Test 59

Developer Test 59

Portable Equipment 59

Lighting 60

Chapter Five Review 61

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CHAPTER SIX 62

Introduction 62

Categories of Discontinuities 62

The Origins of Discontinuities 63

Casting Discontinuities 64

Processing Discontinuities 66

Working the Billet 66

Forging Discontinuities 68

Service Discontinuities 73

Chapter Six Review 75

CHAPTER SEVEN 76

Introduction 76

Identification and Comparison of Discontinuities 76

Training and Certification 77

Chapter Seven Review 79

REFERENCES 80

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION PENDAHULUAN
Liquid penetrant testing is a nondestructive Pengujian cairan penetrant merupakan pengujian
means of locating surface discontinuities tanpa merusak untuk menemukan diskontinuitas
based on capillarity or capillary action. permukaan berdasarkan prinsip kapilaritas.
Capillary action is responsible for both Kapilaritas bertanggung jawab terhadap masuk
penetrant entry and exit from discontinuities. dan keluarnya cairan penetrant dari dan ke
dalam diskontinuitas.
In the liquid penetrant method, the liquid is Pada metoda cairan penetrant, cairan
applied to the surface of the specimen and diaplikasikan di atas permukaan spesimen dan
sufficient time is allowed for penetration of diberikan waktu yang cukup untuk menyusup ke
surface discontinuities. If the discontinuity is dalam diskontinuitas. Jika diskontinuitasnya kecil
small or narrow as in a crack or pinhole, dan sempit seperti pada retak atau lubang jarum,
capillary assist the penetration. kapilaritas membantu penetrasi.

After sufficient time has passed for the Setelah waktu mencukupi bagi penetrant untuk
penetrant to enter the discontinuity, the memasuki diskontinuitas, permukaan spesimen
surface of the part is cleaned. Capillary kemudian dibersihkan. Gaya kapiler sekali lagi
action is again employed to act as blotter to bekerja sebagai penghisap yang menarik
draw penetrant from the discontinuity. penetrant keluar dari dalam diskontinuitas.

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Liquid penetrant inspection is a physical- Pemeriksaan penetrant merupakan proses fisika-
chemical process. Application and reaction of kimia. Aplikasi dan reaksi cairan penetrant (kimia)
the penetrant (chemical) is dependent upon tergantung pada sifat artikel yang diuji dan
the nature of the test article and the diskontinuitas yang terdapat padanya (fisika).
discontinuity it contains (physical).
The ability of penetrant to spread over a Kemampuan penetrant untuk menyebar di atas
solid surface is referred to as the wetting pemukaan benda padat disebut kemampu-basahan
ability. The wetting ability and contact angle (wetting ability). Wetting ability dan sudut kontak
between solid-liquid are inversely (contact angle) antara benda cair dan padat
proportional. The higher the wetting ability, adalah berbanding terbalik secara proporsional.
the smaller the contact angle. The contact Sudut kontak menentukan wetting ability.
angle determines the wetting ability.
Penetrating capability of a liquid penetrant Kemampuan penyusupan cairan penetran
is controlled by: dikendalikan oleh:
 Surface tension.  Tegangan permukaan.
 
 Contact angle.  Sudut kontak.

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BASIC PRINCIPLES PRINSIP-PRINSIP DASAR
To insure visibility, the liquid penetrant Agar dapat terlihat, cairan penetrant diberi pewarna
contains either a colored dye easily seen in merah yang dapat dilihat dengan cahaya biasa atau
white light, or a fluorescent dye visible under pewarna fluorescent yang dapat dilihat dengan
black (ultraviolet) light. cahaya ultraviolet.
A penetrant examination consists of the Pengujian penetrant terdiri dari tahapan-tahapan
following basic steps, regardless of the berikut tanpa mempertimbangkan material yang
material tested: diuji:
 Step 1: The test object or spot is  Langkah 1: Pembersihan dan pengeringan
thoroughly cleaned and benda atau lokasi yang
dried. diperiksa.
 
 Step 2: The penetrant is applied.  Langkah 2: Aplikasi penetrant. Dibiarkan
Dwell time is allowed to beberapa lama agar menyusup
penetrate discontinuities. ke dalam diskontinuitas.
 
 Step 3: The excess surface  Langkah 3: Pembersihan penetrant sisa
penetrant is removed. di permukaan.

 Step 4: Developer is applied  Langkah 4: Aplikasi developer
 
 Step 5: Indications are evaluated  Langkah 5: Evaluasi indikasi, diterima
and accepted or rejected. atau ditolak.
 
 Step 6: After the penetrant test, the  Langkah 6: Pembersihan benda atau lokasi
test object or spot is setelah selesai diuji.
postcleaned.

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THE NATURE OF DISCONTINUITY SIFAT DISCONTINUITAS
Discontinuities that are subsurface in one Diskontinuitas yang terletak dibawah
stage of production could be open to the permukaan pada satu tahapan produksi dapat
surface at another stage, such as after terbuka ke permukaan pada tahapan lainnya
grinding or machining. seperti akibat penggerindaan dan permesinan.
Nonmetallic inclusions and porosity in the ingot Inklusi nonlogam dan porositas dalam ingot
may cause stringers, seams, forging laps, cold dapat menyebabkan stringers, seams, lipatan
shuts, and the like as the billet or slabs is tempa, cold shuts, dan sejenisnya saat billet atau
processed in the manner shown below. slab diproses dengan cara seperti di bawah ini.

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SURFACE CONDITIONING PENGKONDISIAN PERMUKAAN
Anything that could block the penetrant from Semua kotoran yang menghalangi penetrant untuk
entering the discontinuity must be removed. memasuki diskontinuitas harus dibersihkan.
A list of contaminants that must be Jenis kotoran yang harus dibersihkan meliputi
removed would include DIRT, GREASE, DEBU, GEMUK, KARAT, KERAK, ASAM, bahkan
RUST, SCALE, ACIDS, and even WATER. AIR. Solvent yang digunakan untuk pembersih
The cleaning solvent used must be volatile harus mudah menguap sehingga cepat keluar
(readily vaporized) so that it easily dari dalam dikontinuitas dan tidak
evaporates out of the discontinuity and mengencerkan penetrant.
does not dilute the penetrant.
Surface preparation by mechanical cleaning Pembersihan permukaan secara mekanis seperti
such as wire brushing, abrasive blasting, memakai sikat baja, abrasive blasting, kertas
emery cloths, and metal scraping are not gosok, dan alat sekrap umumnya tidak
generally recommended, but there are times direkomendasikan, namun ada kalanya cara-cara
when they must be used. tersebut harus digunakan.
When they are used, discontinuities that are Apabila digunakan cara-cara di atas, diskontinuitas
open to the surface may be closed as yang membuka ke permukaan dapat tertutupi
ilustrated below. seperti gambar di bawah ini.

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HISTORY SEJARAH PENGUJIAN PENETRANT
Historically, penetrant inspection was called Menurut sejarahnya, pemeriksaan penetrant
“oil and whiting” method. The oil and whiting dulunya disebut metoda “minyak dan kapur”. Pada
method used in the railroad industry, i.e. awal tahun 1900an, metoda ini digunakan dalam
locomotive parts, etc. (axles, crank pins and industri perkeretaapian untuk memeriksa kompo-
couplers), in the early 1900s was the first nen lokomotip (batang torsi, batang penggerak,
recognized use of the principles of penetrants dan coupler, dll.), yang merupakan awal mula dike-
to detect cracks. nalnya prinsip penetrant untuk mendeteksi retak.
The oil and whiting method used dirty or Metoda minyak dan kapur memakai minyak lumas
dark-colored lubricating oil that was thinned hitam yang diencerkan dengan minyak tanah,
with kerosene followed by the application of diikuti dengan aplikasi bubuk kapur di atasnya
a whiting or chalk coating, which absorbed yang akan menyerap minyak dari dalam retak
oil from the cracks revealing their locations. sehingga dapat diketahui lokasinya.
By the 1940s, fluorescent or visible dye was Pada tahun 1940an, zat pewarna merah dan
added to the oil used to penetrate test objects. fluorescent dicampurkan ke dalam oli yang
digunakan untuk pemeriksaan.
Following is stages of oil and whiting method. Berikut adalah tahapan metoda pengujian minyak
dan kapur.

Experience showed that temperature and Pengalaman mengajarkan pentingnya mempertim-

soak time were important. bangkan suhu dan waktu celup.
This started the practice of written instructions Hal tersebut memicu diterapkannya penggunaan
to provide standard, uniform results. The use of instruksi tertulis agar hasil pengujian menjadi
written procedures has evolved, giving the standard dan seragam. Pemakaian prosedur tertulis
ability for design engineers and manufacturers diharapkan menjadikan pemeriksaan penetrant akan
to get the same high standard results from any memberikan hasil dengan standard tinggi jika
properly trained and certified liquid penetrant dikerjakan oleh teknisi yang terlatih.
testing technician.

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COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE LIQUID MATERIAL CAIRAN PENETRANT
PENETRANT MATERIALS YANG TERSEDIA DI PASARAN
The liquid penetrants used in nondestructive Cairan penetrant yang dipakai di dalam NDT dapat
testing can be categorized by the type of dye dikagorikan berdasarkan jenis zat pewarna yang
they contain. ditambahkan.
1. Visible dye penetrants contain a colored 1. Visible dye penetrants mengandung zat
(usually red) dye. pewarna merah.
2. Fluorescent penetrants contain a 2. Fluorescent penetrants mengandung zat
fluorescent dye pewarna fluorescent (hijau-kuning).
3. Dual sensitivity penetrants contain a 3. Dual sensitivity penetrants, mengandung
combination of visible and fluorescent kombinasi kedua zat pewarna, visible dan
dyes. fluorescent.
Penetrants can be further categorized by the Penetrant dikelompokkan lebih lanjut
processes used to remove the excess berdasarkan proses pembersihan sisa penetrant
penetrant from the specimen. dari permu-kaan spesimen.
1. Water-washable penetrants, are either 1. Water-washable penetrants, mengandung zat
self-emulsifying or removable with pengemulsi atau dapat dibilas dengan air.
plain water.
2. Post-emulsifiable penetrants require 2. Post-emulsifiable penetrants, memerlukan
a separate emulsifier to make the pengemulsi terpisah untuk menjadikan
penetrant water washable. penetrant dapat dibilas dengan air.
3. Solvent-removable penetrants must be 3. Solvent removable penerants, harus
removed with a solvent which is typical dibersihkan dengan solvent khusus jika
when using visible dye in pressurized menggunakan penetrant visible dalam
spray cans. kaleng bertekanan.
The basic liquid penetrant classification Sistem klasifikasi cairan penetrant dapat dilihat
system is shown in Table 1.1. dalam Tabel 1.1.

Table 1.1. Basic liquid penetrant classification system.

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The flowchart below illustrates the processing Diagram alir berikut memperlihatkan urutan proses
sequence with visible and fluorescent dengan penetran visible dan fluorescent.
penetrants.

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Dual sensitivity penetrants would follow a Dual sensitivity penetrants mengikuti urutan proses
processing sequence similar to that shown yang diperlihatkan diagram alir di bawah ini.
below.

The selection of the best process depends Pemilihan proses terbaik ditentukan oleh:
upon:
1. Sensitivity required. 1. Sensitivitas yang disyaratkan.
2. Number of articles to be tested. 2. Jumlah artikel yang diuji.
3. Surface condition of part being 3. Kondisi permukaan komponen
inspected. yang diperiksa.
4. Configuration of test specimen. 4. Konfigurasi benda uji.
5. Availability of water, electricity, 5. Ketersediaan air, listrik, udara bertekanan,
compressed air, suitable testing lokasi pengujian yang sesuai, dll.
area, etc.

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Penetrant testing is succesfully used on most Pengujian penetrant secara memuaskan dapat
any materials, including metallic and diplikasikan pada kebanyakan material, termasuk
nonmetallic objects. material logam dan nonlogam.
Metallic materials include aluminum, magne- Material logam termasuk aluminium, magnesium,
sium, titanium, cast iron, stainless steel, titanium, besi cor, stainless steel, produk serbuk
powdered metal products, copper, brass, and logam, paduan tembaga, kuningan, perunggu,
bronze, as well as most other common alloys. juga paduan-paduan lainnya.
Nonmetallic materials include ceramics, plastic, Material nonlogam termasuk keramik, plastik,
molded rubber, composites, and glass. karet, komposit, dan kaca.
Penetrant testing is limited by its inability Pengujian penetrant tidak dapat diaplikasikan
to test materials with discontinuities that untuk menemukan diskontinuitas yang TIDAK
are NOT OPEN to the surface or having MEMBUKA ke permukaan dan permukaan
extremely porous surface. material yang berpori.
List below indicates the penetrant systems, Daftar berikut menunjukkan tingkat sensitivitas
ranging from the most sensitive and sistem penetrant, dari mulai yang paling senfitif
expensive to the least one. dan paling mahal.
1. Post-emulsified – fluorescent. 1. Post-emulsified – fluorescent.
2. Solvent-removable – fluorescent. 2. Solvent-removable – fluorescent.
3. Water-washable – fluorescent. 3. Water-washable – fluorescent.
4. Post-emulsified – visible. 4. Post-emulsified – visible.
5. Solvent-removable – visible. 5. Solvent-removable – visible.
6. Water-washable – visible. 6. Water-washable – visible.

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 CHAPTER ONE
REVIEW
_______ 1. Nonmetallic inclusions and porosity in the steel ingot are commonly found
using liquid penetrant inspection techniques.

_______ 2. Type II penetrants, according to our test, are those containing a fluorescent
dye.

_______ 3. Because of the capillary action of penetrants, this process of inspection

works well on parts with very porous surfaces.

_______ 4. When doing a liquid penetrant test, the configuration of the specimen has
little effect on the effectiveness of the test.

_______ 5. Liquid penetrant inspection can be used only on metals such as aluminum
and steel.

_______ 6. The penetrant inspection method is used only on the finished product.

_______ 7. Oil and whiting are the names of the two men who invented the penetrant
test method.

_______ 8. The first important step in penetrant testing is surface preparation.

_______ 9. One of the most common contaminants in the penetrant method is water.

_______ 10. The most common method of surface preparation for penetrant testing is
sandblasting.

_______ 11. Chemical etching Is sometimes used to remove smeared metal from a
surface to open discontinuilies.

_______ 12. Some subsurface defects can be tested with the highly sensitive Type II
penetrants.

_______ 13. Blow holes and gas porosity may be detected with the penetrant method.

_______ 14. Solvent cleaning is a common method of surface cleaning parts before
penetrant testing.

_______ 15. The one major limitation to penetrant testing is that the part must be
metallic.

_______ 16. Grease and rust would usually be considered a contaminant on the surface
of a test piece.

_______ 17. To locate a defect with penetrant testing, the defect must be open to the
surface.

_______ 18. It is considered advantageous for a liquid penetrant material to have low
tension and high capillarity.

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 CHAPTER TWO

INTRODUCTION PENDAHULUAN
This chapter discusses the equipment and Bab ini mendiskusikan peralatan dan bahan yang
material required to perform the various diperlukan untuk melakukan pengujian
penetrant test and the required PRE and penetrant serta pembersihan material SEBELUM
POST test cleaning. dan SESUDAH pengujian.
SURFACE PREPARATION PENYIAPAN PERMUKAAN
As discussed in Chapter 1, there are SIX Telah disampaikan dalam Bab 1 bahwa ada ENAM
basic steps required for a penetrant test. langkah dasar pengujian penetrant. Penyiapan
Surface preparation is entered on the flow permukaan dimasukkan sebagai langkah pertama
diagram below as step one. dalam diagram alir berikut.

Surface preparation, including proper Pembersihan permukaan sangat penting dalam

cleaning is essential to liquid penetrant pengujian cairan penetrant karena DUA alasan:
testing for TWO reasons:
1. If the specimen is not physically and 1. Jika spesimen tidak bersih secara fisika dan
chemically clean and dry, penetrant kimia, pengujian penetrant menjadi tidak
testing may be ineffective. efektip.
2. If all tracess of penetrant materials are not 2. Jika semua bekas material penetrant tidak
removed after the test, they may have a dibersihkan setelah pengujian, maka akan
harmful effect on the specimen after the merusak spesimen setelah benda tersebut
test object is placed in service (chlorine and terpasang (klorin dan sulfur dapat merusak
sulfur may affect some alloys). beberapa jenis paduan).
Selection of the cleaning process breaks Pemilihan proses pembersihan ditentukan oleh
down to the following basic factors. faktor berikut.
 Type of contaminant.  Jenis kotoran yang dibersihkan.
 
 Composition of the base material.  Komposisi logam induk.
 
 Degree of cleanliness required.  Tingkat kebersihan yang disyaratkan.
 
 Availability of cleaning equipment.  Ketersediaan peralatan pembersih.
 
 Cost and time factors.  Faktor-faktor biaya dan waktu.
Unless the cleaning methods and chemicals are Jika kompatibilitas antara metoda pembersihan,
known to be compatible with the penetrant, cairan pembersih dan penetrant tidak diketahui,
a final cleaning should be done with the pembersihan akhir sebaiknya dilakukan dengan
solvent recommended by the manufacturer. solvent yang direkomendasikan oleh pabrik
penetrant.

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DETERGENT CLEANING PEMBERSIHAN DENGAN DETERJEN
Immersion tanks and detergent solution may Tangki perendam dan larutan deterjen dapat
be used as an effective method for removing dipakai sebagai metoda yang efektip untuk
surface soils, particularly when employed as membersihkan kotoran permukaan, utamanya
a hot tank process. jika memakai proses tangki panas.
However, since the solutions used may be Namun demikian mengingat larutan yang dipakai
either acidic or alkaline in nature, dapat bersifat asam atau basa, harus diperhatikan
precautions must be taken to ensure that agar deterjen yang dipilih tidak mengakibatkan
the selected detergent is noncorrosive to the korosi terhadap benda yang dibersihkan.
article being cleaned.
When thoroughly rinsed and dried, detergent Bila dibilas dengan bersih dan dikeringkan,
cleaning leaves a test surface that is pembersih deterjen menghasilkan permukaan
physically and chemically clean. yang bersih secara fisika dan kimia.
VAPOR DEGREASING PEMBERSIHAN DENGAN UAP SOLVENT
Vapor degreasing is effective in the removal of Uap solvent efektif untuk membersihkan minyak,
oil, grease, and similar organic contaminants. gemuk, dan kontaminan organik sejenisnya.
This method does not remove solid contami- Metoda ini tidak menghilangkan kontaminan padat
nants such as varnish, paint, scale, or oxide. seperti pernis, cat, kerak, dan oksida.
However, this method is considered as the Namun demikian, metoda ini dianggap
most effective means of precleaning a test sebagai cara yang paling efektip untuk
item prior to a penetrant test membersihkan benda sebelum diuji penetrant.
Safety and environmental concerns have Masalah keselamatan dan lingkungan telah
virtually eliminated vapor degreasing. The chlo- melarang penggunaan metoda ini. Chlorinated
rinated solvents employed (methyl chloroform), solvent yang dipakai (methyl chloroform), jika
if acidic, can be harmful to certain materials bersifat asam dapat merusak material seperti
such as nickel, stainless steel, and titanium. nickel, stainless steel, dan titanium.
STEAM CLEANING PEMBERSIHAN DENGAN UAP AIR
Steam cleaning is an excellent method of Pembersihan dengan uap air merupakan cara yang
cleaning large articles, or portions of large unggul untuk membersihkan benda beruku-ran
articles that cannot be washed with detergents. besar yang tidak dapat dicuci dengan deterjen.
It removes inorganic soils as well as many Cara ini menghilangkan kotoran organik dan
organic contaminants, but it may not reach to inorganik, namun tidak dapat mencapai dasar
the bottom of deep discontinuities. A follow-up diskontinuitas yang dalam. Pencelupan ke dalam
solvent soak is often recommended. solvent setelahnya seringkali direkomendasikan.
SOLVENT CLEANING PEMBERSIHAN DENGAN SOLVENT
Solvent cleaning may use immersion tank, or Cara ini dilakukan dengan pencelupan,
the solvent may be sprayed, brushed, or penyemprotan, penyikatan, atau pengusapan.
wiped on and wiped off. Solvent cleaning is Pembersihan dengan solvent merupakan proses
the process most commonly used for spot yang umum digunakan untuk pemeriksaan
inspections. setempat.
Solvent cleaners should only be used to Solvent pembersih hanya untuk menghilangkan
remove organic contaminants, and are not kotoran organik dan tidak diremomendasikan
recommended for removing rust and scale, untuk menghilangkan karat dan kerak, flux
welding flux or spatter. Typical solvents are pengelasan, atau percikan las. Cairan solvent
kerosene, paint thinner, alcohol, benzol, and contohnya minyak tanah, thinner cat, alkohol,
trichloroethylene. benzol, dan trichloroethylene.

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RUST AND SURFACE SCALE REMOVER PENGHILANG KARAT DAN KERAK PERMUKAAN
Rust removers (descaling solutions, either Penghilang karat dan kerak (larutan penghilang
alkaline or acid), pickling solutions (acid), and kerak, basa atau asam), larutan pickling (asam),
sometimes wire brushing are used to remove dan kadang kala sikat baja digunakan untuk
rust and surface scale. Wire brushing is menghilangkan karat dan kerak permukaan.
accomplished with a minimum of pressure to Penyikatan dilakukan dengan tekanan rendah
avoid closing surface discontinuities or filing untuk mencegah penutupan atau pengisian
them with smeared metal. diskontinuitas permukaan oleh gram.
PAINT REMOVAL PENGHILANG CAT
Dissolving type hot tank paint strippers and Pengelupas cat dan pelepas ikatan memakai
bond release or solvent paint strippers may tangki pelarut panas atau solvent pengelupas cat
be used to remove paint in precleaning. dapat dipakai untuk menghilangkan cat saat
pembersihan awal.
ETCHING ETSA
Etching is normally required on soft metallic Etsa biasanya disyaratkan pada material logam
materials (such as aluminum and magnesium), lunak (seperti aluminium dan magnesium),
materials that tend to smear (such as titanium), material yang cenderung teroksidasi (seperti
and materials which have been mechanically titanium), dan material yang telah diproses secara
process-ed by machining, grinding, or similar mekanis melalui permesinan, penggerindaan atau
procedure. Etching is accomplished with either sejenis-nya. Etsa dilakukan dengan larutan asam
an acid or an alkaline solution to open up atau basa untuk membuka bekas gerinda dan
grinding burrs and remove metal from surface menghilangkan gram dari permukaan diskonti-
discontinuities. nuitas.
ULTRASONIC CLEANING PEMBERSIHAN ULTRASONIK
Ultrasonic cleaning equipment is useful in the Peralatan ultrasonik dipakai untuk membersihkan
cleaning of large quantities of small test benda berukuran kecil yang jumlahnya banyak.
objects. Ultrasonic cleaning is often combined Pembersihan ultrasonik seringkali memakai bak
with a solvent or detergent bath to improve berisi cairan solvent atau deterjen untuk mening-
cleaning efficiency and reduce cleaning time. katkan efisiensi pembersihan dan menghemat
waktu.
The method works best with water and Campuran air dan deterjen merupakan yang
deter-gent cleaning when contaminants to be terbaik untuk membersihkan kontaminan inorganik,
removed are inorganic, and with solvents sementara cairan solvent untuk membersihkan
when contaminants are organic. kontaminan organik.
MECHANICAL CLEANING PEMBERSIHAN SECARA MEKANIS
Cleaning processes that are not generally Proses pembersihan yang umumnya tidak direko-
recommended include abrasive blasting (shot, mendasikan adalah abrasive blasting (pelor,
sand, grit, or pressure), liquid honing, emery pasir, atau tekanan), cairan pengasah, ampelas,
cloth, wire brushes, and metal scrapers, but sikat baja dan penyekrapan. Namun ada kalanya
there are times when they must be used. cara-cara tersebut harus dilakukan.
These processes tend to close discontinuities Proses ini cenderung menutup diskontinuitas
by peening or cold working the surface of dengan cara pemukulan atau pengerjaan dingin
the specimen. pada permukaan spesimen.

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When mechanical cleaning must be used, Saat pembersihan mekanis harus dilakukan,
closed discontinuities can be reopened with diskontinuitas yang menutup dapat dibuka kembali
a chemical etch that removes a very slight dengan pengetsaan yang akan menghilangkan
amount of material from the surface. lapisan tipis material dari permukaan.

Table 2.1. Mechanical cleaning processes.

Table 2.2. Chemical cleaning processes.

Page 19
STATIONARY PENETRANT TEST PERALATAN PENGUJIAN PENETRANT
EQUIPMENT STASIONER
Stationary equipment is that equipment which Peralatan stasioner maksudnya adalah peralatan
is normally located in one place. The equip- yang letaknya menetap di satu lokasi. Peralatan
ment varies in size and is largely dependent tersebut ukurannya bervariasi yang bergantung
upon the size and type of the test specimen. pada ukuran dan jenis spesimen uji.
Depending on the type and process used, a Tergantung pada jenis dan proses yang diguna-
stationary system could include the following: kan, sistem stasioner terdiri dari bagian-bagian:
1. Precleaning Station (usually remote 1. Tempat pembersihan awal (jauh dari
from penetrant test station) lokasi pengujian)
2. Penetrant Station (tank) 2. Tangki berisi cairan penetrant
3. Drain Station (used with penetrant tank) 3. Tempat pengering (digunakan bareng
dengan tangki penetrant)
4. Emulsifier Station (tank) 4. Tangki berisi cairan pengemulsi
5. Rinse Station (tank) 5. Tangki pembilasan
6. Developer Station (tank, dust chamber, 6. Lokasi developer (tangki, dust chamber, atau
or spray equipment) peralatan penyemprot)
7. Dryer Station (usually an oven type) 7. Tempat pengeringan (berupa oven)
8. Inspection Station (enclosed booth or 8. Tempat pemeriksaan (bilik tertutup atau meja
 table with lighting facilities) dengan lampu penerangan)
9. Postcleaning Station (usually remote 9. Tempat pembersihan akhir (jauh dari lokasi
pengujian)
from  penetrant test station)

Page 20
PORTABLE PENETRANT PERALATAN PENGUJIAN PENETRANT
TEST EQUIPMENT PORTABEL
Both visible and fluorescent dye penetrants are Baik penetrant visible maupun fluorescent tersedia
available in kits which can be used at a remote dalam bentuk paket yang dapat dipakai memeriksa
location, or when testing a small portion of a di lokasi terbuka, atau saat menguji bagian dari
large article. The liquids are usually supplied in benda berukuran besar. Keduanya dikemas dalam
pressurized (aerosol) spray cans. bentuk kaleng semprot bertekanan.
A visible dye kit usually consists of: Paket penetrant visible terdiri dari:
 Solvent cleaner or penetrant remover.  Kaleng berisi solvent pembersih.
 
 Visible dye penetrant.  Kaleng berisi penetrant.
 
 Nonaqueous wet developer.  Kaleng berisi nonaqueous wet developer.
 
 Wiping cloths and brush.  Kain lap dan kuas.

A fluorescent dye kit usually contains the Paket penetrant fluorescent biasanya terdiri dari:
following:
 Solvent cleaner or penetrant remover.  Kaleng berisi solvent pembersih.
 
 Fluorescent dye penetrant.  Kaleng berisi penetrant fluorescent.
 
 Nonaqueous wet developer.  Kaleng berisi nonaqueous wet developer
 
 Wiping cloths and brush.  Kain lap dan kuas.
 
 Portable black light and transformer.  Lampu ultraviolet dan trafonya.
 
 Hood to provide darkened area  Tudung kain hitam untuk
for viewing indications. melakukan pemeriksaan.

Page 21
BLACK LIGHT EQUIPMENT LAMPU ULTRAVIOLET
Black light equipment is required in fluorescent Lampu ultraviolet diperlukan pada pengujian
penetrant testing since it supplies light of the penetrant fluorescent karena menghasilkan
correct wavelengths that fall between visible cahaya dengan panjang gelombang 365 nm (3650
and ultraviolet, i.e. 365 nm (3650 angstroms) angstroms) yang mengakibatkan material fluores-
to cause fluorescent materials to fluoresce. cent berpendar.
For correct test results, the lamp should Agar hasil pengujiannya akurat, lampu tersebut
produce an intensity of at least 1000 harus menghasilkan intensitas cahaya
μW/cm2 (microwatts per square centi-meter) minimum 1000 μW/cm2 pada permukaan
at the test surface. benda yang diperiksa.
Fluorescent penetrant dyes are usually in the Zat pewarna fluorescent memiliki panjang gelom-
range of 475 nm to 575 nm, which is in the bang antara 475 nm sampai 575 nm, dapat terlihat
visible spectrum of green to yellow. dengan spektrum warna hijau sampai kuning.
The deep red-purple filter is designed to pass only Filter berwarna merah-keunguan dirancang hanya
those wavelengths of light that will activate the untuk dilalui cahaya dengan panjang gelombang
fluorescent material. Provided that the filter tertentu yang akan mengaktifkan material fluores-
is not broken or cracked, there is no danger cent. Asalkan filternya tidak pecah atau retak,
of injury to the human eye. It is suggested lampu ultraviolet tidak membahayakan mata. Disa-
that the filter be checked prior to each use. rankan agar filter diperiksa tiap kali akan dipakai.
At least 5 minutes of warm up is required to Minimum 5 menit disyaratkan untuk pemanasan
reach the required arc temperature when using jika memakai lampu mercury. Setelah dinyalakan,
mercury arc lamp. Once turned on, the lamp is lampu tersebut sebaiknya dibiarkan menyala
usually left on during the entire test or work selama pemeriksaan berlangsung karena sering
period, since switching the lamp on and off mematinyalakan lampu akan memperpendek usia
shortens bulb life. If the black light is switched pakai. Jika dimatikan, lampu ultraviolet perlu waktu
off, it may take up to 10 minutes for the bulb to 10 menit untuk pendinginan yang cukup sebelum
cool sufficiently to reestablish an arc. bisa menyala lagi.

Page 22
PENETRANT MATERIAL COMBINATIONS KOMBINASI MATERIAL PENETRANT
Penetrant testing materials can be used in a Material untuk pengujian penetrant dapat dipakai
variety of combinations. Most materials are dalam berbagai kombinasi. Kebanyakan material
available in either pressurized spray cans or tersedia dalam kaleng bertekanan atau cairan
in bulk quantities. berkuantitas besar.
The flow chart below illustrates the different Diagram alir di bawah ini memperlihatkan kombi-
material combinations. However, care should nasi material penetrant yang berbeda. Namun
always be taken to assure that demikian perlu diperhatikan agar selalu mengikuti
manufacturers specifications or company spesifikasi pabrik pembuat atau prosedur
procedures are closely followed. perusahaan.

Among the combinations, DRY DEVELOPER Diantara kombinasi tersebut, DEVELOPER KERING
should not be used with VISIBLE DYE sebaiknya tidak dipakai dengan VISIBLE DYE
PENETRANT because of the poor contrast PENETRANT karena kontras yang jelek antara
provided by the thin coating of very fine lapisan tipis serbuk developer dengan cairan
powder. penetrant yang berwarna merah.
The most sensitive developer-penetrant Kombinasi developer-penetrant yang paling
combination: nonaqueous-fluorescent. sensitip: nonaqueous-fluorescent.
The least sensitive developer-penetrant Kombinasi developer-penetrant yang paling tidak
combi-nation: water suspended-visible. sensitip: water suspended-visible.

Page 23
PENETRANT TESTING MATERIALS MATERIAL UNTUK PENGUJIAN PENETRANT
Penetrant materials are often restricted to Material penetrant seringkali dibatasi dalam
specific groups. The established groups of kelompok-kelompok khusus. Kelompok
penetrant materials will use the following in material tersebut menggunakan kombinasi di
a variety of combinations to obtain the best bawah ini untuk memperoleh hasil terbaik.
results.
1. Water-washable penetrants – contain 1. Water-washable penetrant – mengandung
an emulsifying agent which makes zat pengemulsi yang membuatnya mudah
them easily removable by a water rinse dibersihkan dengan bilasan air. Material
or wash. This penetrant material can penetrant ini dapat dibeli dalam bentuk
be obtained with either a visible or visible atau fluorescent.
fluorescent dye.
2. Post-emulsifiable penetrants – are highly 2. Post-emulsifiable penetrant – memiliki
penetrating, oily visible or fluorescent kemampuan penetrasi yang bagus, berupa
penetrants which are not soluble in water. minyak fluorescent atau visible yang tidak
These penetrants must be treated with an larut dalam air. Emulsifier harus diaplikasikan
emulsifier before they can be removed by pada permukaan penetrant agar dapat
a water rinse or wash. dibilas dengan air.
3. Solvent-removable penetrants – are oily 3. Solvent-removable penetrant – berupa
penetrants that do not contain an minyak penetrant yang tidak mengandung
emulsifying agent and are removable zat pengemulsi, dan hanya bisa dibersihkan
only by solvents specifically designed dengan solvent yang khusus digunakan
for that purpose. untuk tujuan tersebut.
4. Emulsifier – when applied to a penetrant- 4. Zat Pengemulsi – jika diaplikasikan pada
coated specimen make the resultant lapisan penetrant di permukaan spesimen
mixture removable by water rinse or menghasilkan campuran yang dapat dibilas
wash. Emulsifiers have low penetrant dengan air. Emulsifier memiliki sifat penetrasi
characteristics and do not remove yang buruk sehingga tidak menghilangkan
indications from the specimen surface. indikasi dari permukaan benda uji.
5. Removers (solvent) – are designed to 5. Remover (solvent) – didisain untuk
be used in conjunction with specific digunakan bersama dengan jenis penetrant
penetrants. Typical removers are khusus. Remover tertentu dijual dalam
available in bulk or pressurizes spray jumlah besar atau dalam kaleng semprot
containers. bertekanan.
6. Dry developers – are a fluffy, absorbent 6. Developer kering – serbuk penyerap, halus,
white powder that is used in both berwarna putih yang dipakai bersama
fluorescent and visible dye penetrant dengan pengujian penetrant visible dan
tests. It functions to draw the fluorescent. Fungsinya adalah untuk menarik
penetrant inside discontinuities to the penetrant dari dalam diskontinuitas sehingga
surface thus making them visible. tampak di permukaan.
7. Wet developers – function similarly to dry 7. Developer basah – fungsinya mirip dengan
developers except that they are a mixture developer kering, hanya saja merupakan
of a developing powder and water. campuran serbuk developer dengan air.
8. Nonaqueous wet developers – differ 8. Nonaqueous wet developer – berbeda
from wet developers in that the dengan developer basah, dimana serbuk
developer powder is mixed with a developer dicampur dengan cairan solvent
rapid-drying liquid solvent. yang mudah menguap.

1. Liquid oxygen (LOX) compatible materials – must be used when articles

inspected are subjected to contact with either liquid or gaseous oxygen.
Page 24
9. Liquid oxygen (LOX) compatible 9. Material yang kompatibel dengan oksigen
materials – must be used when articles cair (LOX) – harus digunakan saat benda
inspected are subjected to contact with yang diperiksa bersinggungan dengan
either liquid or gaseous oxygen. These oksigen cair atau gas oksigen. Material jenis
materials are specifically designed to be ini khusus didisain menjadi mulia saat
inert when in the presence of LOX. terkena oksigen cair.
During manufacture and testing of the Selama pembuatan dan pengujian artikel,
article, special care is taken not to perhatian khusus harus diberikan untuk tidak
contaminate the article with mengotori artikel tersebut dengan material
combustible materials. yang mudah terbakar.
By itself, liquid oxygen is nonexplosive, Berdasar sifatnya, oksigen cair tidak mudah
but whenever it comes in contact with a meledak, namun saat terkena kontak dengan
combustible material, a spontaneous material yang mudah terbakar, ledakan
explosive situation occur where the spontan dapat terjadi akibat adanya percikan
slightest spark could set off a violent api yang kecil saja.
reaction.
10. Low sulfur and low chlorine – When small 10. Kadar sulfur dan klorin yang rendah – Korosi
quantities of sulfur and chlorine are akan terjadi apabila sejumlah kecil sulfur dan
ionized and come into contact with klorine terionisasi dan bereaksi dengan
austenitic stainless steels, high nickel austenitic stainless steel, paduan nickel
alloys, cobalt alloys and titanium alloys, kadar tinggi, paduan cobalt, dan paduan
corrosion may result. titanium.
This corrosiveness is accelerated when Laju korosi akan dipercepat saat paduan
the alloys are used at elevated tempe- tersebut digunakan pada suhu tinggi
ratures and/or under residual stress dan/atau terkena tegangan sisa hingga
resulting in intergranular corrosion, terjadi korosi batas butir, penggetasan
hydrogen embrittlement and stress hidrogen, dan korosi tegangan.
corrosion.
Sulfur and chlorine are not essential to Sulfur dan klorin bukan merupakan unsur
penetrant systems but they do exist in penting dalam sistem penetrant, namun
trace amounts in the raw materials. mereka dalam jumlah kecil terdapat dalam
bahan baku penetrant.
Nuclear and boiler codes specify from Codes untuk nuklir dan boiler menyebutkan
0.5% to 1% by weight as the maximums. batas maksimum sebesar 0.5% hingga 1%
berat.

Page 25
SAFETY PRECAUTION MASALAH KESELAMATAN KERJA
In general, the materials used in penetrant Pada umumnya material yang dipakai dalam
inspection can be flammable and can cause pemeriksaan penetrant mudah terbakar dan dapat
skin irritations. menyebabkan iritasi kulit.
ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION – The ultraviolet RADIASI SINAR ULTRAVIOLET – spektrum sinar
spectrum of light rays generated from the ultraviolet yang dihasilkan oleh lampu mercury
mercury arc lamp can cause sunburn and dapat mengakibatkan kulit terbakar dan melukai
may be injurious to the eyes. However, if the mata. Namun demikian jika filter lampu
proper filter for fluorescent dye inspection is digunakan dengan benar, sinar yang merugikan
used, the harmful rays will be filtered out. dapat disaring.
Personnel who use ultraviolet lights to Personil yang menggunakan lampu ultraviolet
perform penetrant tests with fluorescent untuk melakukan pengujian dengan penetrant
penetrant that glows in the green-yellow berwarna hijau-kuning sebaiknya memakai kaca
range should consider wearing yellow mata pelindung warna kuning untuk
glasses to block ultraviolet light from their menghalangi masuknya cahaya ultraviolet ke
eyes. dalam mata.
FIRE – many penetrant materials are KEBAKARAN – kebanyakan material penetrant
flammable. Occupational Safety and Health mudah terbakar. Peraturan OSHA mensyaratkan
Administration (OSHA) regulations requires bahwa material penetrant yang digunakan
that penetrant materials used in open tanks dalam tangki terbuka memiliki titik nyala lebih
have a flashpoint of greater than 93°C. The dari 93°C. Makin tinggi titik nyala suatu material,
higher the flashpoint of a material, the less makin rendah bahaya kebakaran yang
fire hazard it presents. ditimbulkannya.
SKIN IRRITATION – skin irritation can be IRITASI KULIT – iritasi kulit dapat dihindari
avoided by preventing unnecessary contact dengan mencegah kontak yang tidak perlu dan
and by the use of gloves, aprons, and dengan pemakaian sarung tangan, baju
protective hand creams. pelindung, dan krim pelindung tangan.
AIR POLLUTION – the developing powders POLUSI UDARA – serbuk developer tidak
are considered nontoxic but excessive beracun, namun menghirupnya secara
inhalation must be avoided. Exhaust fans berlebihan harus dihindari. Kipas penghisap
should be installed in any confined area udara sebaiknya dipasang pada daerah tertutup
where dry developers or vapors from dimana terdapat serbuk developer atau uap
penetrants are present. penetrant.
PENETRANT MATERIAL DISPOSAL - PEMBUANGAN MATERIAL PENETRANT –
Penetrant waste should be collected and Buangan penetrant harus dikumpulkan dan
treated. This can be very expensive; the best diolah. Hal ini bisa sangat mahal; cara terbaik
way to reduce this cost is to control the untuk menghemat biaya yaitu dengan mengen-
amount of penetrant materials used. dalikan jumlah material penetrant yang dipakai.

Page 26
Page 27
Page 28
 CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW
_______ 1. Wire brushing Is a common and acceptable method of surface cleaning a
test part that is to be penetrant inspected.

_______ 2. A good exhaust system is recommended when working with cleaning

solvents.

_______ 3. Vapor degreasing is often used to remove oxidation, rust, and scale before
a part is penetrant inspected.

_______ 4. Parts that have been painted usually cannot be inspected with penetrants
because suitable paint removing techniques have not been developed.

_______ 5. Detergent cleaning is acceptable for postcleaning but should never be used
for precleaning because it may affect the emulsifier during the
penetrant test.

_______ 6. Etching is often effective in precleaning a part that has been machined to a
specific tolerance by surface grinding.

_______ 7. Only visible dye penetrants are available in portable kits because
fluorescent dyes will not function in pressurized spray cans.

_______ 8. Dry developers are usually only used with visible dye penetrants.

_______ 9. Emulsifiers and solvents are both commonly used in penetrant testing as
postcleaners.

_______ 10. Wet developers should never be used when they will come into contact with
gaseous or liquid oxygen because of the results caused by oxygen and
water mixing.

_______ 11. Emulsifiers must have high penetrating characteristics to emulsify

penetrants that lie in fillets and corners.

_______ 12. The black light used in fluorescent penetrant inspection is not hazardous to
the human eyes if the correct filter is in place and not broken or cracked.

_______ 13. Penetrant materials are often placed in groupings that will assure a valid test
with materials that are compatible with each other.

_______ 14. Nonaqueous developer refers to a powder that is applied dry.

_______ 15. Post-emulsifiable penetrants are usually soluble in water after the application
of an emulsifier.

_______ 16. Water-washable penetrants are cornmonly used with either a visible or
fluorescent dye.

_______ 17. Flashpoint refers to the lowest temperature at which vapors will ignite when
exposed to flame.

Page 29
 CHAPTER THREE
INTRODUCTION PENDAHULUAN
This chapter discusses penetrant application. Bab ini mendiskusikan aplikasi penetrant. Seperti
As discussed in Chapter 2, surface cleaning is dibahas dalam Bab 2, pembersihan permukaan
the first step prior to the penetrant application. adalah tahap pertama sebelum aplikasi penetrant.
CLEANING PEMBERSIHAN
The effectiveness of liquid penetrant testing Efektifitas pengujian cairan penetrant
is based upon the ability of the penetrant to bergantung pada kemampuan penetrant untuk
enter surface discontinuities. All paint, menyusup ke dalam cacat permukaan. Semua
carbon, oil, varnish, oxide, plating, water, cat, karbon, oli, pernis, oksida, lapisan, air,
dirt, and similr coating must be removed kotoran dan cat sejenisnya harus dihilangkan
before application of penetrant. sebelum aplikasi penetrant.
Liquid penetrant placed on the surface of a Cairan penetrant di atas permukaan benda uji tidak
specimen does not merely seep into semata-mata meresap ke dalam diskontinuitas.
discontinuities. It is pulled into them by Penetrant tertarik ke dalamnya oleh gaya kapiler.
capillary action. This is the reason one can Inilah mengapa permukaan bagian bawah dari
cover the under surface of an item with a suatu benda masih dapat diperiksa dengan
penetrant and still have a valid test. penetrant dan memperoleh hasil yang valid.

The following are typical cleaning methods Berikut adalah metoda pembersihan permukaan
discussed earlier. seperti didiskusikan sebelumnya:
1. Detergent cleaning 1. Pembersihan dengan deterjen
2. Vapor degreasing 2. Pembersihan dengan uap solvent
3. Steam cleaning 3. Pembersihan dengan uap air
4. Solvent cleaning 4. Pembersihan dengan solvent
5. Rust and surface scale remover 5. Penghilang karat dan kerak permukaan
6. Paint removal 6. Penghilang cat
7. Etching 7. Etsa
8. Ultrasonic cleaning 8. Pembersihan ultrasonik
9. Mechanical cleaning 9. Pembersihan secara mekanis

Page 30
PENETRANT APPLICATION APLIKASI PENETRANT
Since penetrant application is step two in the Aplikasi penetrant merupakan tahapan
process, let’s add it to the flow diagram. kedua dalam proses pemeriksaan.

Almost any liquid could be considered a Hampir semua cairan dapat dianggap sebagai
penetrant, but modern penetrants must have: penetrant, namun penetrant moderen harus
memiliki:
1. The ability to hold a dye material in 1. Kemampuan menahan zat pewarna dalam
suspension. suspensi.
2. The ability to spread the dye evenly 2. Kemampuan menyebarkan pewarna secara
over the surface. merata di atas permukaan benda.
3. The ability to carry the dye into any 3. Kemampuan membawa pewarna ke dalam
discontinuity open to the surface. diskontinuitas yang terbuka ke permukaan
4. The ability to bring up the dye as it is 4. Kemampuan membawa kembali pewarna ke
“coaxed” back to the surface. permukaan.
5. The ability, when desired, to be easily 5. Kemampuan, jika diinginkan, untuk dibersih-
removed. kan dengan mudah.
There are two types of dye used in modern Ada dua jenis zat pewarna yang digunakan dalam
penetrants: penetrant moderen:
1. Visible or color contrast – a brightly 1. Visible atau color contrast – pewarna merah
colored dye that is highly visible under yang tampak jelas di bawah kondisi
normal lighting conditions. pencahayaan normal.
2. Fluorescent or brightness contrast – an 2. Fluorescent or brightness contrast – pewarna
almost colorless dye which emits visible yang akan memancarkan cahaya tampak
ligh rays when viewed under black light. apabila dilihat dengan lampu ultraviolet.

A dye with dual sensitivity, or dual-mode, or Pewarna dengan sensitivitas ganda atau mode
dual-response contains a combination of ganda atau respon ganda mengandung
visible and fluorescent dyes. kombinasi pewarna visible dan fluorescent.
The visible color is generally a bright Pewarna visible umumnya merah menyala dan
red and the fluorescent color a bronze- pewarna fluorescent berwarna kuning-perunggu
orange or blue-green. atau biru-hijau.
The combination permits penetrant tests to Kombinasi ini memungkinkan pengujian
be made under visible light and question- penetrant dilakukan di bawah cahaya biasa dan
able indications to be resolved under black indikasi yang meragukan diperiksa di bawah
light; hence the term dual response. cahaya ultraviolet.

Page 31
Penetrants, either fluorescent or visible can be Penetrant, baik fluorescent maupun visible dapat
applied by any one of the following means: diaplikasikan dengan salah satu dari cara berikut:
1. Spraying – usually using a conventional 1. Penyemprotan – biasanya menggunakan alat
low pressure spray guns or from penyemprot bertekanan rendah atau dari
pressurized spray cans. kaleng semprot bertekanan.
2. Brushing or swabbing – usually applied 2. Kuas atau kain – bisasanya diaplikasikan
with rags, cotton waste, or brushes, dengan kain lap, kapas, atau kuas, apabila
when testing a small, specific area of menguji sebagian kecil/lokasi dari suatu
the specimen. benda.
3. Dipping or immersion – the article is 3. Pencelupan – benda uji dibenamkan ke
generally lowered into a tank of dalam tangki penetrant, lalu diangkat dan
penetrant, then raised and allowed to ditiriskan. Metoda ini tidak cocok untuk
drain. This method is impractical when benda berukuran besar dan merupakan
dealing with large articles, and is pemborosan apabila hanya daerah kecil saja
wasteful when only small areas of a yang diuji.
large specimen are to be tested.
4. Flowing or drain-dwell – the penetrant 4. Penuangan – penetrant dituangkan di atas
is simply poured over the surface and permukaan benda dan setelah itu ditiriskan.
allowing it to drain.
The terminology used in penetrant Istilah yang digunakan dalam aplikasi
application is listed in Table 3.1. penetrant dapat dilihat dalam Table 3.1.

Table 3.1. Liquid penetrant application terminology.

Page 32
PENETRATION (DWELL) TIME WAKTU PENETRASI (WAKTU DIAM)
The period of time during which the penetrant Jangka waktu dimana penetrant berada di atas
is permitted to remain on the specimen is a permukaan benda uji merupakan bagian
vital part of the test. This time, known as dwell terpenting dari pengujian. Jangka waktu ini dikenal
time, is directly related to the size and shape of sebagai waktu diam, yang berhubungan langsung
the discontinuities anticipated since the dengan ukuran dan bentuk diskontinuitas yang
dimensions of the discontinuities determine the dicari mengingat ukuran diskontinuitas menentu-
rapidity with which penetration occurs. kan kecepatan terjadinya penetrasi.
Tight, crack-like discontinuities may require Diskontinuitas yang rapat, seperti retakan
in excess of 30 minutes for penetration to memerlukan waktu penetrasi lebih dari 30 menit
an extent that an adequate indication can untuk terbentuknya indikasi. Diskontinuitas
be expected. Gross discontinuities may be berukuran besar memerlukan waktu penetrasi
suitably penetrated in 3 to 5 minutes. antara 3 sampai 5 menit.
The temperature of the specimen and Suhu benda uji dan suhu cairan penetrant dapat
temperature of the penetrant can affect mempengaruhi waktu diam yang disyaratkan.
the required dwell time.
Warming the specimen accelerates Menghangatkan benda uji mempercepat
penetration and shortens dwell time. penetrasi dan mempersingkat waktu diam.
However, care should be taken not to Namun demikian perlu diperhatikan agar tidak
overheat the specimen since too much berlebihan memanaskan spesimen karena suhu
heat may cause evaporation of the yang terlalu tinggi menyebabkan penguapan
penetrant from the discontinuity, and penetrant dari dalam diskontinuitas, yang
thereby reduce sensitivity. akhirnya akan mengurangi sensitivitas.
Dwell times are based on the assumption Waktu diam didasarkan pada asumsi bahwa
that the penetrant will remain wet on the penetrant tetap dalam kondisi basah pada
part surface. Additional penetrant may permukaan benda. Penambahan penetrant
be applied during dwell time. selama waktu diam diperbolehkan.
In each instance, dwell time is determined by Pada tiap kasus, waktu diam ditentukan oleh
the anticipated discontinuities and the jenis diskontinuitas yang hendak dicari dan
penetrant manufacturer’s recommendations. rekomendasi dari pabrik pembuat penetrant.
Typical minimum penetration times are Waktu penetrasi minimum untuk kasus tertentu
shown in Table 3.2. diperlihatkan dalam Tabel 3.2.

Page 33
Table 3.2. Typical minimum penetration time.

Page 34
PENETRANT TESTING PROCESSES PROSES PENGUJIAN PENETRANT
We previously mentioned the two types of Telah disebutkan sebelumnya ada dua jenis
penetrants: visible and fluorescent. For both penetrant: visible dan fluorescent. Kedua jenis
categories, there is a further breakdown. penetrant tersebut dapat dirinci menjadi:
1. Water-washable (visible or fluorescent). 1. Water-washable (visible atau fluorescent).
2. Post-emulsifiable (visible or fluorescent). 2. Post-emulsifiable (visible atau fluorescent).
3. Solvent-removable (visible or fluorescent). 3. Solvent-removable (visible atau fluorescent).
Water-washable Penetrants (WW Penetrants) Water-washable Penetrants (WW Penetrants)
WW penetrants have a built-in emulsifier, or WW penetrant mengandung zat pengemulsi, atau
what-so-called “self-emulsifying” penetrants. dinamakan penetrant “self-emulsifying”. Penetrant
The penetrant is soluble in water and is ini larut dalam air dan mudah dibersihkan dengan
easily removed by a water rinse. bilasan air.
Care must be taken to insure that the spray Harus diperhatikan agar volume dan kekuatan
volume and force does not wash penetrant semprot tidak sampai membasuh penetrant dari
out of the discontinuity. A solid stream of dalam diskontinuitas. Aliran air yang pejal tidak
water is not desirable. A coarse droplet size diinginkan. Air dalam bentuk percikan kasar
provides optimal removal. Water pressure menghasilkan pembersihan yang optimal. Tekanan
should not exceed 40 psi. air tidak boleh melebihi 40 psi.
The recommended temperature range for water Suhu air pembilas yang direkomendasikan sebesar
rinse is 10oC - 38oC. Water temperatures above 10oC - 38oC. Suhu air melebihi 38oC tidak direko-
38oC are not recommended because this may mendasikan karena dapat mempercepat pengua-
speed up the evaporation of the penetrant. pan penetrant.
At angles of 80-90 degree, the spray droplets will Pada sudut 80-90 derajat, titik-titik air akan
rebound into oncoming spray, which diverts the memantul kembali dan menabrak titik air yang
droplets and reduce velocity. Generally, an angle datang sehingga mengurangi kecepatan. Sudut
of 45-75 degree is most effective. semprot yang paling efektif adalah 45-75 derajat.
The sketch below represents the steps in Gambar di bawah memperlihatkan langkah-
a water-washable penetrant test. langkah pengujian water-washable penetrant.

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Water-washable penetrants are usually Water-washable penetrant biasanya digunakan
preferred for use on articles with a rough untuk memeriksa benda yang permukaannya kasar
surface or if they contain threads or keyways. atau benda yang ada ulir atau alurnya.
The built-in emulsifier provides the best Emulsifier yang ada di dalamnya mengakibatkan
penetrant removal from blind holes and other penetrant mudah dihilangkan dari lubang buntu
hard-to-reach locations, but has the dan lokasi yang sulit dijangkau, namun memiliki
disadvantage of poor reliability in detecting kelemahan dalam mendeteksi diskontinuitas
wide or shallow discontinuities. yang lebar dan dangkal.

Post-emulsifiable Penetrants (PE Penetrants) Post-emulsifiable Penetrants (PE Penetrants)

The penetrants employed in the PE process Penetrant yang dipakai pada proses PE tidak
DO NOT contain an emulsifying agent. The mengandung zat pengemulsi. Penetrant ini tidak
penetrant is NOT soluble in water. larut dalam air.
PE penetrants require a two-step removal PE penetrant memerlukan dua langkah proses
process. Excess penetrant is removed by pembersihan. Sisa penetrant dibersihkan dengan
applying a separate emulsifier to make the aplikasi emulsifier secara terpisah sehingga
penetrant water-washable. The emulsifier is penetrant dapat dibilas dengan air. Emulsifier
usually applied by dipping/immersion, biasanya diaplikasikan dengan pencelupan,
spraying, or flowing. The amount of dwell penyemprotan, atau penuangan. Lamanya
time in the emulsifier is in the range of one waktu diam untuk emulsifier adalah satu sampai
to four minutes in accordance with empat menit mengacu pada rekomendasi pabrik
manufacturer recommendations and the type pembuat dan jenis cacat yang dicari.
of defects expected.
The resultant penetrant-emulsifier mixture Hasil campuran antara penetrant dan emulsifier
is removed by water rinse. selanjutnya dapat dibilas dengan air.
Solvent-removable Penetrants (SR Penetrants) Solvent-removable Penetrants (SR Penetrants)
The solvent removable method employs post- Metoda solvent removable menggunakan
emulsification-type penetrant. But instead of penetrant jenis post-emulsification. Solvent
using an emulsifier and water wash, excess digunakan untuk menghilangkan pentrant
penetrant is removed by a solvent. sisa yang ada di permukaan benda.
SR penetrants have the advantage of SR penetrant menguntungkan dari segi portabilitas
portability and can be used outdoors without dan dapat digunakan di luar tanpa menggunakan
using heavy complex equipment. peralatan yang berat dan rumit.
They are excellent for many maintenance Cara ini sangat memuaskan untuk pemeriksaan
inspection and for checking portions of larger pemeliharaan dan untuk memeriksa bagian dari
structure. suatu struktur yang besar.

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Penetrant is often applied from a pressurized Penetrant seringkali diaplikasikan dari kaleng
spray can which makes the system very semprot bertekanan yang membuat sistem ini
portable. sangat portabel.
After the specified dwell time, the excess Setelah waktu diam terpenuhi, penetrant sisa
penetrant is first removed by wiping with pada mulanya diseka dengan lap penyerap dan
absorbent towels and then cleaned with kemudian dibersihkan dengan lap yang dibasahi
towels dampened with solvent. dengan solvent.
Solvent is NEVER applied directly to the JANGAN PERNAH menyemprotkan solvent secara
specimen as it might wash out or dilute langsung ke permukaan benda karena akan
the penetrant in the discontinuity. melenyapkan penetrant dari dalam diskontinuitas.
Table 3.3 lists the preferred processes Tabel 3.3 memperlihatkan macam-macam proses
for various penetrant test problems. pengujian penetrant dan kegunaannya.

Table 3.3. Process selection guide.

Page 37
1. Water-washable

2. Post-emulsifiable

3. Solvent-removable

Page 38
LEAK-THROUGH TECHNIQUE TEKNIK PEREMBESAN BOCORAN
The leak-through technique is well suited for Teknik perembesan bocoran sangat sesuai untuk
finding leaks in such articles as tanks, mendeteksi kebocoran pada tangki, pipa, tube,
piping, tubing and hollow castings. There is dan cor-coran berongga. Tidak ada informasi lain
no knowledge concerning other quality yang diperoleh mengenai karakteristik kualitas
characte-ristics of the specimen is obtained. benda.
The sketch below illustrates the liquid Gambar di bawah memperlihatkan pengujian
penetrant leak-through test as used on a kebocoran dengan penetrant untuk memeriksa
large plate section. bagian dari suatu pelat.

FILTERED PARTICLE TECHNIQUE TEKNIK PARTIKEL TERSARING

Filtered particle testing uses small particles Teknik ini menggunakan partikel berukuran kecil
suspended in the penetrant liquid. In most yang tersuspensi dalam cairan penetrant. Partikel
instances these particles are fluorescent. yang dipakai biasanya fluorescent.
The size of the suspended particles varies Ukuran partikel yang tersuspensi bervariasi,
and depends upon the porous nature of the tergantung pada kondisi pori-pori permukaan
inspection surface. benda yang diperiksa.
When testing a porous surface with filtered Saat menguji permukaan berpori dengan cara ini,
particles, all of the liquid penetrant will be semua cairan penetrant akan diserap. Tidak ada
absorbed. There will be no “excess” requiring langkah pembersihan penetrant sisa pada teknik ini.
removal. Where a discontinuity (such as a crack) Pada tempat dimana terdapat diskontinuitas (seperti
is present, the increased area created by a crack retak), penambahan luasan akibat retak (dinding
(its walls, etc.) will cause more of the penetrant retak, dll.) akan mengakibatkan penetrant lebih
to be absorbed there than elsewhere. banyak terserap di daerah tersebut.
The crack will “filter” the penetrant, leaving Retak akan “menyaring” penetrant, meninggalkan
the fluorescent particles on the surface. jejak partikel fluorescent pada permukaan. Karena
Since more penetrant will be absorbed there, lebih banyak penetrant terserap di sana,
a greater buildup of particles will be found at pengumpulan partikel lebih banyak terjadi di
the site of the crack. This particel buildup daerah retak. Pengumpulan partikel ini menun-
provides an indication of discontinuities open jukkan adanya diskontinuitas yang membuka ke
to the surface. permukaan.

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FIXING AND RECORDING INDICATIONS PEMELIHARAAN DAN PEREKAMAN INDIKASI
Fixing and recording indications can be Pemeliharaan dan perekaman indikasi
carried out by: dapat dilakukan dengan:
1. Photographs – digital photography 1. Fotografi – foto digital merupakan cara
provide excellent permanent records. terbaik untuk merekam indikasi. Disamping
In addition to photographs, video itu video kaset dan kamera CCTV juga dapat
cassette recorders (VCRs) and closed- digunakan untuk merekam indikasi.
circuit television cameras (CCTVs) are
used to record indications.
2. Special wax and plastic film developers 2. Lilin khusus dan lapisan plastik developers
have been developed to absorb and fix dikembangkan untuk menyerap dan
the penetrant indication to form a mengawetkan indikasi penetrant dan
permanent record. membentuk rekaman permanen.
a. Strippable lacquers are sprayed in a. Lapisan lak disemprotkan beberapa lapis
several coats over the indication and di atas indikasi, dan setelah kering
when dry can be “lifted” to provide a dapat dikelupas untuk menghasilkan
permanent record. rekaman permanen.
b. Special “fixers” are sprayed over the b. Fixer khusus disemprotkan di atas
indication and when dry are lifted indikasi dan setelah kering diangkat
with transparent tape. dengan pita transparan (isolasi).

Page 40
 CHAPTER THREE
REVIEW
_______ 1. A dual sensitivity penetrant contains a special dye that is visible in white light
and will fluoresce without the use of a black light.

_______ 2. A part being penetrant inspected must stay immersed in the penetrant tank
for the entire specified dwell time.

_______ 3. The liquid penetrant leak-through test refers to the ability of a penetrant to
spread through the dry developer evenly.

_______ 4. Visible dye penetrants are usually considered to be less sensitive than
fluorescent penetrants.

_______ 5. Water-washable penetrants have a built-in emulsifier that permits good

results in penetrant removal from parts suspected of having wide or shallow
discontinjuities.

_______ 6. Solvent-removable penetrants are available in both visible and fluorescent

dye.

_______ 7. Excess post-emulsifiable penetrant is commonly removed by spraying the

surface of the part with cleaner (solvent) and then wiping with a lint-free
towel.

_______ 8. Water washable penetrant systems are usually very portable because the
materials are commonly used in pressurized spray cans.

_______ 9. Warming the specimen to temperatures up to about 20o C tends to

accelerate penetration and shortens dwell time.

_______ 10. For the dwell time to be accurate, the surface of the specimen must stay
wet with penetrant for the entire time specified.

_______ 11. The typipal dwell time for most penetrant Inspections is about 20-30
minutes.

_________________________ 12. List two (2) of the commonly used methods of applying
_________________________ penetrants to a specimen that is to be inspected.

_________________________ 13. List four (4) of the commonly used methods of

_________________________ precleaning the specimen before penetrant inspection.
_________________________
_________________________

_______ 14. If you were asked to examine 200 steel bolts, each 3/8 x 3 inches with
rolled threads, which penetrant method would you choose?
(a) Post-emulsification (b) Water-washable

_______ 15. The filtered particle method of penetrant inspection used extra fine
fluorescent particles that will not pass through a #120 sieve.

Page 41
 CHAPTER FOUR

INTRODUCTION PENDAHULUAN
This chapter discusses emulsification, Bab ini mendiskusikan proses emulsifikasi,
penetrant removal, and developer application. pembersihan penetrant, dan aplikasi developer.

POST EMULSIFIABLE PENETRANT (PE POST EMULSIFIABLE PENETRANT (PE

PENETRANT) PENETRANT)
This type of penetrant emulsification is Emulsifikasi penetrant jenis ini dilakukan dengan
accomplished by dipping, spraying, or pencelupan, penyemprotan atau penuangan,
flowing, but NEVER by brushing. Brushing namun TIDAK BOLEH diaplikasikan dengan kuas.
makes emulsification more difficult to control, Aplikasi dengan kuas menyulitkan pengontrolan
besides the bristle of the brush may enter emulsifikasi, disamping bulu-bulu kuas bisa masuk
the discontinuity. ke dalam diskontinuitas.

Page 42
The skecth below represents the steps in Gambar berikut menunjukkan langkah-langkah
a post-emulsifiable penetrant test. pengujian post-emulsifiable penetrant.

Page 43
The length of time the emulsifier is left to dwell Jangka waktu emulsifier dibiarkan di atas
before commencing the penetrant removal permukaan benda sebelum dilakukan pembersi-
cycle is determined by the emulsifier used and han penetrant ditentukan oleh jenis emulsifier dan
the type of discontinuities suspected. diskontinuitas yang dicari.
If too short an emulsification time is used, Jika waktu emulsifikasi terlalu singkat, tidak
not all penetrant will be removed, which will semua penetrant akan tersapu, yang nantinya
cloud over discontinuities. akan menghalangi munculnya diskontinuitas.
If too long a time is used, penetrant within the Jika waktu emulsifikasi terlalu panjang, penetrant di
discontinuities will also become water soluble dalam diskontinuitas akan bereaksi dengan
and be washed away with excess penetrant. emulsifier dan akan tersapu oleh air.
The PE penetrant makes the water wash PE penetrant membuat pembilasan dengan air
less critical. menjadi tidak terlalu kritis.
The sketches below compare the effects Gambar di bawah ini membandingkan antara
of water-washable and post emulsification pemakaian WW dan PE penetrants.
penetrants.

Page 44
There are two types of emulsifiers used in Terdapat dua jenis emulsifier yang digunakan
the removal process — LIPOPHILIC (Method dalam proses pembersihan – LIPOPHILIC (Metoda
B) and HYDROPHILIC (Method D). B) dan HYDROPHILIC (Metoda D).
Lipophilic and hydrophilic processes have Proses lipophylic dan hydrophilic memiliki
completely different mechanisms in mekanisme yang sangat berbeda dalam merubah
converting the oil based penetrant into a penetrant berbahan dasar menjadi campuran yang
mixture that can be washed. bisa dibilas dengan air.
LIPOPHILIC METHOD METODA LIPOPHILIC
Lipophilic emulsifier is applied by immersion to Emulsifier lipophilic diaplikasikan dengan cara
prevent mechanically mixing emulsifier into the pencelupan untuk mencegah bercampurnya emul-
penetrant. In some automatic installations, the sifier dengan penetrant. Pada instalasi otomatis,
emulsifier is applied as a fog or mist. emulsifier diaplikasikan secara pengkabutan.
The mechanism of lipophilic emulsification is Mekanisme emulsifikasi lipophilic adalah dengan
by DIFFUSION. Molecules of emulsifier enter cara DIFUSI. Molekul emulsifier memasuki lapisan
into the penetrant layer while at the same penetrant, sementara pada saat yang bersamaan
time molecules of penetrant enter the molekul penetrant memasuki lapisan emulsifier.
emulsifier layer. The rate of diffusion Laju difusi akan bertambah dengan peningkatan
increases with increased concentration and konsentrasi dan penambahan suhu.
higher temperatures.
The three properties of lipophilic emulsifiers Tiga sifat emulsifier lipophilic yang mengontrol
that control the washing characteristics are karakteristik pembilasan adalah aktivitas,
activity, viscosity and water tolerance. kekentalan, dan toleransi terhadap air.
If a penetrant is highly resistant to water, an Jika suatu penetrant memiliki ketahanan tinggi
emulsifier with a high activity is needed. High terhadap air, maka diperlukan emulsifier dengan
viscosity emulsifiers diffuse more slowly than aktivitas yang tinggi. Emulsifier dengan kekentalan
low viscosity emulsifiers. Lipophilic emulsifier tinggi berdifusi lebih lambat ketimbang emulsifier
should tolerate 5% water by weight without yang encer. Lipophilic emulsifier harus mampu
gelling, separating or coagulating and still be mentolerir 5% air tanpa mengalami penggumpalan
capable of passing the penetrant atau pembekuan dan mampu lulus uji pember-
removability test. sihan penetrant.
Method B emulsifiers are supplied in the ready- Emulsifier metoda B dijual dalam bentuk siap pakai
to-use form and do not require further mixing. dan tidak memerlukan pencampuran lagi.

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HYDROPHILIC METHOD METODA HYDROPHILIC
Hydrophilic emulsifier is a water based solution Emulsifier hydrophilic adalah larutan antara air dan
and is a mixture of chemicals called zat kimia yang disebut surfactant. Dijual di pasaran
surfactants. They are supplied as a concentrate dalam bentuk konsentrat dan harus dicampur dulu
and are mixed with water either before or dengan air sebelum atau selama proses
during the removal process. The concentrate is pembersihan. Konsentrat disyaratkan mengan-
required to contain a maximum of 5% water. dung air maksimum sebesar 5%.
Hydrophilic emulsifier works based on the Emulsifier hydrophilic bekerja berdasar pada
principle to peel the penetrant away or by prinsip pengelupasan lapisan penetrant, atau
dissolving droplets so they do not redeposit dengan melarutkan penetrant sehingga tidak
on the surface. terdeposit kembali ke permukaan.
Because post-emulsifiable penetrant is Karena post-emulsifiable penetrant tidak
incompatible with water, prerinsing before kompatibel dengan air, direkomendasikan untuk
application of emulsifier is recommended. melakukan pembilasan awal sebelum aplikasi
Prerinsing removes 60-80% of the surface emulsifier. Pembilasan awal menghilangkan 60-
layer of penetrant, which greatly reduces 80% lapisan penetrant di permukaan, sehingga
contamination of the emulsifier. It also banyak mengurangi terjadinya kontaminasi pada
provides an even layer of surface penetrant. emulsifier. Pembilasan awal juga menghasilkan
lapisan penetrant permukaan yang rata.

Hydrophilic emulsifier is applied either Emulsifier hydrophilic diaplikasikan dengan cara

by immersion or spraying. pencelupan atau penyemprotan.
Immediately following the emulsification, a Segera setelah proses emulsifikasi, disyaratkan
fresh water rinse of the entire part is untuk membilas seluruh bagian benda uji dengan
required. This stops the action of any air bersih. Langkah ini akan menghentikan aksi
emulsifier remaining on the part. emulsifikasi yang masih tersisa di permukaan
benda.

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DEVELOPERS APPLICATION APLIKASI DEVELOPER
Some indications may be visible prior to Beberapa indikasi bisa saja nampak sebelum
the application of a developer, but this step developer diaplikasikan, namun langkah ini akan
will ensure that ALL discontinuities are memastikan bahwa SEMUA diskontinuitas akan
visible to the naked eye. tampak oleh mata telanjang.

Developing is accomplished when a highly Proses developing dilakukan dengan mengapli-

absorbent powder is applied to the item being kasikan serbuk berdaya serap tinggi ke permukaan
tested after excess penetrant is removed. benda uji setelah sisa penetrant dibersihkan.
The penetrant is actually drawn out of the Penetrant akan tertarik keluar dari
discontinuity by the strong capillary action of diskontinuitas akibat gaya kapiler yang kuat dari
the developer. serbuk developer.

As shown above, the image of the discontinuity Seperti diperlihatkan dalam gambar di atas, citra
in the developer will actually be larger than the diskontinuitas pada developer tampak lebih luas
actual size of the discontinuity. ketimbang ukuran diskontinuitas sebenarnya.
There are two common types of developers Ada dua jenis developer yang dipakai saat ini
in use today – dry and wet. Both use a – kering dan basah. Keduanya memakai
white powder and the primary difference is serbuk putih dan perbedaan utamanya terletak
in the method of application. pada metoda aplikasinya.
DRY DEVELOPERS DEVELOPER KERING
Dry developer is supplied as a fine- Developer kering dijual dalam bentuk butiran halus,
grained fluffy white powder. serbuk putih lembut.
Methods of application include the use of low Aplikasi dilakukan dengan dengan alat penyemprot
air pressure, such as that from a rubber bertekanan rendah. Kadangkala dipakai juga kuas
squeeze bulb or a spray gun. A soft brush halus; atau karena bentuknya yang sangat halus,
may sometimes be used; or, since the benda uji dapat dibenamkan ke dalam tangki
developer is a very fine powder, articles may developer, diangkat, dan sisa developer di
be simply dipped in the developer, raised, permukaan dihilangkan dengan cara meniup,
and the excess powder removed by gently menggoyang-goyang, atau mengetuk-ketuk benda
blowing, shaking, or tapping the article. uji.

Page 47
It is very necessary to have a dry surface Permukaan benda uji harus benar-benar kering
prior to application of a dry powder. sebelum serbuk developer diaplikasikan.
A wet surface would result in an uneven Permukaan yang basah menghasilkan lapisan
layer of powder or, even worse, too thick yang tidak merata, bahkan bisa terjadi peggum-
a powder buildup. Discontinuity indications palan serbuk. Indikasi diskontinuitas akan
would be obscured. terhalangi.
Dry developer is usually used with Developer kering biasanya dipakai bersama
fluorescent penetrant. dengan penetrant fluorescent.
WET DEVELOPERS DEVELOPER BASAH
Non-aqueous wet developer is held in Non-aqueous wet developer terikat dalam suatu
suspension in a solvent base and is usually suspensi solvent dan dikemas dalam kaleng
supplied in pressurized cans. Evaporation of semprot bertekanan. Penguapan solvent
the solvent carrier helps draw penetrant from membantu menarik penetrant dari dalam
discontinuities. diskontinuitas.
Nonaqueous wet developer is most often Nonaqueous wet developer paling sering diguna-
employed with solvent-removable penetrants kan bersama solvent-removable penetrant dan
and less often with water-washable or post- jarang dipakai bersama water-washable atau post-
emulsifiable penetrants. emulsifiable penetrants.
The nonaqueous wet developer is THE Nonaqueous wet merupakan jenis developer yang
MOST SENSITIVE of all the developers in PALING SENSITIP dalam mendeteksi diskonti-
detecting fine discontinuities. nuitas halus.
The best results are obtained when Hasil terbaik diperoleh apabila developer diaplika-
developer is applied as a thin and even film. sikan dalam bentuk lapisan tipis dan rata.
Like dry developer, nonaqueous developer is Seperti halnya developer kering, nonaquous
applied ONLY to dry test surfaces. developer HANYA diaplikasikan pada permukaan
yang benar-benar kering.

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Water-base wet developer Water-base wet developer
In water-base wet developer, the powder is Pada water-base wet developer, serbuk developer
mixed with water. dicampur dengan air.
The developer comprises of two types: water- Developer ini terdiri dari dua jenis: water-
suspended and water-soluble developers. suspended dan water-soluble developers.
1. In water-suspended developer, the 1. Pada water-suspended developer, partikel
developer particles are held in suspen- serbuk developer terikat dalam suspensi
sion in water and require continuous dengan air dan perlu diaduk terus-menerus
agitation to keep them in suspension. agar tidak mengendap.
2. In water-soluble developer, the 2. Pada water-soluble developer, serbuk
developer powder is dissolved in water developer larut dalam air dan membentuk
and forms a solution. Once mixed, they suatu larutan yang tidak perlu diaduk lagi.
remain mixed. Water-soluble developer Water-soluble developer menghasilkan
provides the greater sensitivity in sensitivitas yang lebih baik untuk mendeteksi
detecting fine discontinuities. diskontinuitas halus.
Water-suspended and water-soluble develo- Water-suspended dan water-soluble developers
pers are generally used with water- umumnya digunakan dengan water-washable atau
washable or post-emulsifiable penetrants post-emulsifiable penetrants, dan jarang dengan
and rarely with solvent-removable solvent-removable penetrant. Mereka diaplikasikan
penetrants. They are applied while the test saat permukaan benda uji masih dalam kondisi
article is still wet from the water wash. basah setelah pembilasan.
Methods of application include the following: Metoda aplikasi water-base wet developer:
 Dipping (or immersing)  Pencelupan
 
 Pouring (or flowing)  Penuangan
 
 Spraying  Penyemprotan
A short time is allowed for the water to Beberapa saat diperlukan bagi air untuk menguap,
evaporate, leaving a thin layer of white powder. meninggalkan lapisan tipis serbuk putih. Proses
The evaporation process is often hurried by the penguapan seringkali dipercepat dengan
use of a recirculating hot-air dryer after the menggunakan oven setelah aplikasi developer. Jika
developer has been applied. If an oven is used, digunakan oven untuk pengeringan, suhunya tidak
the temperature should not exceed about boleh melebihi 100oC karena akan menguapkan
100oC as this could evaporate penetrant in penetrant di dalam diskontinuitas.
the discontinuity.
Water soluble developer is not recommended Water soluble developer tidak direkomendasikan
to be used with water washable penetrant. untuk dipakai dengan water washable penetrant.

Page 49
GUIDELINES TO CHOOSE DEVELOPER PEDOMAN PEMILIHAN DEVELOPER
Now you might ask: What governs the choice Sekarang anda mungkin bertanya: Apakah yang
of developer for a given situation? Here are menentukan pemilihan developer untuk situasi
some guidelines. tertentu? Berikut beberapa pedomannya.
Water-Base Wet Developer Applications Aplikasi Water-Base Wet Developer
 On very smooth surfaces where a dry  Pada permukaan sangat halus dimana
developer will not adhere. developer kering tidak bisa menempel.
 
 When testing large numbers of small,  Saat memeriksa sejumlah besar artikel
irregularly-shaped articles (production berukuran kecil dan bentuknya tidak teratur
testing). (pengujian untuk produksi).
 
 When wide, shallow discontinuities are  Saat mencari diskontinuitas yang lebar dan
sought, wet developer tends to leave a dangkal, developer basah cenderung
more even film of developer than does menghasilkan lapisan developer yang lebih
dry developer. rata ketimbang developer kering.
Nonaqueous Wet Developer Applications Aplikasi Nonaqueous Wet Developer
 Applications on spot checks or when  Aplikasi untuk pemeriksaan setempat atau
conducting tests in the field. untuk pengujian di lapangan.
 
 On vertical surfaces, a uniform film of  Pada permukaan vertikal, lapisan developer
developer is more easily obtained. yang merata lebih mudah diperoleh.
 
 When greatest sensitivity is needed in  Apabila diinginkan sensitivitas terbaik untuk
revealing difficult-to-detect indications. mencari diskontinuitas yang sulit terdeteksi.
Dry Developer Applications Aplikasi Developer Kering
 On rough surfaces, dry developer gives  Pada permukaan kasar, developer kering
far better results than wet developer. memberikan hasil yang lebih baik
 dibandingkan developer basah.

 On sharp fillets, holes, and threaded  Pada sudut-sudut tajam, lubang, artikel
articles where wet developers tend to berulir dimana developer basah cenderung
leave too much developer. meninggalkan lapisan yang terlalu tebal.
 
 On very large articles where it might be  Pada artikel berukuran besar dimana
difficult to apply wet developer. kesulitan mengaplikasikan developer basah.
Again, these are only guidelines. There will Sekali lagi perlu disampaikan bahwa ini hanya
be exceptions. Some specifications permit sekedar pedoman. Beberapa spesifikasi mungkin
the use of only one type of developer and, as hanya mengijinkan penggunaan satu jenis
mentioned earlier, there are some developer saja, dan seperti telah disebutkan
applications that do not require the use of a sebelumnya, bahwa ada beberapa aplikasi yang
developer since the penetrant alone provides tidak mensyaratkan penggunaan developer karena
sufficient discontinuity indications through penetrant sendiri sudah menghasilkan indikasi
self-development. diskontinuitas yang mencukupi melalui mekanisme
self-development.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
REVIEW
_______ 1. When using a post-emulsified penetrant, if too long a time is used for
emulsification, penetrant within the discontinuities will be washed away
with the excess penetrant.

_______ 2. During the rinse cycle an emulsifier is added to a solvent-removable

penetrant to make it water soluble.

_______ 3. Water washable penetrants have a built-in emulsifier.

_______ 4. Post-emulsification penetrants are commonly available in both visible and

fluorescent dyes.

_______ 5. Post-emulsification penetrants usually require a two-step penetrant removal

process.

_______ 6. The penetrant removal process with water washable penetrants is very
critical because of the danger of over-wash.

_______ 7. Solvent-removable penetrants are commonly used because they will

withstand a very forceful water wash without the danger of over-wash.

_______ 8. An advantage of the solvent –removable penetrant is that the excess

penetrant is easily removed by dipping the part in a tank of solvent solution.

_______ 9. Wet developers are usually chosen over a dry developer for use on a
smooth surface.

_______ 10. A major advantage of the dry developer over wet is that it will not leave the
same amount of excess build-up in threads and fillets.

_______ 11. The emulsification time required to detect wide or shallow discontinuities is
usually longer than for finding narrow and deep discontinuities.

_______ 12. To avoid over-wash when using water washable penetrants, the water
spray nozzle is usually held at a 90° angle to the surface.

_______ 13. When using a water-washable penetrant, the part must be completely dried
in an oven (not in excess of 225° F) before the wet developer can be
applied.

_______ 14. A major advantage of a nonaqueous developer is that it can be applied to a

part that is heated above 225° F without evaporation on the developer
vehicle.

_______ 15. Solvent-removable fluorescent penetrants require the use of a rather time-
consuming method of excess penetrant removal.

_______ 16. Post-emulsifiable visible dye penetrants commonly use both wet and dry
developers.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

INTRODUCTION PENDAHULUAN
This chapter discusses the final step in the Bab ini mendiskusikan langkah akhir dalam proses
penetrant process inspection, evaluation, pemeriksaan penetrant, evaluasi, pembersihan
postcleaning, and material control. akhir, dan pengendalian material.

INSPECTION PEMERIKSAAN
Proper lighting should be the first Pencahayaan yang tepat harus dijadikan pertim-
consideration in the inspection of an article. bangan pertama dalam pemeriksaan benda uji.
1. If a fluorescent dye penetrant is used, a 1. Jika dipakai fluorescent dye penetrant maka
room or booth with dim light and a black diperlukan ruangan gelap dan lampu
light with proper intensity are required. ultraviolet dengan intensitas yang memadai.
2. If a visible dye penetrant is used, 2. Jika dipakai visible dye penetrant, diperlukan
adequate normal lighting is necessary. penerangan dengan cahaya biasa.
INTERPRETATION AND EVALUATION INTERPRETASI DAN EVALUASI INDIKASI
OF INDICATIONS
The terms “interpretation” and “evaluation” Istilah “interpretasi” dan “evaluasi” seringkali mem-
are often confused by testing personnel. bingungkan personel NDT. Sesungguhnya kedua
Actually, the terms refer to two entirely istilah tersebut mengacu pada dua langkah yang
different steps in testing process. sama sekali berbeda dalam proses pengujian.
After an indication is located, it is Setelah indikasi diketahui lokasinya, selanjutnya
interpreted. During the interpretation, the diinterpretasi. Selama interpretasi, penyebab dan
cause of the bleedout and the severity of the pengaruh indikasi terhadap artikel harus diten-
indication must be determined. It is at this tukan. Pada tahap ini indikasi tersebut
phase that the indication is classified as diklasifikasikan sebagai palsu, tidak relevan atau
false, nonrelevant or relevant. relevan.
Evaluation follows interpretation. If during Evaluasi mengikuti interpretasi. Jika selama tahap
the evaluation phase it is determined that the evaluasi ditentukan bahwa diskontinuitas memba-
discontinuity interferes with the serviceability hayakan pemakaian komponen, atau tidak meme-
of the part or it does not meet the nuhi kriteria penerimaan dan penolakan, diskon-
acceptance and rejection criteria, the tinuitas tersebut selanjutnya diklasifikasikan
discontinuity is then classified as a DEFECT. sebagai CACAT.

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TYPICAL INDICATIONS IN JENIS INDIKASI PADA
PENETRANT INSPECTION PEMERIKSAAN PENETRANT
All indications found with the liquid Semua indikasi yang ditemukan dalam pengujian
penetrant method will be open-surface penetrant adalah diskontinuitas permukaan,
discontinuities, but the indications may or namun indikasi tersebut mungkin saja atau tidak,
may not affect the usefulness of the article. mempengaruhi kegunaan benda uji.
FALSE INDICATIONS INDIKASI PALSU
The most common sources of false indications Penyebab indikasi palsu yang paling umum adalah
are poor washing, poor processing conditions, pembersihan yang buruk, kondisi pemrosesan
lack of cleanliness in the inspection booth or yang buruk, bilik pemeriksaan yang kurang bersih,
other aspects of the penetrant process. atau aspek lain dari proses penetrant.
The operator can easily tell when a good rinse Operator dapat dengan mudah mengatakan jika
is obtained by using a black light during and pembilasan sudah dilakukan dengan benar
after the fluorescent pentrant removal process. dengan memakai lampu ultraviolet selama dan
setelah proses pembersihan penetran fluorescent.
To avoid false indications, care should be Untuk menghindari indikasi palsu, harus diperhati-
taken so that no outside contamination such kan agar tidak ada kontaminasi dari luar seperti
as the following occurs: berikut ini:
1. Penetrant on operator’s hand. 1. Jejak penetran di tangan operator.
2. Contamination of wet or dry developer. 2. Kontaminasi developer basah atau kering.
3. Penetrant transfered to clean 3. Penetran yang berpindah dari indikasi lain ke
specimen from other indications. spesimen yang bersih.
4. Penetrant spots on the inspection table. 4. Jejak penetran di meja pemeriksaan.

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NONRELEVANT INDICATIONS INDIKASI NONRELEVANT
Nonrelevant indications are caused by Indikasi nonrelevant disebabkan karena ketidak-
surface irregularities or part configuration teraturan permukaan atau konfigurasi benda yang
that in most cases are there by design. pada kebanyakan kasus akibat disain.
They are caused by some features of assembly Indikasi nonrelevant disebabkan karena adanya
such as articles that are press-fitted, keyed, press-fitted, alur, splined, atau kelingan. Termasuk
splined, or riveted. Nonrelevant indications juga dalam indikasi nonrelevant adalah kerak lepas
could also include loose scale or rough surface dan pemukaan kasar pada benda tempa, benda
on a forging, casting, or welding. cor dan pengelasan.
Nonrelevant indications are considered not Indikasi nonrelevant dianggap tidak menggangu
detrimental to the serviceability of the part. pemakaian komponen.
As with false indications the inspector must Sama halnya dengan indikasi palsu, inspektor
carefully examine these indications to ensure harus memeriksa indikasi ini dengan hati-hati
that they do not mask a relevant indication. untuk memastikan agar jangan sampai menutupi
indikasi relevant.
TRUE INDICATIONS INDIKASI SEJATI
True indications are those caused by surface Indikasi sejati disebabkan karena diskontinuitas
discontinuities that have been interpreted as permukaan yang telah diinterpretasikan bukan
not being false or nonrelevant. sebagai indikasi palsu atau nonrelevant.
True indications are subject to evaluation as Indikasi sejati harus dievaluasi penyebab sampai
to the cause and the effect they will have on pada pengaruh yang ditimbulkannya pada usia
the service life of the article. pakai komponen.
It is important to note that all relevant Penting dicatat bahwa semua indikasi relevant
indications are discontinuities, but not adalah diskontinuitas, namun tidak semua
all discontinuities are defects. diskontinuitas adalah cacat.
True indications could be divided into SIX Indikasi sejati dibagi menjadi ENAM katagori
basic categories. utama:
1. Continuous Line 1. Garis Menerus
These indications are caused by cracks, Indikasi ini disebabkan karena retak, cold
cold shuts, forging laps, scratches, or shuts, lipatan temp, goresan, atau tanda
die marks. cetakan.
Cracks usually appear as jagged lines; Retakan biasanya tampak sebagai garis
cold shuts as smooth, narrow, straight bergerigi; cold shut sebagai garis lurus,
lines; and forging laps as smooth, wavy rapat, halus; lipatan tempa sebagai garis
lines. berombak yang halus.
Scratches and die marks appear in a Goresan dan tanda cetakan kelihatan
variety of linear patterns but are readily sebagai pola lurus yang bervariasi, namun
recognizable when all penetrant traces mudah dikenali setelah jejak penetrant
are removed, since the bottom of the dibersihkan, karena dasar diskontinuitas ini
discontinuity is usually visible. biasanya tampak.
2. Intermitten Line 2. Garis Putus-putus
These indications could be caused by Indikasi ini disebabkan karena diskontinuitas
any of the discontinuities mentioned memerus dimana ada bagiannya yang
above provided they were very tight or tertutup rapat akibat terkena pukulan,
where the part had been peened, permesinan, atau penggerindaan.
machined, or ground.

Page 54
 3. Round 3. Bundaran
Rounded indications usually are caused by Indikasi berbentuk bundar biasanya disebab-
porosity. Deep cracks may also appear as kan karena porosity. Retak dalam juga bisa
rounded indications, since they trap a large kelihatan sebagai indikasi bundar karena
amount of penetrant that spreads when the banyaknya penetrant yang terperangkap di
developer is applied. dalamnya yang menyebar saat developer
diaplikasikan.
Any rounded indication that appears Sembarang indikasi bundar yang muncul
singularly in an isolated position usually sendirian pada posisi menyendiri biasanya
indicates a discontinuity of depth that menunjukkan indikasi yang dalam dan belum
may or may not be round. tentu bentuk aslinya bundar.
4. Small Dots 4. Bintik-bintik Kecil
Tiny round indications caused by the Indikasi bundar kecil-kecil disebabkan kare-
porous nature of the specimen, coarse na sifat permukaan spesimen yang berpori,
grain structure, or microshrinkage. butiran kasar, atau penyusutan mikro.
5. Diffuse or weak 5. Tersebar atau Samar
These indications are difficult to Indikasi ini sulit diinterpretasi dan seringkali
interpret and often the part must be benda uji harus dibersihkan dan diuji ulang.
cleaned and retested. In many cases Pada banyak kasus, indikasi yang tersebar
the diffused or weak indications turn to atau samar berubah menjadi indikasi palsu
be false indications caused by an yang disebabkan prosedur penetrant yang
improper penetrant procedure. kurang benar.
6. Gross 6. Nyata
Gross indications are the result of Indikasi nyata adalah akibat pembersihan
ineffective penetrant removal or deep penetrant yang tidak efektip atau adanya
indications on the surface. indikasi yang dalam pada permukaan.
Skecthes below show typical true indications. Gambar berikut adalah indikasi sejati.

Page 55
Figures below illustrate typical liquid penetrant Gambar dibawah ini memperlihatkan indikasi
indications found in liquid penetrant testing. cairan penetrant pada pengujian penetrant.

Visible dye indication of seam.

Visible dye indication of lamination.

Visible dye indication of forging lap.

Visible dye indications of unhealed porosity in aluminum plate.

Page 56
Visible dye indications of cracks in aluminum forging.

Visible dye indications of weldment shrink cracks.

Visible dye indication of forging burst.

Fluorescent indications of porosity.

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DEPTH DETERMINATION OF PENETRANT PENENTUAN KEDALAMAN DISKONTINUITAS
DISCONTINUITIES PENETRANT
The greater the depth of a discontinuity, the Makin dalam suatu diskontinuitas, makin banyak
more penetrant it will holds and the larger penetrant tertahan di dalamnya dan makin besar
and brighter the indication. dan jelas indikasinya.
POSTCLEANING PEMBERSIHAN AKHIR
After the specimen has been inspected, it is Setelah spesimen diperiksa, sangat penting untuk
very important that it be thoroughly cleaned. A mencucinya dengan bersih. Pembersihan akhir
thorough postcleaning is necessary because yang menyeluruh perlu dilakukan karena sisa-sisa
penetrant and developer residue tend to attract penetrant dan developer akan mengikat uap air
moisture which may cause corrosion, or it can dan mengakibatkan korosi, atau zat-zat tersebut
interfere with subsequent processing or usage. dapat mengganggu proses atau penggunaan
selanjutnya.
Postcleaning usually will involved the same Pembersihan akhir biasanya melibatkan
types of cleaning operations as were used in jenis proses pembersihan yang sama seperti
precleaning. pada pembersihan awal.
QUALITY CONTROL OF PENETRANT KENDALI MUTU UNTUK MATERIAL PENGUJIAN
TEST MATERIALS PENETRANT
ALUMINUM TEST BLOCKS BLOK UJI ALUMINIUM
They provide a good means of evaluating Blok ini dipakai untuk mengevaluasi kegunaan
general purpose penetrants. They should be umum dari penetrant. Blok ini hanya dipakai
used for comparisons only and not for sebagai perbandingan saja, bukan untuk evaluasi
absolute evaluations. mutlak.
These blocks are nonuniform, the depth and Blok ini tidak seragam, kedalaman dan lebar retak
width of cracks are uncontrolled. The size of tidak terkontrol. Ukuran blok bisa bervariasi tapi
the blocks may vary but are about 5 x 8 cm by biasanya sekitar 5 x 8 cm dengan tebal 10 mm,
10 mm thickness of 2024-T-3 aluminum alloy. terbuat dari paduan aluminium 2024-T-3.
The blocks are heated to 510-525oC and Blok dipanaskan sampai suhu 510-525oC dan
quenched in cold water to provide an overall didinginkan cepat di air dingin untuk membuat
crack pattern. A groove approximately 1.5 pola retakan. Alur sedalam 1.5 mm dan lebar 2mm
mm deep by 2 mm wide may be cut across dibuat di tengah-tengah daerah pengaruh panas
the center of the heat-affected zone on both pada kedua sisi blok tersebut.
faces of the block.
Because of the large cracking that often results Karena jumlah retak yang banyak pada blok ini,
in this block, it is used for comparing low and maka blok ini seringkali dipakai untuk memban-
medium sensitivity fluorescent penetrant. dingkan sensitivitas penetrant fluorescent tingkat
rendah dan medium.

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SENSITIVITY TEST UJI SENSITIVITAS
While there have been no simple Sementara belum ada uji kuantitatip sederhana
quantitative tests developed for measuring untuk mengukur sensitivitas penetrant, uji
penetrant sensitivity, a simple comparative perbandingan sederhana biasanya dianggap
test is usually adequate. mencukupi.
The penetrant to be tested is applied to one- Penetrant yang diuji diaplikasikan pada setengah
half of the test block and the new or reference blok uji, dan penetrant baru atau yang dijadikan
penetrant is applied to the remaining half. referensi diaplikasikan pada setengah bagian lain.
The processing used—including dwell time, Pemrosesan penetrant – termasuk waktu diam,
emulsification or removal, and developing—is emulsifikasi atau pembersihan, dan developing –
that recommended by the penetrant dilakukan sesuai rekomendasi pabrik pembuat
manufacturer. penetrant.
By visual observation it is determined if the Melalui pengamatan visual, selanjutnya
old penetrant is contamined to the point ditentukan apakah penetrant yang lama telah
where it must be discarded. terkontaminasi dan harus dibuang.
MENISCUS TEST UJI MENISKUS
Provides a practical test for evaluating the Merupakan pengujian untuk mengevaluasi
dye concentration in thin-liquid films. konsentrasi pewarna di dalam cairan.
The test utilizes a flat glass platen and a convex Pengujian ini menggunakan kaca rata dan lensa
lens. When a drop of solution is placed between cembung. Saat satu tetes larutan fluorescent
the lens and platen, a colorless or diteteskan antara lensa dan kaca, maka akan
nonfluorescent spot is formed around the point terbentuk jejak di sekitar titik sentuh. Sudut kontak
of contact. The resultant contact angle simply yang dihasilkan memperlihatkan kemampuan
indicates the ability of a liquid to wet a surface. cairan untuk membasahi permukaan.
The diameter of the remaining spot of Diameter dari jejak penetrant pada lensa
colorless penetrant provides a measure of cembung menunjukkan ukuran ketebalan lapisan
film thickness which can be used to compare film yang dapat dipakai untuk membandingkan
the dye concentration of penetrant. konsentrasi zat pewarna di dalam penetrant.

Page 59
Prolonged exposure of a film to ultraviolet light Paparan dalam waktu lama di bawah cahaya
or accidental contamination by acids or ultraviolet atau kontaminasi akibat asam atau basa
alkalis will affect the dye concentration and akan mempengaruhi konsentrasi pewarna dan
therefore change the spot diameter. akan mengubah diameter jejak pada lensa.

CERAMIC BLOCK TEST UJI BLOK KERAMIK

Consists of an unglazed ceramic disc which Terdiri dari piringan keramik buram yang
has thousand of micropores and cracks on mengan-dung ribuan pori dan retak berukuran
its surface. sangat kecil pada permukaanya.
A performance comparison can be made of Perbandingan performance dapat dilakukan antara
two or more penetrant merely by noting the dua penetrant atau lebih yang diaplikasikan secara
number of distribution of porosity indication sebelah-menyebelah dengan memperhatikan jum-
and their brightness in a side-by-side lah distribusi indikasi porositas dan kecemer-
compari-son test. langannya.
A small amount of a test penetrant is placed on Sejumlah kecil penetrant yang diuji ditempatkan
one side and a reference penetrant is applied to pada satu sisi dan penetrant referensi ditempatkan
the other side. After the correct dwell time, the pada sisi yang lain. Setelah waktu diam tertentu,
two penetrants are compared. kedua penetrant tersebut diperbandingkan.
A reduction in the number of apparent Pengurangan jumlah dan tingkat kecemerlangan
brightness of pore indications should be indikasi pori-pori selanjutnya diamati saat
observed when comparing a fresh and old membandingkan antara penetrant yang lama dan
batch of penetrant. baru.
WATER CONTENT TEST UJI KADAR AIR
The ASTM Standard D-95 describes a test Standard ASTM D-95 menjelaskan pengujian ini,
where 100 ml of penetrant is placed in a dimana 100 ml penetrant ditempatkan dalam gelas
boiling flask with a similar quantity of ukuran yang berisi xylene bebas air dengan volume
moisture-free xylene. The condensate is yang sama. Uap pembakaran dikumpulkan dalam
collected in a graduated tube to show suatu tabung berjenjang untuk memperlihat-kan
percent of water by volume. persentase air per volume.
If percent of water exceeds manufacturer’s Jika persentase air melebihi rekomendasi pabrik,
remommendation, the penetrant is discarded. penetrant harus dibuang.
VISCOSITY TEST UJI KEKENTALAN
A viscometer tube is used to measure the Sebuah tabung ukuran kekentalan digunakan
viscosity in centistoke to determine if the untuk mengukur kekentalan dalam centistoke
penetrant is within the range recommended untuk menentukan apakah penetrant masih di
by the manufacturer. A typical standard is dalam rentang yang direkomendasikan oleh
ASTM D-445. pabrik. Standar yang dipakai adalah ASTM D-445.

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FLUORESCENT PENETRANT FADE TEST UJI KEPUDARAN PENETRAN FLUORESCENT
This test involves the use of the aluminum Pengujian ini memakai blok aluminium dengan
test blocks in a side-by-side comparison test. perbandingan secara sebelah menyebelah.
The fluorescent penetrant is placed on both Penetran fluorescent ditempatkan pada kedua sisi
sides of the block and processed normally. blok dan diproses seperti biasanya. Separuh
One half of the block is then exposed to a bagian blok disinari cahaya ultraviolet selama satu
standard black light for one hour, while the jam, sedangkan separuh sisi yang lain ditutupi
other side is covered with paper. kertas.
The fluorescent brilliance of the two sides is Kecemerlangan fluorescent dari kedua sisi tersebut
observed and if one side is noticeably less diamati dan dibandingkan, dan jika salah satu sisi
brilliant, the penetrant is discarded. tampak lebih pudar, penetrant harus dibuang.
WATER WASHABILITY TEST UJI KEMAMPUCUCIAN DENGAN AIR
This test evaluates the efficiency of the Pengujian ini mengevaluasi efisiensi emulsifier
emulsifier by comparing two different dengan membandingkan dua macam persentase
percentage blends of penetrant and emulsifier. campuran penetran dan emulsifier yang berbeda.
A special steel block is placed at a 75o angle Blok baja khusus diposisikan pada sudut 75o dan
and the two blends are allowed to flow dua macam campuran tadi dialirkan secara
separately down the block. After a five-minute terpisah di atas blok. Setelah waktu tunggu selama
waiting period, the block is washed and lima menit, blok dicuci dan diperiksa mengenai
examined for traces of remaining penetrant. keberadaan jejak penetran.
DEVELOPER TEST UJI DEVELOPER
Dry developers are simply visually inspected Developer kering cukup diperiksa secara visual
to see that they are not lumpy or caked untuk melihat adanya gumpalan-gumpalan atau
instead of fluffy and light. tidak ada yang lengket satu sama lain.
Wet developers are often checked using a Developer basah seringkali diperiksa memakai
hydrometer to assure that the density of the hydrometer untuk menjamin bahwa massa jenis
powder in the vehicle is within the range serbuk di dalam campuran masih dalam rentang
that recommended by the manufacturer. yang direkomendasikan oleh pabrik pembuat.
PORTABLE EQUIPMENT PERALATAN PORTABEL
The process control of portable equipment Pengontrolan proses untuk peralatan portabel
involves checking materials and associated meliputi pemeriksaan material dan peralatan
equipment of the penetrant kit. yang ada hubungannya dengan paket penetran.
When ordering penetrant materials from the Saat memesan material penetran dari pemasok,
manufacturer, performance specifications should spesifikasi performance sebaiknya dicantumkan
be requested in the purchase order. dalam dokumen pembelian. Hal ini bermanfaat
This establishes the necessary documentation untuk mendokumentasikan performance material
to verify material performance. Aerosol cans penetrant. Tiap kaleng semprot yang dipakai pada
are normally used in portable equipment; each peralatan portabel, pada bagian bawahnya selalu
can has a batch number on it. terdapat nomer batch.
Portable kits contain a cleaner. If the cleaner Paket portabel termasuk juga pembersih (cleaner).
is used to preclean a part, it must be able to Jika cleaner dipakai sebagai pembersih awal maka
preclean the part without leaving a residue. harus mampu membersihkan benda tanpa
Care should be taken to ensure that the meninggalkan sisa. Harus diperhatikan agar tidak
cleaner used is not marked as a remover, memakai remover sebagai pembersih awal karena
which has a very slow evaporation rate and laju penguapannya rendah dan akan mening-
will leave an oil residue. galkan sisa minyak di permukaan.

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Most cleaners today are labeled cleaner/ Kebanyakan cleaner yang ada saat ini diberi label
remover. These cleaners do not leave a sebagai cleaner/remover. Cleaner ini tidak mening-
residue and can be used to preclean parts. galkan sisa minyak dan bisa dipakai sebagai
pembersih awal.
Developers now use a different liquid solvent Developer yang ada saat ini memakai solvent cair
as a vehicle, which does not evaporate as yang berbeda-beda sebagai pengencer, sehingga
quickly. To prevent a loss of sensitivity and a tidak cepat menguap. Untuk mencegah hilangnya
possible masking of discontinuities, allow the sensitivitas dan tertutupnya diskontinuitas,
developer to dry before applying more biarkan developer mengering dulu sebelum
developer. penyemprotan developer tambahan.
LIGHTING PENCAHAYAAN
Control of lighting is a key part of the Pengontrolan cahaya merupakan bagian kunci dari
process control. pengendalian proses.
The ultraviolet light in fluorescent penetrant Lampu ultraviolet pada paket portabel penetran
portable kits must be checked for lens fluorescent harus diperiksa kebersihan lensanya
cleanliness and possible cracks. The dan kemungkinan adanya retak. Intensitas cahaya
ultraviolet light intensity must be checked ultraviolet harus diperiksa apakah sudah sesuai
against the applicable specification. dengan spesifikasi yang berlaku.
Ultraviolet lights from a 100 Watt mercury Cahaya ultraviolet dari lampu mercury 100 Watt
vapor lamp normally produce higher intensities umumnya menghasilkan intensitas lebih dari
than the 1000 μW/cm2 at a distance of 38 cm. 1000 μW/cm2 pada jarak 38 cm.
Daily checks of ultraviolet light intensity is a Pemeriksaan harian intensitas cahaya ultraviolet
necessity for adequate process control. For diperlukan untuk pengendalian proses yang benar.
systems used during multiple 8 h shifts, Untuk sistem shift yang digunakan selama
ultraviolet lights should be checked at the kelipatan 8 jam, lampu ultraviolet harus diperiksa di
start of each shift. awal mulainya shift.
The darkness of the fluorescent penetrant Tingkat kegelapan ruangan pemeriksaan
inspection area is important. Most specifi- penetrant fluorescent perlu diperhatikan.
cations require no more that 20 lux. (2 fc) of Kebanyakan spesifikasi mensyaratkan intensitas
white light in the area. cahaya tampak tidak lebih dari 20 lux (2 fc) dalam
ruang pemeriksaan.
In addition, inspectors must allow their eyes to Sebagai tambahan, inspektor harus membiasakan
adjust when first entering the darkened test matanya saat memasuki ruang gelap. Umumnya
area. Normally, 5 min is enough time for the perlu waktu 5 menit bagi mata untuk beradaptasi
eye to adapt to a dark environment. Tests dalam lingkungan gelap. Pengujian sebaiknya
should not start until the inspector’s eyes have jangan dimulai hingga mata inspektor terbiasa
adapted to the darkened conditions. dengan keadaan gelap.

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 CHAPTER FIVE
REVIEW
_______ 1. A typical false indication could be caused by an assembly that requires the
components to be press-fitted.

_______ 2. Nonrelevant indications could be caused by the rough surface on a casting.

_______ 3. Postcleaning is necessary only when the part must be retested by the liquid
penetrant method.

_______ 4. A typical true indication producing round indications is commonly caused by

porosity.

_______ 5. Diffused or weak indications are often caused by subsurface discontinuities,

and the part must be retested using a highly sensitive penetrant that will
penetrate grain structure.

_______ 6. True indications are usually those that require evaluation to determine their
effect on the service life of the part.

_______ 7. The aluminum test blocks used in penetrant evaluation are heated and
quenched in water to produce a pattern of cracks on the surface.

_______ 8. The sensitivity tests used in penetrant inspection are relatively simple,
nonquantitative, and require side-by-side visual observation.

_______ 9. The meniscus test utilizes a flat glass platen and convex lens to determine
the dye concentration of a visible or fluorescent penetrant.

_______ 10. The ceramic block test uses an unfired ceramic disc to determine the dye
concentration of a visibles or fluorescent penetrant.

_______ 11. A special steel block, placed at a 75° angle, is used to check the
effectiveness of the emulsifier.

_______ 12. Dry developers are often checked with a hydrometer to insure that they are
still light and fluffy and not settled into a dense mixture.

_______ 13. The fluorescent penetrant fade test usually makes use of the aluminum test
blocks to perform the test.

_______ 14. The depth of a discontinuity can be compared by observing the relative size
or brightness of the indication.

_______ 15. Penetrant that has been transferred to a clean article from the indication on
another article can cause a false indication.

_______ 16. Nonrelevant indications often are actual surface discontinuities.

_______ 17. If a discontinuity is evaluated as being a true indication, the article should
automatically be rejected.

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 CHAPTER SIX
INTRODUCTION PENDAHULUAN
This chapter discusses types of Bab ini mendiskusikan jenis-jenis diskontinuitas
discontinuities that can be evaluated with the yang dapat dievaluasi menggunakan metoda
liquid penetrant method. cairan penetrant.
CATEGORIES OF DISCONTINUITIES KATAGORI DISKONTINUITAS
Discontinuities can be divided into THREE Diskontinuitas dapat dibagi menjadi TIGA katagori
general categories: inherent, processing, and umum: bawaan, proses, dan servis.
service.
1. Inherent. 1. Bawaan.
They are usually related to discontinuities Biasanya berhubungan dengan diskonti-
found in the molten metal. nuitas yang ditemukan dalam logam cair.
Inherent wrought discontinuities Diskontinuitas wrought bawaan berhubungan
relate to the melting and solidification dengan peleburan dan pembekuan ingot
of the original ingot before it is sebelum dibentuk menjadi slabs, bloom, dan
formed into slabs, blooms, and billets. billet.
Inherent cast discontinuities relate to Diskontinuitas tuangan bawaan berhubu-
the melting, casting, and solidification ngan dengan peleburan, pengecoran, dan
of a cast article. Usually caused by pembekuan benda cor. Biasanya disebab-
inherent variables such as inadequate kan karena variabel bawaan seperti kurang
feeding, gating, excessive pouring pengisian, gating, suhu tuang berlebihan,
temperature, and entrapped gases. dan gas yang terperangkap.
2. Processing discontinuities. 2. Diskontinuitas Proses.
They are usually related to the various Biasanya berhubungan dengan aneka
manufacturing processes such as proses manufaktur seperti permesinan,
machi-ning, forming, extruding, rolling, pembentukan, extruding, pengerolan,
welding, heat treating, and plating. pengelasan, laku panas, dan pelapisan.
3. Service discontinuities. 3. Diskontinuitas Servis.
They are related to the various Berhubungan dengan aneka kondisi
service conditions such as stress pengoperasian seperti korosi tegangan,
corrosion, fatigue, and erosion. kelelahan, dan erosi.
REMEMBER, when you use the liquid penetrant INGAT, jika anda menggunakan metoda cairan
method, you can find only those penetran, anda hanya bisa menemukan diskonti-
discontinuities which are open to the surface. nuitas yang membuka ke permukaan.
However, during the manufacturing process, Namun demikian, selama proses manufaktur,
many discontinuities that were subsurface banyak diskontinuitas yang tadinya di bawah
can be made open to the surface by permukaan menjadi membuka ke
machining, grinding, and the like. permukaan karena permesinan,
penggerindaan, dan sejenisnya.
Remember that discontinuities are not Ingat bahwa diskontinuitas belum tentu cacat.
necessarily defects. Any indication that is found Sembarang indikasi yang ditemukan oleh inspektor
by the inspector is called a discontinuity until it dinamakan sebagai diskontinuitas hingga dikenali
can be identified and evaluated as to the effect dan dievaluasi pengaruhnya terhadap pengopera-
it will have on the service of the part. sian komponen.

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THE ORIGINS OF DISCONTINUITIES ASAL-MUASAL DISKONTINUITAS
Listed below are some typical discontinuities Di bawah ini adalah beberapa jenis diskontinuitas
that should be recognized when doing any yang sebaiknya dikenali jika melakukan
type of nondestructive test. pengujian tanpa merusak.
Discontinuities trapped in the ingot during Diskontinuitas yang terperangkap di dalam ingot
steel making process may cause aditional selama proses pembuatan baja dapat menyebab-
types of discontinuities as the steel is used in kan terjadinya jenis diskontinuitas lain saat baja
the manu-facture of an article. tersebut dipakai memproduksi suatu artikel.
There are FOUR main types of Ada EMPAT jenis diskontinuitas utama
discontinuities found in ingots: yang ditemukan di dalam ingot:
1. Porosity – caused by entrapped gas in 1. Porositas – disebabkan oleh gas-gas yang
the molten metal. terperangkap di dalam logam cair.
2. Nonmetallic inclusions – caused by 2. Inklusi Nonlogam – disebabkan karena
impurities accidentally included in the ketidakmurnian yang tanpa sengaja terjadi
molten metal. dalam logam cair.
3. Pipe – caused by shrinkage at the center of 3. Pipa – disebabkan karena penyusutan pada
the ingot as the molten metal solidifies. bagian tengah ingot selama pembekuan.
4. Segregations – occurs when the 4. Segregasi – terjadi karena ketidakseragaman
distribution of the various elements is distribusi aneka elemen di dalam ingot.
not uniform throughout the ingot. This Kondisi ini dimanakan “banding” dan
condition is called “banding” and is not dianggap tidak begitu berarti.
usually significant.

The “hot top” is usually cropped off to Bagian “hot top” biasanya dipotong untuk menghi-
remove most of the above discontinuities. langkan sebagian besar diskontinuitas di atas.

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CASTING DISCONTINUITIES DISKONTINUITAS TUANGAN
Casting discontinuities occur when molten Diskontinuitas tuangan terjadi saat logam cair
metal is poured into a mold and allowed dituangkan ke dalam cetakan dan dibiarkan
to solidify. membeku.
A COLD SHUT is caused when molten metal is COLD SHUT disebabkan jika ada logam cair
poured over solidified metal as shown below. menumpuki logam yang sudah membeku.

When the metal is poured, it hits the mold Saat logam cair dituangkan dan membentur
too hard and spatters small drops of dinding cetakan terlalu keras akan terjadi
metal. When these drops of metal hit percikan logam cair. Jika percikan ini mengenai
higher up on the mold, they stick and dinding cetakan, dia akan lengket dan
solidify. When the rising molten metal membeku. Apabila logam cair menutupi
reaches and covers the solidified drops of percikan beku tersebut, terbentuk
metal, a crack-like discontinuity is formed. diskontinuitas yang menyerupai retakan.
HOT TEARS (SHRINKAGE CRACKS) occurs SOBEK PANAS (RETAK SUSUT) terjadi apabila
when there is unequal shrinkage between terjadi penyusutan yang tidak merata antara
light and heavy sections as shown below. bagian ringan dan berat seperti dalam gambar.

In a casting having light and heavy sections, Pada benda cor, makin ringan suatu bagian
the light sections, being smaller, solidify maka makin cepat pembekuan dan penyusu-
faster; they shrink faster pulling the heavier tannya, yang akan menarik bagian berat yang
sections, which are hotter and not shrinking lebih panas dan lebih lambat penyusutannya
as fast, toward the light sections. dibandingkan bagian tipis.

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SHRINKAGE CAVITIES occur when there is RONGGA SUSUT terjadi jika volume logam cair
insufficient molten metal to fill the space tidak cukup mengisi rongga akibat penyusutan,
created by shrinkage, just as pipe is formed sama seperti halnya pipe yang terbentuk di dalam
in an ingot. ingot.

GATE
(ENTRANCE FOR
MOLTEN METAL)

Shrinkage cavities can be eliminated, or Rongga susut dapat dicegah atau dikurangi
the possibility of shrinkage cavities can be kemungkinan terjadinya dengan menambahkan
greatly reduced, by adding a feeder head corong pengisian seperti dalam gambar kanan
or reservoir as shown above on the right. atas.
MICROSHRINKAGE is usually many small SUSUT MIKRO biasanya berupa lubang-lubang
subsurface holes that appear at the gate of kecil di bawah permukaan yang muncul pada gate
the casting caused by premature blocking of akibat penyumbatan gate sebelum pengisian
the gate. selesai seluruhnya.
Microshrinkage can also occur when the Susut mikro dapat juga disebabkan ketika
molten metal must flow from a thin logam cair harus mengalir dari bagian tipis ke
section into a thicker section of a casting. bagian yang lebih tebal di dalam cetakan.
BLOW HOLES are small holes at the surface LUBANG TIUP adalah lubang-lubang kecil pada
of the casting caused by gas which comes permukaan benda cor akibat gas-gas yang berasal
from the mold itself. Many molds are made dari dinding cetakan. Banyak cetakan yang dibuat
of sand, and when molten metal comes into dari pasir dan saat logam cair bersentuhan
contact with the mold, the water in the sand dengannya kelembaban yang terkandung dalam
is released as steam. pasir berubah menjadi uap air.
POROSITY is caused by entrapped gas. POROSITAS disebabkan karena gas-gas yang
Porosity is usually subsurface but can occur terperangkap. Porositas biasanya di bawah
on the surface depending on the design of permukaan namun dapat pula terjadi di
the mold. permukaan, tergantung pada disain cetakan.

WATER WASHABLE FLUORESCENT WATER WASHABLE FLUORESCENT

PENETRANT is best suited for the highest PENETRANT adalah jenis penetrant yang paling
sensitivity in cast articles. baik untuk memperoleh sensitivitas tertinggi
pada benda-benda cor.

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PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES DISKONTINUITAS PROSES
Processing discontinuities are those found or Diskontinuitas proses ditemukan atau dihasilkan
produced by forming or fabrication saat pembentukan atau operasi fabrikasi,
operations including rolling, forging, welding, termasuk pengerolan, penempaan, pengelasan,
machining, grinding, and heat treating. permesinan, penggerindaan, dan perlakuan panas.
WORKING THE BILLETS PENGERJAAN BILLET
When an ingot is further processed into Ketika ingot diproses lebih lanjut menjadi slabs,
slabs, blooms, and billets, it is possible for blooms, dan billets, diskontinuitas bisa berubah
the discontinuities to change size and shape. ukuran dan bentuk.
As a billet is flattened and spread out, Saat billet diratakan dan digepengkan, inklusi
nonmetallic inclusions may cause a nonlogam dapat menyebabkan laminasi. Pipa dan
lamination. Pipe, and porosity could also porositas juga dapat menyebabkan laminasi
cause laminations in the same manner as dengan cara yang sama seperti dalam gambar di
shown below. bawah ini.

As a billet is rolled into bar stock, nonmetallic Saat billet dirol menjadi batang tongkat, inklusi
inclusions are squeezed out into longer and nonlogam tertekan menjadi diskontinuitas yang
thinner discontinuities called stringers. panjang dan tipis dinamakan stringers.

A nonmetallic inclusion in bar stock extends in Inklusi nonlogam dalam batang tongkat menyebar
the direction of grain formation. As the billet is ke arah pembentukan butiran. Saat billet dirol
rolled smaller around and longer, the stringer semakin kecil dan panjang, stringer juga menjadi
also becomes smaller around and longer. lebih kecil dan panjang.

Page 68
As a billet is rolled into round bar stock, Saat billet dirol menjadi batang tongkat, ketidak-
surface irregularities may cause SEAMS. teraturan permukaan bisa mengakibatkan seams.
Seams are caused by folding of metal due Seams terjadi akibat lipatan logam karena
to improper rolling or by a crack in the pengerolan yang salah atau karena retakan pada
billet as shown below. billet seperti dalam gambar berikut.

A seam could also occur when the billet is Seam juga bisa terjadi saat billet dibentuk menjadi
formed into a rectangular bar as shown below. batang kotak seperti berikut.

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FORGING DISCONTINUITIES DISKONTINUITAS TEMPAAN
Forging discontinuities occur when metal is Diskontinuitas tempaan terjadi saat logam dipukul
hammered or pressed into shape, usually atau ditekan menjadi bentuk tertentu, biasanya
while the metal is very hot. ketika logam dalam kondisi sangat panas.
A forged part gains strength due to the Benda tempa memperoleh kekuatan akibat aliran
grain flow taking the shape of the die, butiran yang berlangsung ke semua arah
and the process is shown below. mengikuti bentuk cetakan seperti gambar.

A FORGING BURST is a rupture caused by PECAH TEMPA adalah kepecahan yang disebab-
forging at improper temperatures. Forging kan karena suhu penempaan yang salah.
metal at too low temperature may cause Penem-paan logam pada suhu terlalu rendah
burst. Burst may be either internal or open to mengaki-batkan kepecahan. Pecah tempa bisa di
the surface a shown below. dalam, maupun membuka ke permukaan.

Improper temperatures caused these parts Suhu tempa yang terlalu rendah mengakibatkan
to break as the material was being shaped komponen di atas pecah saat ditempa. Logam
by forging. The metal was not hot enough tidak cukup panas sehingga tidak terjadi aliran
and did not want to flow with the forging. saat ditempa. Saat ditekan pada waktu
When squeezed by the heavy forging press, penempaan, logam akan pecah di bagian
the metal in the center simply ruptured. tengahnya.

Page 70
A FORGING LAP is caused by folding of metal LIPATAN TEMPA disebabkan lipatan logam pada
on the surface of the forging, usually when permukaan benda tempa, terjadi karena logam
some of the forging metal is squezeed out terjepit antara cetakan bagian atas dan bawah
between the two dies that do not match. yang tidak lurus.

Forging laps can also be caused by poor Lipatan tempa dapat juga disebabkan disain
die design. As the metal is pressed into cetakan yang keliru. Saat logam ditekan di
the cavity in this die, the metal is forced dalam rongga cetakan, logam dipaksa meme-
up at the bottom of the die and tends to nuhi cetakan dan cenderung terlipat ke arahnya
fold over on itself, forming the forging lap sendiri membentuk lipatan tempa seperti dalam
shown on the right. gambar kanan bawah.

For production testing of forgings, Untuk pengujian produksi benda-benda tempa,

POSTEMUL-SIFIABLE FLUORESCENT POSTEMULSIFIABLE FLUORESCENT PENE-TRANT
PENETRANT is the recommended penetrant merupakan teknik yang direkomendasikan untuk
technique to obtain the best sensitivity. memperoleh sensitivitas terbaik.

Page 71
GRINDING CRACK are a processing-type RETAK GERINDA adalah diskontinuitas proses,
discontinuity caused by stresses which are disebabkan karena tegangan yang terjadi akibat
built up from excess heat created between panas berlebih yang ditimbulkan antara mata
grinding wheel and metal. gerinda dan logam.
Grinding cracks will usually occur at right Retak gerinda biasanya akan terjadi pada arah
angle to the rotation of the grinding wheel. tegak lurus terhadap arah putar mata gerinda.

HEAT TREAT CRACKS are often caused by RETAK LAKU PANAS seringkali disebabkan tega-
the stresses built up during heating and ngan yang terjadi selama pemanasan dan pendi-
cooling. Unequal cooling between light and nginan. Laju pendinginan yang tidak sama antara
heavy sections may cause heat treat cracks. bagian ringan dan berat bisa menyebabkan retak.
Heat treat cracks have no specific direction Retak laku panas tidak mempunyai arah
and usually start at sharp corners which act tertentu, dan biasanya bermula dari pojok-pojok
as stress concentration points. tajam yang bertindak sebagai titik konsentrasi
tegangan.
During inspection of heat treated parts, Selama pemeriksaan komponen yang dilaku
the first areas of concern will be: panas, tempat pertama yang menjadi perhatian:
 Any sharp area, such as corner,  Daerah tajam seperti pojok-pojok,
ridges, etc. permukaan kasar, takik, dll.
 
 Junction of light and heavy sections.  Pertemuan antara bagian ringan dan berat.
The photo below shows a part that has cracked Foto di bawah ini memperlihatkan komponen yang
from heat treatment. Notice that the crack cuts retak akibat perlakuan panas. Perhatikan bahwa
across the grain. Since heat treatment cracks retak tersebut melintang terhadap butiran logam.
have no specific direction, the crack might just Karena retak laku panas tidak memiliki arah ter-
as well have followed the grain. tentu, arahnya bisa juga mengikuti butiran logam.

Page 72
WELDING DISCONTINUITIES below are DISKONTINUITAS PENGELASAN dibawah ini
types of processing discontinuities. termasuk ke dalam diskontinuitas proses.
Crater cracks Retak kawah

Stress cracks Retak tegang

Porosity Porositas

Slag Inclusion Inklusi Slag

Page 73
Tungsten Inclusion Inklusi Tungsten

Lack of Penetration Kurang Penembusan

Lack of Fusion Kurang Peleburan

Undercut Undercut

Page 74
SERVICE DISCONTINUITIES DISKONTINUITAS SERVIS
FATIGUE CRACKS are service-type disconti- RETAK FATIK merupakan diskontinuitas servis
nuities that are usually open to the surface yang biasanya membuka ke permukaan dimana
where they start from concentration points. mulainya dari titik-titik konsentrasi tegangan.
Fatigue cracks occur crosswise to the Arah perambatan retak fatik melintang terhadap
direction of strees movement. The stress arah tegangan. Arah tegangan yang bekerja
on the driven shaft below would have pada poros penggerak di bawah ini searah
been clockwise – the direction of its jarum jam – yaitu arah putaran poros. Retak
rotation. The fatigue crack occured across fatik yang timbul arahnya melintang terhadap
the direction of stress movement. arah tegangan.

Fatigue cracks are possible only after the Retak fatik hanya mungkin timbul setelah
part is placed into service, but may be komponen menjalankan fungsinya, dan
the result of porosity, inclusions, or other bisa disebabkan karena porositas, inklusi,
discontinuities in a highly stressed metal atau diskontinuitas lain pada bagian logam
part. yang konsentrasi tegangannya tinggi.

Page 75
Page 76
 CHAPTER SIX
REVIEW
_______ 1. The general category of processing discontinuities relates to discontinuities
caused during manufacturing processes such as welding, extruding, and
heat treating.

_______ 2. During the steel-making process the top of the ingot is usually removed to
help eliminate such discontinuities as pipe, porosity and
nonmetallic inclusions.

_______ 3. When a billet is rolled into bar stock, a nonmetallic inclusion could be
formed into a longer and thinner discontinuity called a stringer.

_______ 4. Porosity in a billet could cause a lamination if the metal were formed into a
flat plate.

_______ 5. Seams are usually subsurface discontinuities caused by improper rolling of

a billet into round stock.

_______ 6. During the rolling of a billet into round bar stock, the grain in the metal forms
perpendicular to the direction of rolling.

_______ 7. In the forging operation, underheated metal will not allow the metal to flow
properly and may cause "forging seams".

_______ 8. Forging bursts are considered subsurface discontinuities and can never be
inspected with liquid penetrant techniques.

_______ 9. Cold shuts are common discontinuities found in the forging process and are
caused by inadequate heating of the forged part.

_______ 10. Blow holes are subsurface discontinuities commonly found in cast parts.

_______ 11. Because cold metal occupies more space than hot metal, there is the
danger of "hot tears" during the casting process.

_______ 12. Porosity is often caused by entrapped gas that is expanded during the
heating and pressing in the forging process.

_______ 13. Microshrinkage is often found at the gate of a casting and is usually
subsurface.

_______ 14. Grinding cracks are usually at right angles to the direction of grinding and
are caused by the heat build-up between the grinding wheel and metal.

_______ 15. Heat treat cracks are often associated with stress concentration points on
the part being heat treated.

_______ 16. Porosity may lead to a fatigue crack in a highly stressed part.

_______ 17. Crater cracks and tungsten inclusions are both associated with
discontinuities formed during the welding process.

_______ 18. Lack of penetration and lack of fusion both refer to the same type of
welding discontinuity.

Page 77
 REFERENCES
ASNT, NDT Training Program – Liquid Penetrant Method, Columbus, 2nd Edition, 1979.
Badger, Duane, Liquid Penetrant Testing – Classroom Training Book, ASNT, Columbus, 2005.
Eick, Charles W., ASNT Level III Study Guide – Liquid Penetrant Testing Method, ASNT, Columbus,
2nd Edition, 2003.
Smilie, Robert W., Classroom Training Handbook, Nondestructive Testing – Liquid Penetrant, PH
Diversified, Inc., South Harrisburg, 1998.
Smilie, Robert W., Programmed Instruction Handbook, Nondestructive Testing – Introduction, PH
Diversified, Inc., South Harrisburg, 1995.
Smilie, Robert W., Programmed Instruction Handbook, Nondestructive Testing – Liquid Penetrant, PH
Diversified, Inc., South Harrisburg, 1998.

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