PSYCHOLOGY ASSIGNMENT

SEMESTER-IV (2019-20)

PSYCHOLOGY ASSIGNMENT SEMESTER 4

PAPER BSP221 PSYCHOLOGY OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
SUBMITTED TO MR. VED PRAKASH RAWAT
SUBMITTED BY VAISHNAVI SINHA
ROLL NO 18239ECO036
DATE OF SUBMISSION 23/08/2020
TOPIC COVERED CHILDHOOD: DEVELOPMENT TASK

The assignment has solely been made by Vaishnavi Sinha by using the compilation of
concepts and theories from across different sources given by honorable Psychologists
who have dedicated their lifetime in working for the field of Psychology.

CHILDHOOD: DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

Introduction

The study of human development is a rich and varied subject. We all have personal
experience with development, but it is sometimes difficult to understand how and why
people grow, learn, and act as they do.

Why do children behave in certain ways? Is their behavior related to their age, family
relationships, or individual temperaments? Developmental psychologists strive to
answer such questions as well as to understand, explain, and predict behaviors that
occur throughout the lifespan.

In order to understand human development, a number of different theories of child

development have arisen to explain various aspects of human growth.Child
development that occurs from birth to adulthood was largely ignored throughout much of
human history. Children were often viewed simply as small versions of adults and little
attention was paid to the many advances in cognitive abilities, language usage, and
physical growth that occur during childhood and adolescence. Interest in the field of
child development finally began to emerge early in the 20th century, but it tended to
focus on abnormal behavior. Eventually, researchers became increasingly interested in
other topics including typical child development as well as the influences on
development.

A study of the psychology of childhood if conscientiously and intelligently pursued,

provides a rich background of information about children's behaviour and psychological
growth under a variety of environmental conditions. It provides information and norms of
behaviour and growth for comparative purposes as well as understanding of basic
psychologial process and socialisation. What then is child psychology or child
development. WHAT IS CHILD PSYCHOLOGY? Child development or child psychology
as a field is defined as a branch of " knowledge concerned with both the nature of
devlopment and regulation of significant structural, junctional and behavioural changes
occurring in children as they advance in age and maturity. It deals with understanding
the development of characteristics of children and the process through which
development occurs. In most cases, emphasis is on collection of data and the methods
to deal with such cases. More specifically, child psychology or child development deals
with understanding of growth and development patterns and the development of various
characteristics in children. Very often two questions arise: Are development psychology
and child psychology equivalent? Can child development be regarded as an
independent area of study? Very often developmental psychology and child psychology
are used synonymously. But there is a difference. Developmental psychology is that
branch of knowledge which studies the behavior and behavior changes that occur
during the entire life span i.e. from conception to death. Child development on the other
hand, deals with growth and development of characteristics up to the age of 14 years.
The second question, is it an independent science? It is an independent science. It is
concerned with the discovery of general laws in its area of special concerns as an end it
itself. It is concerned with interpreting and predicting individual development.

It ELEMENTS OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT is also concerned with child guidance and

counseling of children. This will be clearly known from the subject matter with which it
deals.

NATURE —IS DEVELOPMENT CONTINUOUS?

The concept of development presupposes that there is a continuity in development. This

continuity is lawful and is observed between successive stages of an ongoing growth
process and that properties of earlier phase contributes to the properties of subsequent
phase. These changes are progressive. Both the hereditary predisposition and
environmental facilities contribute to the process of change. There is also reciprocal
change between organism and the environment. Child development is a natural
science. The child psychologists observe, describe, measure and relate phenomena as
they occur naturally in uncontrived situations. For example, parent-child relationships,
assimilation of cultural values, relationship with peers over extended period of time and
under variety of situations cannot be studied experimentally. It has to be based on
naturalistic observations. Ethically and practically it is undesirable to manipulate
emotions, attitudes, and values among children. One cannot ask mothers to deliberately
reject her children or reward and like her children according to instructions in order to
study parent child relationships. Children cannot be subjected to physical frustration,
deprivation with a view to studying their effects on children behavior.

SUBJECT-MATTER OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY The subject matter of child psychology

includes an understanding of the child from the time of conception, the principles by
which hereditaiy traits are transmitted to children, the prenatal care of the fetus and the
mother, the factors which need much attention such as meternal nutrition, disease,
Xray, drugs, etc. Knowledge of preventive care constitutes a significant dimension of
study including the understanding of development of ovum, embryo and fetus. The next
area with which child psychologists are concerned is the behaviour of the Neonate, his
sensitiveness and adjustment processes immediately after birth upto the end of two
weeks. Sensory reception and stimulation are studied. Much attention is paid to
understand the baby during early childhood and late childhood days with emphasis on
childhood growth and development, factors associated with development, the
contribution of early experience and critical period, role of maturation and learning,
heredity and environment on development.
CONCEPT, NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY

 At the same time, how does the child acquire motor proficiency, or language
proficiency?
 What are the speech defects ?
 How language training can be given to children ?
 An understanding of the speech defects is also another dimension and their
remediation.

Childhood emotion is another area of concentration. Development of fear, anger,

anxiety, love, jealousy, and laughter, their causes and coping strategies are also studied
in the field of child psychology. Socialization and -social development and the extent to
which family, school, peer group contribute to socialization. The nature of traits which
later on constitutes his personality. In order to shape the personality what parents
should do and should not do is the basic thrust in this area of study. Intelligence and
creativity constitute major area of study including cognitive development of children.
How and to what rate cognitive growth takes place. How does the child develop logical
reasoning and thinking? Both traditional intelligence and cognitive growth are studied by
the child psychologists. While studying these characteristics, they emphasize the
interventions and role of early childhood experience. Play in children constitutes another
area of study for the child psychologist. The extent to which play contributes to the
social intellectual development of children is the subject matter of study including
theories and values of play. In this area, childhood interests are studied from a
developmental point of view. In recent years, child psychologists are also studying birth
hazards, care of the baby, childhood ailments and problems and the factors which are
associated with infant and maternal mortality and deviant behaviors from the point of
view of value and moral development in children. Child psychology thus encompasses
the prenatal, prenatal and postnatal growth and development of all the characteristics of
children, the antecedents and consequences which there by provides effective
guidelines for controlling and predicting behavior among children.
. During the 1920's and 1930's many
psychologists got interested in child
psychology. Intelligence, learning,
language and thinking processes, etc. Systematic study of children began
were studied with sophisticated methods. towards the and of the 19th century by 0.
Many of the studies during this G. Stanley Stanley Hall (1846-1924) in United States
Hall ELEMENTS OF CHILD of America. He was influenced by the idea
DEVELOPMENT period were normative, that child is a developing organism in
Studying the child was relegated to the accordance with certain sequential stages.
back-ground, instead, study of individual He devised the questionnaire method to
differences became prominent. Normative collect data about children. He collected
data gathering was more in focus. written responses to questionnaires from
Lawrence Frank (1890-1968) who was a both parent and children and the papers
young economist gave a vigorous push to were published in 1882 and 1883. His
the scientific study of the child. In 1920's method of obtaining responses and
he became in charge of the Spelman analysing them was definitely superior to
Rockefeller Memorial Child Development his predecessors. Hall observed the
Grants. Under this grant a child study relationships between the child's
institute was established in 1924 at the personality characteristics and background
University of Columbia followed by experience. In this sense, Hall marks the
Minnessota and California at Berkeley in beginning of scientific and systematic study
addition to the .Gessel Clinic of Child of child in the United States. In fact, Hall
Development at Yale and Iowa Child was the fore-runner of modern
Welfare Station. With Rockefeller Grants psychological tests. In 1883, Dr. Hall worte
the focus of child study moved from the a book entitled "The Content of Children's
home to the University Centre where pre- Minds" an early scientific study of the child.
school children were observed. Infants and Hall became the President of Clark
Pre-schoolers became the focus of search University in 1889 and made it a famous
studies in the 1920's. His idea was to centre for child study. One of his student
"Bring the best from all the human John Dewey, advocated educational
sciences-biology, sociology, anthropology, reforms within a movement known as
phychiatiy, medicine and physiology and Progressive education. Arnold Gessel was
effect joint effort to understand the normal another student, who became pediatrician
development of an individual". This step and established the norms of development
contributed to interdisciplinary research in of children from early childhood. A third
the next decades. From other field of student, Lewis Terman, became a leader in
psychology and allied sciences, came the area of mental testing who later on
greater influences for the development of developed the intelligence quotient as a
child psychology standard index of intellectual ability. He
also introduced European leaders to the
American educators and hosted Sigmund Freud's only visit to the United States in 1909.
The French Scholar, Binet also devised intelligence test to measure IQ in Children
although it remained until 1908 and 1911 for the revised versions to appear. This is a
great contribution to mental testing especially with children. Concurrently a major effort
was initiated by Watson, who experimented on the conditioning technique and its use
for developing emotional response in infants. In rejecting introspection, Watson made
infants and children legitimate subjects for psychological experiments. Psychologists for
example, had the greater influence in the area of motivation, understanding the
dynamics of behaviour, etc. But no less important sources of influences were the areas
of child guidance, clinical psychology, pediatrics, education, and educational psychology
without exception to cultural anthropology. These fields virtually contributed to the
development of child psychology during modem times

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON CHILD STUDY

The growing interest in child study, as has been said in the preceding pages,
contributed to various perspectives embodied in the form of theories. Theories infact
describe explain and predict what will happen in a given situation. ELEMENTS OF
CHILD DEVELOPMENT Freud was a medical doctor, who contributed to the
development of psychoanalytic theory at the end of the nineteenth century. Freud's
thesis was that an individual possesses two minds: conscious and unconscious. By
using different techniques Freud investigated the unconscious and understood its
nature. His main contribution was psychosexual theory of personality development. The
individual is matured by going through a series of stages that are fixed in order i.e. oral,
anal phallic, latency and genital. The primary source of pleasure comes from stimulation
of oral regions of the body primarily the mouth, in the oral stage or the infancy stage.
Pleasure shifts to the anus and activities focus on toilet training in the anal stage. At
about age three, the child's interest shifts to the genital region of the body and the child
enters the phallic stage of development. During the elementary school years, the child is
in a latency period that is essentially guilt. Adolescence brings the genital stage with a
focus on sexual development and introduction. According to Freud the basic personality
is shaped very early in life. Somewhat around five years of age. Feelings about the self,
development of thoughts and attitudes are influenced by early childhood family
relationships. Children perceive the world very differently from adults. They lack the
cognitive and mental ability to understand all that they see and hear. The purpose of the
psychoanalysis is to appropriately gear adult functioning. Psychoanalysis is a theory
and therapy. it understands child's development and treats childhood problems. One of
the students of Freud, named Erik Erikson extended Freud's psychosexual stages to
include psychosocial learning and included some ideas from cultural anthropology. His
theory is popularly known as the 'eight stages of man'. Although Erik believes in the
Freudian ideas but he places emphasis on the cultural and social factors that influence
the development at each stage. Erikson considered infancy as a period during which
infants either learn to trust or mistrust depending upon how well their needs are met.
Toddlerhood presents the conflict of autonomy vs. shame and doubt which is influenced
by how others respond to the infants own attempts to gain some self-control. The pre-
school years are concerned with initiative vs. guilt as children learn to undertake, plan
and do things for themselves

METHODS FOR STUDYING CHILD DEVELOPMENT

 Child psychologists use several methods for understanding, recording and

interpreting behavior of children. These methods range from incidental and
subjective nature to well designed and objective procedures. In the beginning
when the field of child psychology was not developed more attention was placed
on anecdotes and collection of baby biographic. As the field of child development
matured many methods were developed to observe child behavior and collect
information, describe, measure, and make inferences about child behavior. The
naturalistic approach focused on at home observations for a specific period of
time. The experimental approach emphasized observing the child in the
laboratory. Norms are established by large scale survey. In-depth observations
are made by case studies. Thus there are different techniques suitable for each
situation. The psychologist’s study the child behavior in order to understand,
controls, and predict future development. To assist him in his observation he
uses certain tools, commonly used as methods of child study. Some of the
important methods are the following:
 1. BiographiCal method
 2. Controlled observation method
 3. Case history method
 4. Behaviour rating
 5. Check list and Questionnaire
 6. Experimental method
 7. Clinical method S. Differential method.

There are many child development theories that have been proposed by theorists and
researchers. More recent theories outline the developmental stages of children and
identify the typical ages at which these growth milestones occur.

Freud's Psychosexual Developmental Theory

Psychoanalytic theory originated with the work of Sigmund Freud. Through his clinical
work with patients suffering from mental illness, Freud came to believe that childhood
experiences and unconscious desires influenced behavior.According to Freud, conflicts
that occur during each of these stages can have a lifelong influence on personality and
behavior. Freud proposed one of the best-known grand theories of child development.

According to Freud’s psychosexual theory, child development occurs in a series of

stages focused on different pleasure areas of the body. During each stage, the child
encounters conflicts that play a significant role in the course of development.His theory
suggested that the energy of the libido was focused on different erogenous zones at
specific stages. Failure to progress through a stage can result in fixation at that point in
development, which Freud believed could have an influence on adult behavior.So what
happens as children complete each stage? And what might result if a child does poorly
during a particular point in development? Successfully completing each stage leads to
the development of a healthy adult personality.

Failing to resolve the conflicts of a particular stage can result in fixations that can then
have an influence on adult behavior.

While some other child development theories suggest that personality continues to
change and grow over the entire lifetime, Freud believed that it was early experiences
that played the greatest role in shaping development. According to Freud, personality is
largely set in stone by the age of five.

Erikson's Psychosocial Developmental Theory

Psychoanalytic theory was an enormously influential force during the first half of the
twentieth century. Those inspired and influenced by Freud went on to expand upon
Freud's ideas and develop theories of their own. Of these neo-Freudians, Erik
Erikson's ideas have become perhaps the best known.Erikson's eight-stage theory of
psychosocial development describes growth and change throughout life, focusing on
social interaction and conflicts that arise during different stages of
development.While Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development shared some
similarities with Freud's, it is dramatically different in many ways. Rather than focusing
on sexual interest as a driving force in development, Erikson believed that social
interaction and experience played decisive roles.

His eight-stage theory of human development described this process from infancy
through death. During each stage, people are faced with a developmental conflict that
impacts later functioning and further growth.Unlike many other developmental theories,
Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory focuses on development across the entire lifespan.
At each stage, children and adults face a developmental crisis that serves as a major
turning point.

Successfully managing the challenges of each stage leads to the emergence of a

lifelong psychological virtue.
Behavioral Child Development Theories

During the first half of the twentieth century, a new school of thought known as
behaviorism rose to become a dominant force within psychology. Behaviorists believed
that psychology needed to focus only on observable and quantifiable behaviors in order
to become a more scientific discipline.

According to the behavioral perspective, all human behavior can be described in terms
of environmental influences. Some behaviorists, such as John B. Watson and B.F.
Skinner, insisted that learning occurs purely through processes of association and
reinforcement.Behavioral theories of child development focus on how
environmental interaction influences behavior and is based on the theories of
theorists such as John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B. F. Skinner. These theories
deal only with observable behaviors. Development is considered a reaction to
rewards, punishments, stimuli, and reinforcement.
This theory differs considerably from other child development theories because it gives
no consideration to internal thoughts or feelings. Instead, it focuses purely on how
experience shapes who we are.
Two important types of learning that emerged from this approach to development
are classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
 Classical conditioning involves learning by pairing a naturally occurring stimulus
with a previously neutral stimulus.
 Operant conditioning utilizes reinforcement and punishment to modify behaviors.
Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory
Cognitive theory is concerned with the development of a person's thought processes. It
also looks at how these thought processes influence how we understand and interact
with the world. Theorist Jean Piaget proposed one of the most influential theories of
cognitive development.Piaget proposed an idea that seems obvious now, but helped
revolutionize how we think about child development: Children think differently than
adults.2

His cognitive theory seeks to describe and explain the development of thought
processes and mental states. It also looks at how these thought processes influence the
way we understand and interact with the world.

Piaget then proposed a theory of cognitive development to account for the steps and
sequence of children's intellectual development.

 Sensorimotor Stage: A period of time between birth and age two during which an
infant's knowledge of the world is limited to his or her sensory perceptions and motor
activities. Behaviors are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli.
 Pre-Operational Stage: A period between ages 2 and 6 during which a child learns to
use language. During this stage, children do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot
mentally manipulate information and are unable to take the point of view of other people.
 Concrete Operational Stage: A period between ages 7 and 11 during which children
gain a better understanding of mental operations. Children begin thinking logically about
concrete events but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.
  Formal Operational Stage: A period between age 12 to adulthood when people
develop the ability to think about abstract concepts. Skills such as logical thought,
deductive reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge during this stage.

Bowlby's Attachment Theory

There is a great deal of research on the social development of children. John
Bowbly proposed one of the earliest theories of social development. Bowlby believed
that early relationships with caregivers play a major role in child development and
continue to influence social relationships throughout life. 3Bowlby's attachment theory
suggested that children are born with an innate need to form attachments. Such
attachments aid in survival by ensuring that the child receives care and protection. Not
only that, but these attachments are characterized by clear behavioral and motivational
patterns.In other words, both children and caregivers engage in behaviors designed to
ensure proximity. Children strive to stay close and connected to their caregivers who in
turn provide a safe haven and a secure base for exploration.
Researchers have also expanded upon Bowlby's original work and have suggested that
a number of different attachment styles exist. Children who receive consistent support
and care are more likely to develop a secure attachment style, while those who receive
less reliable care may develop an ambivalent, avoidant, or disorganized style.
Bandura's Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory is based on the work of psychologist Albert Bandura. Bandura
believed that the conditioning and reinforcement process could not sufficiently explain
all of human learning.For example, how can the conditioning process account for
learned behaviors that have not been reinforced through classical conditioning or
operant conditioning According to social learning theory, behaviors can also be learned
through observation and modeling.By observing the actions of others, including parents
and peers, children develop new skills and acquire new information.
Bandura's child development theory suggests that observation plays a critical role in
learning, but this observation does not necessarily need to take the form of watching a
live model.4
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
Another psychologist named Lev Vygotsky proposed a seminal learning theory that has
gone on to become very influential, especially in the field of education. Like Piaget,
Vygotsky believed that children learn actively and through hands-on experiences. 5

His sociocultural theory also suggested that parents, caregivers, peers and the culture
at large were responsible for developing higher-order functions. In Vygotsky's view,
learning is an inherently social process. Through interacting with others, learning
becomes integrated into an individual's understanding of the world.

This child development theory also introduced the concept of the zone of proximal
development, which is the gap between what a person can do with help and what they
can do on their own. It is with the help of more knowledgeable others that people are
able to progressively learn and increase their skills and scope of understanding.

The child’s growth slows down during early childhood as compared to infancy. The child
develops physically, gains height and weight, learns to walk, runs, jumps, and plays with
a ball. Socially, the child’s world expands from the parents to the family and adults near
home and at school. The child also begins to acquire the concepts of good and bad, i.e.
develops a sense of morality. During childhood, children have increased physical
capacities, can perform tasks independently, can set goals, and meet adult
expectations. The increasing maturation of the brain along with opportunities to
experience the world, contribute to development of children’s cognitive abilities.
Physical Development : Early development follows two principles : (i) development
proceeds cephalocaudally, i.e. from the cephalic or head region to the caudal or tail
region. Children gain control over the upper part of the body before the lower part. This
is why you would notice that the infant’s head is proportionately larger than her/his body
during early infancy or if you see an infant crawling, s/he will use the arms first and then
shift to using the legs, (ii) growth proceeds from the centre of body and moves towards
the extremities or more distal regions — the proximodistal trend, i.e. children gain
control over their torso before their extremities. Initially infants reach for objects by
turning their entire body, gradually they extend their arms to reach for things. These
changes are the result of a maturing nervous system and not because of any limitation
since even visually impaired children show the same sequence. As children grow older,
they look slimmer as the trunk part of their bodies lengthens and body fat decreases.
The brain and the head grow more rapidly than any other part of the body. The growth
and development of the brain are important as they help in the maturation of children’s
abilities, such as eyehand coordination, holding a pencil, and attempts made at writing.
During middle and late childhood years, children increase significantly in size and
strength; increase in weight is mainly due to increase in the size of the skeletal and
muscular systems, as well as size of some body organs.

Motor Development : Gross motor skills during the early childhood years involve the
use of arms and legs, and moving around with confidence and more purposefully in the
environment. Fine motor skills — finger dexterity and eye-hand coordination — improve
substantially during early childhood. During these years the child’s preference for left or
right hand also develops.

Cognitive Development: The child’s ability to acquire the concept of object

permanence enables her/him to use mental symbols to represent objects. However, the
child at this stage lacks the ability that allows her/him to do mentally what was done
physically before. Cognitive development in early childhood focuses on Piaget’s stage
of preoperational thought. The child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that
is not physically present. You may have observed children draw designs/figures to
represent people, trees, dog, house,This ability of the child to engage in symbolic
thought helps to expand her/his mental world. The progress in symbolic thought
continues. A salient feature of preoperational thought is egocentrism (self focus), i.e.
children see the world only in terms of their own selves and are not able to appreciate
others’ point of view. Children because of egocentrism, engage in animism - thinking
that all things are living, like one. They attribute life-like qualities to inanimate objects.
For example, if a child while running slips on the road, s/he might show animism by
saying “road hurt me”. As children grow and are approximately between 4 and 7 years
of age they want answers to all their questions like: Why is the sky blue? How do trees
grow? And so on. Such questions help the child to know why things are as they are.
Piaget called this the stage of intuitive thought.

Another feature of thought during preoperational stage is characterized by children

having a tendency for centration, i.e. focusing on a single characteristic or feature for
understanding an event. For example, a child may insist on drinking a “big glass” of
juice, preferring a tall narrow glass to a short broad one, even though both might be
holding the same amount of juice. As the child grows and is approximately between 7
and 11 years of age (the period of middle and late childhood) intuitive thought is
replaced by logical thought. This is the stage of concrete operational thought, which is
made up of operations — mental actions that allow the child to do mentally what were
done physically before. Concrete operations are also mental actions that are reversible.
In a well known test, the child is presented with two identical balls of clay. One ball is
rolled by the experimenter into a long thin strip and the other ball remains in its original
shape. On being asked which has more clay, the child of 7 or 8 years, would answer
that, both have the same amount of clay. This is because the child imagines the ball
rolled into thin strip and then into a ball, that means s/he is able to imagine reversible
mental action on concrete/real objects. What do you think a preoperational child would
have done? S/he is likely to focus on only one aspect-length or height. Concrete
operations allow the child to focus on different characteristics and not focus on one
aspect of the object. This helps the child to appreciate that there are different ways of
looking at things, which also results in the decline of her/his egocentrism. Thinking
becomes more flexible, and children can think about alternatives when solving
problems, or mentally retrace their steps if required. Even though the preoperational
child develops the ability to see relationships between different properties of an object,
s/he cannot do abstract thinking, i.e. s/he still cannot manipulate ideas in the absence of
objects. For example, steps required to complete algebraic equations, or imagining line
of longitude or latitude of the earth.

Socio-emotional Development : The important dimensions of children’s socio

emotional development are the self, gender and moral development. During the early
years of childhood, some important developments in the self take place. The child due
to socialisation has developed a sense of who s/he is and whom s/he wants to be
identified with. The developing sense of independence makes children do things in their
own way. According to Erikson, the way parents respond to their self-initiated
activitiesleads to developing a sense of initiative or sense of guilt. For example, giving
freedom and opportunities for play like cycling, running, skating, etc. and answering
children’s questions will create a sense of support for the initiative taken. In contrast, if
they are made to feel that their questions are useless, and games played by them are
stupid, the children are likely to develop feelings of guilt over self-initiated activities,
which may persist through the children’s later life also. Selfunderstanding in early
childhood is limited to defining oneself through physical characteristics: I am tall, she
has black hair, I am a girl, etc. During middle and late childhood, the child is likely to
define oneself through internal characteristics such as, “I am smart and I am popular” or
“I feel proud when teachers assign me responsibility in school”.

Moral Development : Another important aspect of the child’s development is learning

to differentiate between the rightness or wrongness of human acts. The way children
come to distinguish right from wrong, to feel guilty, to put themselves in other people’s
position, and to help others when they are in trouble, are all components of moral
development. Just as children pass through the various stages of cognitive
development, according to Lawrence Kohlberg, they pass through the various stages of
moral development, which are age related. Kohlberg interviewed children in which they
were presented with stories in which the characters face moral dilemmas. Children were
asked what the characters in the dilemma should do, and why. According to him,
children approach thinking about right and wrong differently at different ages.

CONCLUSION

By the end of childhood a more gradual growth rate enables the child to develop skills of
coordination and balance. Language develops and the child can reason logically.
Socially the child becomes more involved in social systems, such as family and peer
group.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to extend my sincere thanks towards Mr. Ved Prakash Rawat for helping us
with the subject knowledge and providing us with the best of him.

REFERENCES

NCERT

Childhood development tasks

http://niepid.nic.in/ELEMENTS%20OF%20CHILD%20DEVELOPMENT.pdf

https://www.verywellmind.com/child-development-theories-2795068#:~:text=Freud%20proposed
%20one%20of%20the,in%20the%20course%20of%20development.