NOTE

B I O L O G Y

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN
FLOWERING PLANTS
PARTS OF A TYPICAL FLOWER, MICROSPOROGENESIS

Key Takeaways

• Parts of a typical flower Structure of a microsporangium

• Structure of a stamen • Microsporogenesis
Internal structure of an anther

Prerequisites

Kingdom Plantae

Algae Bryophytes Pteridophytes Gymnosperms Angiosperms

• Flowering plants belong to angiosperms.

• Angiosperms bear seeds enclosed in fruits, which is their characteristic feature.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Several changes occur in angiospermic plants before a flower blooms.

1) Formation of 2) Formation 3) Formation

floral primordium of buds of flowers
It is the tissue that Inflorescence bears The buds of the
develops to form the floral buds. inflorescence blossom
flowers. into flowers.

• Flowers play a very important role in sexual reproduction of flowering plants.

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 02

Parts of a Typical Flower

Whorl of stamens
(Androecium)
Accessory whorls

Petal

Essential whorls
(Corolla)

Whorl of carpels
(Gynoecium)
Sepal
(Calyx)

Stamen

Stamen Anther
It is the lobed terminal
• The stamen is a long
structure that produces and
slender structure that
bears the pollen grains.
forms the male
reproductive organ
in flowers. Filament
• The anther and the It is the long and slender
filament together stalk that connects the
form the stamen. anther to the thalamus or
the petal.
• The number and the
length of stamens are The proximal end is attached
variable in the flowers to the thalamus or the petal.
of different species.
Examples:
Anthurium: 4 stamens
Hibiscus: Several stamens
Lily: 6 stamens
Jasmine: 2 stamens

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 03

Internal structure of an anther

Bilobed

Microsporangia Dithecous

Transverse section of a young anther

• A typical angiospermic anther has two lobes, i.e., it is bilobed.

• Each lobe has two chamber-like structures known as the theca, i.e., they are dithecous.
• A longitudinal groove runs lengthwise that separates the theca.
• Each theca consists of a microsporangium at the corner.

Structure of a microsporangium

• Each microsporangium is covered by four wall layers.

Epidermis
Endothecium

Connective Middle Layers

Epidermis
Microspore
Endothecium
mother cells
Sporogenous tissue
Tapetum Tapetum
Middle Layers

Enlarged view of one microsporangium

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 04

• Layers surrounding microsporangium (from exterior to interior)

Epidermis → Endothecium → Middle layers → Tapetum
• The epidermis, endothecium, and middle layers are protective in nature.
• The innermost layer is known as tapetum.

Tapetum
Sporogenous tissue
• It helps in the nourishment
of the pollen grains. • The tissue present in the
• Cells of the tapetum microsporangium that
have a dense undergoes meiosis to
cytoplasm and contain produce gametes is known
more than one nucleus. as the sporogenous tissue.

Pollen grains

• Pollen grains are the male gametophytes seen in angiosperms, i.e., they are the structures
that bear the male gametes.
• The precursor to pollen grains are the microspores.

Microspores (Magnified)

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 05

Microsporogenesis

• It is the process of formation of microspores from microspore mother cell.

• The process of microsporogenesis takes place in microsporangia of the anther.
• One of the cells of the sporogenous tissue differentiates and acts as the pollen mother cell.

Pollen mother
cell/PMC/Microspore
mother cell (2n)
It undergoes meiotic
division. Meiosis I
Two haploid (n) cells are formed as a result.

Microspore tetrad (n) Meiosis II

After meiosis II, four haploid
cells are formed, which are arranged
in a cluster. This cluster is known as
the microspore tetrad. Each of these
microspores forms pollen grains.

• Each of the pollen mother cells undergoes similar meiotic divisions to yield microspore tetrads.
• Upon maturation and dehydration of the anthers, the microspores dissociate from each other
and develop into pollen grains.
• Hence, each microsporangium contains several thousands of microspores or pollen grains.

Microsporangium

Microspores

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 06

Summary Sheet

Parts of a flower

Whorl of stamens
Accessory whorls

Essential whorls
Petal (Androecium)
(Corolla)

Whorl of carpels
(Gynoecium)
Sepal
(Calyx)

Structure of a stamen

Anther
Stamen

Filament

Structure of a microsporangium

Epidermis
Endothecium

Connective Middle Layers

Epidermis
Microspore
Endothecium
mother cells
Sporogenous tissue
Tapetum Tapetum
Middle Layers

Microsporogenesis

Diploid Haploid Haploid Microspores

Meiosis I Meiosis II Tetrad

Microsporangium

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 01

NOTE
B I O L O G Y

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN
FLOWERING PLANTS
MICROGAMETOGENESIS, STRUCTURE OF A MATURE POLLEN GRAIN,
DEHISCENCE, POLLEN ALLERGY, POLLEN VIABILITY

Key Takeaways

•  Microgametogenesis •  Dehiscence
•  Vegetative cell and generative cell •  Pollen allergy
•  Structure of a mature pollen grain •  Pollen viability
→ Sporopollenin

Prerequisites

•  Structure of a stamen

Anther
Line of
dehiscence

Filament

•  Structure of an anther (transverse section )

Bilobed

Microsporangia Dithecous
(Sporogenous tissue)
Each theca consists of
microsporangia at the
corner.

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 02

Microsporogenesis

•  It is the process of formation of microspores

from the microspore mother cell via meiotic Sporogenous
division. tissue
• T he process of microsporogenesis takes Microspores
place in the microsporangia of an anther. (haploid)

Microgametogenesis

Vacuole

Nucleus
Large
vacuole
Microspore expands and a single large vacuole 1st mitosis
is formed. Asymmetric
spindle

The nucleus divides asymmetrically and the

Vegetative 2-celled
spindle holds the chromosomes.
cell stage

Generative
cell

•C
 onsequently, one large cell (vegetative cell)
2nd mitosis
and a small cell (generative cell) are formed.
→ T  his is the two-celled stage of the pollen Male
grain. gametes
•S
 lowly, the generative cell detaches from the
wall of the pollen grain. •  The generative cell divides mitotically to
form the two male gametes.
•  This is the completely matured three-celled
pollen grain.

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 03

Vegetative Cell and Generative Cell

Vegetative cell Generative cell

•  Large in size •  Small in size

•S  tores abundant food •  Floats in the cytoplasm of
reserve vegetative cell
•H  as irregularly shaped •  Spindle-shaped
nucleus •  Has cell wall
•  Has dense cytoplasm and
nucleus

Two-celled stage of pollen grain

Structure of a Mature Pollen Grain

•P  ollen grains are usually spherical measuring about 25-50 micrometers in diameter.
•T  hey have a prominent double layered wall consisting of exine and intine.
•  It consists of two male gametes and a vegetative cell with a nucleus each.

Exine

Vacuoles Vegetative/Tube nucleus

Intine
Male gametes
Germ pores

Exine

•  It constitutes the outer hard layer.

•E  xine is made of sporopollenin, which is the most resistant organic material known.
•  It has apertures called germ pores, where the sporopollenin is absent.

Vacuoles

•T
 he single large vacuole of the immature pollen grain breaks down into multiple small vacuoles
after the first mitosis.

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 04

Vegetative/Tube nucleus

•  It later helps in the formation of a pollen tube through a germ pore.

Intine

•  It is the inner wall of the pollen grain.

•  It is a continuous layer.
•  It is made up of cellulose and pectin.

Male gametes

•T
 hey are formed from the mitosis of the generative cell.
•O
 ne of them later fuses with the egg cell to form the zygote.
•T
 he other gamete fuses with the polar nuclei to form the primary endosperm nucleus.

Germ pores

•  It is a pore in the exine through which the pollen tube germinates.

Sporopollenin

•A  lot of plant fossils are of pollen.

•T  his is due to the presence of sporopollenin in pollen grains.
•  It is one of the most resistant organic materials on this planet.
•  It forms the major component of exine.
•  It can withstand high temperature.
•  It can withstand strong acids and alkalis.
•  It protects pollen grain from external damage.

Dehiscence

It is the process by which the pollen grains are released from the anther.
•P  ollen grains are present inside pollen sacs, which are nothing but microsporangia.
→ Pollen sacs are in turn present inside the anther.
•F  or dehiscence, pollen loses water.
•  A strip between the pollen sacs disintegrates, resulting in the release of pollen grains.
•  This powdery deposit of pollen grains accumulates on the anther.
•  It is then picked up by a different agent.
•A
 round 60 percent of angiosperms shed pollen grains at the two-celled stage.
Example: Lily plant

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 05

•  In remaining species, the pollen grains are shed at the three-celled stage.
Example: Wheat plant

Pollen Allergy

Pollen grains of several species •  Parthenium (carrot grass) is

can cause the following: an example of a plant whose
pollen can cause several
•S
 evere allergies
allergies.
•B
 ronchial afflictions, which can
•  It came to India as a
lead to chronic respiratory
contaminant with imported
disorders like:
wheat.
→ Asthma
→ Bronchitis

Pollen Viability

Pollen viability refers to the ability of pollen to live, mature, germinate on the stigma, and transfer
the male gametes to the embryo sac.
•  The quality of pollen is determined by its viability.
•  Pollen viability differs amongst species.
•  Examples:
→ It is 30 minutes for rice and wheat.
→ It is a few months for the members of Rosaceae, Leguminosae, and Solanaceae.
•  Pollen grains can be stored at -196 degree Celsius in liquid nitrogen.
•T  his method of storing pollen is known as cryopreservation. It is also used in the case of humans
and higher animals to store the gametes for later use.

Did you know?

•  Pollen grain tablets/syrups have become popular as food supplements.

•  They are rich in nutrients.
•  It has been claimed that pollen consumption improves the performance of athletes and race
horses.

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 06

Summary Sheet

Microspore nucleus Vacuole Vegetative nucleus Vegetative cell

Pollen Generative cell Pollen Sperm
cells
mitosis I mitosis II

Microspore Polarised microspore Bicellular pollen Tricellular pollen

Microgametogenesis
Development of sperm cells in the pollen grains

Exine

Dehiscence Vegetative/
Tube nucleus
Vacuole
Intine
Nucleus Male
gametes
Germ pores

Inside anther Outside anther

•  Dehiscence is the process by which the pollen grains are released from the anther.
•  Polles can cause several allergies and chronic respiratory disorders like asthma.
•P  ollen viability refers to the ability of pollen to live, mature, germinate on the stigma, and transfer
the male gametes to the embryo sac.

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

01

NOTE
M A BT IH OE LM OA GT YI C S

COMPLEX
SEXUAL NUMBER IN
REPRODUCTION
FLOWERING
INTRODUCTION PLANTS
TO COMPLEX NUMBERS
STRUCTURE OF OVARY AND OVULE, FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE

Key Takeaways

• Structure of an ovary • Female gametophyte

• Structure of an ovule » Megasporogenesis
» Megagametogenesis (Monosporic
development)
» Structure of female gametophyte

Prerequisites

Carpel: Female reproductive organ

Stigma

Style

Ovary

Gynoecium

Monocarpellary Multicarpellary

Single free carpel

Ex: Mango
Apocarpous Syncarpous

Multiple free carpels Multiple carpels fused

Ex: Michelia Ex: Papaver
02

Structure of an Ovary

Pistil

Stigma

Style

Transverse section
Ovary of an ovary

Ovules
• Ovules are the structures
that later develop into the
Locule
seeds of angiosperms. • It is the chamber inside
• They contain the embryo the ovary.
sac. • A single ovary can have
one or more than one
locule.

Funicle Placenta
• It is a thin stalk that • It is the tissue to which
attaches the ovule to Transverse section the ovules are attached.
the placenta. of an ovary
03

Structure of an Ovule

Ovule

Ovule is a structure present inside the ovary that contains the female gamete and develops into
the seed of the future fruit.

Nucellus Chalaza and chalazal end

Inner integument Outer integument

Hilum Embryo sac

Micropyle and
Funicle micropylar end

• Chalaza and chalazal end

♦ It is the region opposite to the micropylar end.

• Nucellus
♦ Nucellus is the cell mass made of parenchymal cells.

♦ It is enveloped by the layers of integuments.

♦ Nucellar cells have an abundant food reserve that helps during the embryonic development.

• Inner integument
♦ It is the protective layer of the ovule present beneath the outer integument.

• Outer integument
♦ It is the outer protective covering of the ovule.
04

• Hilum
♦ It is the point of attachment of the funicle with the ovule.

• Embryo sac
♦ It is present in the innermost region of the ovule.

♦ It is covered by nucellus.

♦ It is also known as the female gametophyte.

♦ Female gametophyte is the structure having the female gametes.

• Funicle
♦ It is the structure through which the ovule is attached to the placenta.

• Micropyle and micropylar end

♦ Micropyle is the tip of the nucellus that is not covered by integuments.

♦ It is the small opening through which the pollen tube penetrates the ovule.

♦ The region of ovule near the micropyle is known as the micropylar end.

Did you know?

Ovules can be of different shapes and sizes. Here, F stands for funicle, while M stands for micropyle.

M M

M M M
F F F F F F

Anatropous ovule Anatropous ovule

• It is found in 80% of angiosperms.

• When ovule is rotated by 180o, micropyle
comes closer to funicle.

Micropyle Funicle

Female Gametophyte

Megasporogenesis

It is the process of formation of megaspores from megaspore mother cell (MMC).

05

Megasporogenesis

Megaspore mother
cell/MMC (2n)
• At the micropylar end, one of
the cells from the nucellus
 ifferentiates to form a
d
megaspore mother cell (MMC).
• It contains dense cytoplasm
and a prominent nucleus.
Meiosis I

Megaspore dyad (n)

MMC undergoes the first

Meiosis II meiotic division to give
rise to megaspore dyad.
Megaspore tetrad (n) (haploid).
After meiosis I,
MMC undergoes meiosis II.
This results in the formation
of megaspore tetrad (four
megaspores), which are
haploid.
Megaspore tetrad (n)

Degeneration

Generally, only one out

Functional of the four megaspores
megaspore (n) remains functional, while
the other three cells
degenerate.
The single haploid megaspore
known as functional megaspore
undergoes further development
to form the female gametophyte.
06

Megagametogenesis (Monosporic development)

• It is the process of maturation of megaspore into a female gametophyte.

• It occurs from a single functional megaspore and hence is known as monosporic development.

Megagametogenesis

Functional
megaspore (n)
1st mitosis
The haploid functional
megaspore undergoes
Two-nucleate stage (n)
mitosis.
• The nucleus of the megaspore
divides mitotically to form two
nuclei.
2nd mitosis
• These nuclei move towards
the opposite poles.
Four-nucleate stage (n)

The binucleate embryo

sac undergoes a second
mitosis to form a four 3rd mitosis
nucleate embryo sac.
Eight-nucleate stage (n)
Finally, the nuclei undergoes
Cytokinesis a third mitosis to give an
eight-nucleate embryo sac.
Female gametophyte Till this stage, mitosis is strictly
• After the eight-nucleate stage, free nuclear, because the nuclear
six of the eight nuclei are division is not followed by the
surrounded by cell walls cell wall formation.
and organised into cells.
• The remaining two nuclei,
known as polar nuclei, are
situated in the large central
cell.
07

Structure of female gametophyte

• It is a seven celled, eight nucleate structure that contains the female gamete, i.e., the egg
cell.
Chalazal end

Central cell Antipodal cells

Two polar nuclei Synergids

Egg
apparatus

Filiform apparatus Egg cell

Micropylar end

• Antipodal cells
♦ Three antipodal cells are formed towards the chalazal end.

• Egg cell
♦ The egg cell is the female gamete.

♦ It fuses with the male gamete to form the zygote, which later develops into an embryo.

• Synergids
♦ Synergids are present beside the egg cell.

♦ Synergids and egg cells are grouped together at the micropylar end.

♦ These constitute the egg apparatus.

• Central cell
♦ Six of the eight nuclei are surrounded by cell walls and organised into cells.

♦ The remaining two nuclei, known as polar nuclei, are present in the large central cell.

• Polar nuclei
♦ These later fuse with the male gamete and undergo triple fusion to form an endosperm.

• Filiform apparatus
♦ They are the cellular thickenings present at the micropylar tip of the synergids.

♦ They play an important role in guiding the pollen tube into the embryo sac.
08

Summary Sheet

Ovary

Locules

Ovules

Placenta

Funicle

Transverse section of an ovary

Ovule

Chalazal end

Outer integument

Inner integument

Nucellus

Embryo sac

Hilum

Micropylar end Micropyle

09

Megaspore mother cell

Megaspore dyad

Meiosis

Megasporogenesis
Ovule Megaspore Megaspore
mother cell tetrad

Megasporogenesis
Functional megaspore
Haploid functional
megaspore
2-nucleate 4-nucleate 8-nucleate

Mitosis Mitosis Mitosis

I II III Megagametogenesis
Functional Cytoplasmic
megaspore division

Megagametogenesis Embryo sac Female gametophyte

Mature embryo sac (female gametophyte)

Chalazal end

Central cell Antipodal cells

Two polar nuclei Synergids

Egg
apparatus

Egg cell
Filiform apparatus

Micropylar end
 NOTE
B I O L O G Y

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
IN FLOWERING PLANTS
TYPES OF POLLINATION, AGENTS OF CROSS-POLLINATION

Key Takeaways

• Pollination • Cross pollination

• Types of pollinations → Agents of cross-pollination
• Self pollination → Advantages of cross pollination
→ Advantages of self-pollination → Disadvantages of cross pollination
→ Disadvantages of self-pollination

Prerequisites

Stigma
(It acts as landing
platform for
Anther pollen grains)

Pollen grain
(Male
gametophyte) Style

Anther Pollen sacs Section of ovary

Filament Ovary

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 02

Chalazal end Antipodal cells

Central cell

Polar nuclei

Synergids

Egg cell Section of ovary Ovule

(Forms seeds of
Egg apparatus
angiosperms)
Filiform apparatus
Micropylar end

Pollination

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains (shed from the anther) to the stigma of a pistil.

Types of Pollinations

Types of pollinations
(Depending upon the source of pollen)

Self-pollination Cross-pollination
It is the transfer of pollen from anther to It is the transfer of pollen from anther
stigma of a genetically similar flower. of one flower to stigma of a genetically
different flower.

Xenogamy

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 03

Autogamy Geitonogamy

• Auto = Self, Gamos = Marriage • Geiton = Neighbour, Gamos = Marriage

• Autogamy is the transfer of pollen • Geitonogamy is the transfer of pollen
grains from the anther to the stigma of grains from the anther to the stigma of
the same flower. another flower of the same plant.
• It requires synchrony in pollen release • Even though geitonogamy is functionally
and stigma receptivity. cross-pollination, genetically, it is similar
• The anthers and the stigma should lie to autogamy.
close to each other so that self-pollination
occurs.

Self-pollination from same

plant, but different flower
Cross-pollination Self-pollination within
from different the same flower
plant

Autogamy

• A complete autogamy is very rare in flowers that have stamens and stigma exposed, i.e., in an
open flower. For this reason, some plants produce two types of flowers; chasmogamous and
cleistogamous flowers.

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 04

Anthers and stigma are brought together by

various mechanisms.
Examples: Catharanthus, Mirabilis
Chasmogamous flower
(open; exposed anther
and stigma)

Anther
Cleistogamous flower
(closed; flower does Stigma
not open at all)
Style grows such that the stigma is placed
towards anthers in Catharanthus.

Anthers and stigma lie close to each other

within the closed flower.
No pollinators are required. Bent filament
Examples: Viola (common pansy), Oxalis,
and Commelina

Bent filament

Filaments curve over stigma in Mirabilis

Open flower Closed flower jalapa.
of Viola of Viola

Did you know?

Sunflower has a fail safe mechanism for pollination.

• When cross pollination fails in sunflowers, the
stigma curls to pick up its own pollen. This is a
fail safe mechanism of self-pollination.

Sunflower

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 05

Pollination in cleistogamous flowers

Anthers dehisce in the flower buds

Pollen grains come in contact with the stigma

Assured production of seed-set

• Thus, cleistogamous flowers are invariably autogamous as there is no chance of cross-pollen

landing on the stigma.

Advantages of self-pollination

It maintains the parental characters/purity of the race.

It is useful in maintaining pure lines for hybridisation experiments.

The plants do not have to produce large quantities of pollen grains.

The flowers do not have to develop characteristics to attract pollinators.

Seed production is assured.

It eliminates undesirable recessive characters.

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 06

Disadvantages of self-pollination

There will be no introduction of new characters.

There can be decreased immunity to disease.

It might lead to decreased adaptability to change in environment.

There will be a decrease in variability.

Cross-pollination

• Xenos = Strange, Gamos = Marriage

• Xenogamy is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one plant
Xenogamy to the stigma of a different plant.
• It needs help from external agents.
• It brings genetically different pollen grains to the stigma.

Agents of Cross-Pollination

Both abiotic and biotic agents help in cross-pollination.

Entomophily
Anemophily

Ornithophily

Hydrophily

Chiropterophily

Biotic agents Abiotic agents

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 07

Abiotic agents

Anemophily

• Anemos = wind and philein = to love.

• Pollination by wind is more common amongst abiotic pollinations.
• The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma occurs with wind as an agent.
• Examples: Coconut palm, date palm, grasses, etc.

Pollen grains transferred

by wind currents

Transfer of pollen grains by wind

• Characteristics of anemophilous flowers

1. Small and inconspicuous flowers

2. Colourless, odourless, nectarless

flowers (as there is no need to
attract animals)

3. Numerous flowers packed into an Coconut palm flower Orchard grass flower
inflorescence

4. Light and dry pollens

5. Dusty and non-sticky pollen

grains

Light and dry pollens Dusty and non-sticky

pollens
© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved
 08

6. Well-exposed stamens (so that

the pollen is easily dispersed
by wind currents)

7. Feathery stigma to easily trap

air-borne pollen grains

8. Uniovulated pistil (single ovule Well-exposed stamen Feathery stigma

in each ovary)

Hydrophily

• Hydro – water; philein – to love

• Pollination by water is quite rare in flowering plants and is limited to about 30 genera, mostly
monocotyledons.

Male flowers Female flowers

Pollination in Vallisneria Sea grasses

• In Vallisneria, the female flower reaches the • In another group of water-pollinated plants
surface of water by the long stalk and the such as sea grasses, female flowers remain
male flowers or pollen grains are released submerged in the water and the pollen
into the water. They float on the water grains are released inside the water.
surface.
Pollen Long, ribbon-like
• They are carried passively by water currents,
pollen grains with
some of them eventually reach the female
mucilaginous
flowers and the stigma.
covering

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 09

Note

• Not all aquatic plants use water for pollination.

• In a majority of aquatic plants, such as water hyacinth and water lily, the flowers emerge
above the level of water and are pollinated by insects or wind alike most of the land plants.

Did you know?

• The limited distribution of lower plant groups is

due to the need of water.
• Water is a regular mode of transport for the
male gametes among the lower plant groups
such as algae, bryophytes, and pteridophytes.
• The distribution of some bryophytes and
pteridophytes is limited because of the need for
water for the transport of male gametes and
fertilisation.
Transfer of gametes in lower plant
groups such as algae, bryophytes,
and pteridophytes

Biotic agents

• Majority of flowering plants use various animals as biotic agents for pollination.
• Bees, butterflies, beetles, flies, wasps, ants, moths, birds, and bats are the common agents.
• Larger animals such as lemurs, rodents, garden lizards, and gecko lizards are also known
to be pollinators.

Entomophily

• Entomon – insect; philein – to love

• It is the most common method.
• Pollination occurs by insects, moths, butterflies, wasps, bees, beetles, etc.
• Plants provide nectar, edible pollen grains, or shelter.

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 10

Pollen grains
stick to the
insects.

Flower 1 Entomophily Flower 2

When it lands on
When an insect lands on a another flower, the pollen
flower, it comes in contact comes in contact with the
with the anther and stigma stigma of that flower.
of the flower.

To sustain the visits from

The body of the insect pollinators, the flowers
gets coated with pollens. provide edible pollen,
nectar, or shelter.

Did you know?

Nearly 80% of the flowers are pollinated by bees. Bees have

pollen baskets in which they carry pollen.

Through the years, the population of bees has been declining drastically. Without bees,
humans can only survive for about four years.
Declining Bee Population
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1947 1970 1990 2014

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 11

• Characteristics of entomophilous flowers

1. Showy flowers and brightly coloured

2. Small flowers clustered into an

inflorescence to make them
conspicuous
Lily Sunflower

3. Presence of landing platform and/or

4. Produce odour: pleasant/foul
honey/nectar guides

Landing platform Nectar guides in Pleasant odour in Foul odour in Rafflesia

in Viola Mimulus jasmine attracts flies and beetles

6. Closely placed stamens and nectar gland,

5. Provide nectar and edible pollens to the
so that when pollinators come to drink
agents.
the nectar, the pollens stick to their body.

Nectar glands in Edible pollens in Inserted stamens in Petunia

Magnolia Magnolia

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 12

8. Spiny and heavy pollens surrounded by

7. Sticky stigma to adhere to the pollens pollen kit (a yellow, oily, sticky
substance)

Sticky stigma in Pollen grains

Lilies

9. In some species, floral rewards are in providing safe places to lay eggs. An example is
Amorphophallus (the foul-smelling Corpse flower)

• Amorphophallus is the tallest flower (about 6 feet in

height)

Amorphophallus

• The moth deposits its eggs in the locule of the ovary and the flower, in turn, gets
pollinated by the moth.
• The larvae of the moth comes out of the eggs as the seeds start developing.

Ornithophily

• Ornis – bird; philein – to love

• Pollination by birds
• Few specialized bird species
→ Small size; long beak
→ Sun birds like hummingbirds
• Very few ornithophilous plants- Bombax,
Lobelia, etc
• Other birds- crows, bulbul, parrots, etc

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 13

Sun bird Hummingbird Bombax Lobelia

• Characteristics of ornithophilous flowers

1. The flowers secrete abundant watery nectar or

have edible parts as rewards for the pollinators.

2. The floral parts are commonly leathery and

are brightly coloured.

3. They have funnel – shaped or tubular

corollas.

Chiropterophily

• Cheir – hand; pteros – wing; philein – to love

• Pollination by bats
• Long distance pollen transfer
• E.g. Agave palmeri, Anthocephalus,
Adansonia, etc

Chiropterophily

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 14

Agave palmeri Anthocephalus Adansonia

• Characteristics of chiropterophilous flowers

1. Dull coloured 2. Large and stout

3. Strong fermenting/ fruity smell 4. Abundant pollen and nectar

Did you know?

Darwin’s prediction: Pollination of the orchid by a moth with extremely long proboscis

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 15

• Darwin predicted that the orchid was pollinated by a moth with an extremely long
proboscis.
• Twenty-one years after his death, in 1903, people realized that Darwin’s mystery moth had
already been described.
• Xanthopan morganii is a moth which has 6-inch (15 cm) proboscis, which is far longer than
its body. It’s proboscis is long enough to reach Angraecum sesquipedale flower’s nectar.
• Darwin had predicted an otherwise improbable proboscis.

Advantages of cross pollination

Cross-pollination introduces genetic recombination and thus variations

in the progeny.

Certain plants produce higher yields only when pollinated with the
biotic agents. E.g. apple, grapes.

It increases the adaptability and thus the organisms are favoured

in the struggle for existence.

Leads to the production of disease resistant plants.

It produces new and useful varieties.

Defective characters are eliminated or replaced by better characters

due to cross-pollination.

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 16

Disadvantages of cross pollination

Factor of chance

Highly wasteful production of large number of pollens

Bad characters might be introduced

Good characters might be lost

Did you know?

• Many insects consume pollen or the nectar

without bringing about pollination.
• Such floral visitors are referred to as pollen/
nectar robbers.
• Bumblebee bites open the base of a flower
and uses its tongue to drink the nectar.

Bumblebee “nectar robbing” a flower

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 17

Summary Sheet

Types of pollinations
(Depending upon the source of pollen)

Cross-pollination
Self-pollination
It is the transfer of pollen from anther of
It is the transfer of pollen from anther to
one flower to stigma of genetically different
stigma of genetically similar flower.
flower.

Autogamy Geitonogamy Xenogamy

Autogamy is the transfer Geitonogamy is the Xenogamy is the transfer of

of pollen grains from the transfer of pollen grains pollen grains from anther
anther to the stigma of from the anther to the to the stigma of a different
the same flower. stigma of another flower plant of the same species.
within the same plant.

Chasmogamous flowers - open flowers with exposed anther and stigma.

Cleistogamous flowers - closed flowers that do not open at all and

produce assured set of seeds due to autogamy.

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 18

Agents of pollination

Abiotic Biotic

Anemophily Entomophily

• Pollination by wind • Pollination by insects - moths,

• Pollen grains are light and butterflies, wasps, bees,
non-sticky beetles, etc
• E.g. Coconut palm, date palm, • Plants provide nectar, edible
grasses pollen grains or shelter
• E.g. Lily, jasmine

Hydrophily Ornithophily

• Pollination by water
• Pollination by birds - sun
• Long, ribbon like pollen grains birds, crow, hummingbirds
with mucilaginous covering
• E.g. Bombax, Lobelia, etc
• E.g. Vallisneria, Hydrilla,
marine sea grasses (Zostera)

Chiropterophily

• Pollination by bats
• Long-distance pollen transfer
• E.g. Agave palmeri,
Anthocephalus, Adansonia, etc

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 01

NOTE
B I O L O G Y

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN
FLOWERING PLANTS
OUTBREEDING DEVICES, ARTIFICIAL HYBRIDISATION, FERTILISATION

Key Takeaways

•  Inbreeding depression •  Post-pollination events

•  Outbreeding devices → Fertilisation
•  Artificial hybridisation ◆ Double fertilisation
→ Steps of artificial hybridisation » Syngamy
→ Benefits of artificial hybridisation » Triple fusion
•  Pollen-pistil interaction •  Types of fertilisation
→ Self-incompatibility

Prerequisites

•F
 emale reproductive system •  Male and female gametes
Pistil or Carpel

Stigma
Style

Ovary

Male gametes
Female gamete

Types of pollination

• S
 elf pollination from the • S
 elf-pollination from the • C
 ross-pollination from
same flower same plant but different the pollens of a different
flower plant

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 02

Inbreeding Depression

•M  ajority of flowering plants produce hermaphrodite flowers and hence the chances of pollens
coming in contact with the stigma of the same flower is high.
•  In self-pollination, the undesirable characters from one generation get passed onto the next
generation.
→ P ropagation of these undesired characters can lead to the loss of population.
•H  ence, continued self-pollination results in inbreeding depression.
→ Inbreeding depression is the reduced biological fitness in a given population (as a result of
inbreeding or breeding of related individuals).
•O  ver the course of evolution, plants have developed outbreeding devices to overcome the
disadvantages of inbreeding.
→ Outbreeding is the breeding between genetically different individuals.

Outbreeding Devices

Outbreeding devices
→ T hese are the devices that discourage self-pollination and encourage cross-pollination.

Unisexuality

Monoecious plant Maize

• M  ale and female reproductive parts are not

present on the same flower.
•  However, male and female flowers are
present on the same plant. Castor
•  This prevents autogamy but not geitonogamy.
•  Examples: Maize and castor plants

Dioecious plant

• A  single plant has only male flowers or only female flowers (dioecy).
•  This prevents both autogamy and geitonogamy.
•  Example: Papaya plant

Papaya Papaya
male female
plant plant

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 03

Dichogamy

• T he pollen release does not occur at the time when the stigma is
receptive (non-synchronous).
•  Hence, autogamy is avoided.

Protandry

 he anther matures before the stigma of the same flower.

• T
• E xamples: Salvia and sunflower

Salvia Sunflower Anther matures Stigma matures

first later
Protogyny

• T he pistil matures before the anther of the same flower.

•  Example: Mirabilis jalapa and Gloriosa

Mirabilis jalapa Gloriosa Stigma matures Anther matures

first later
Heterostyly

• B  oth the anther and the stigma are present at different locations, thus
preventing autogamy.
•  Examples: Primrose, jasmine, and Lythrum

Primrose Jasmine Lythrum

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 04

Distyly

• T
 here are two options for the arrangement of
reproductive parts. They are as follows:
→ The style is long and the anthers are short.
→ The anthers are long and the style is short.
Distyly in flowers
Tristyly

• T  he length of the style and the anther can be long,

short, or medium.
•  Both the style and the anther will not have the same
length.
Tristyly in flowers
Self incompatibility

•  It is a genetic phenomenon.

•  In this, the pollen grains of a flower do not germinate on the stigma (of the same
flower or different flower) of the same plant.
•  Consequently, pollen germination or pollen tube growth is eliminated, thus
eliminating the chances of fertilisation.
•  It prevents both autogamy and geitonogamy.
•  Examples: Plants of tobacco, potato, and crucifers

Tobacco Potato Crucifers

Artificial Hybridisation

•A  rtificial hybridisation is the process by which the desired pollen grains are used for the
pollination and the fertilisation of the female gamete.
→ This usually involves crossing-over between two different individual plants with desirable
characteristics.
•P  ollen grains from species that have the desired characteristics are carefully chosen.
→ Such pollen grains are referred to as desired pollen grains.
•  The offspring produced by this process are referred to as superior varieties.

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 05

Individual 1 Individual 2
(With desirable traits) (With desirable traits)

Artificial hybridisation

Hybrid

Steps of artificial hybridisation

Steps of artificial hybridisation

Bisexual flowers Unisexual flowers

Emasculation Emasculation

•  It is the process of removing anthers from

bisexual flowers without affecting the female
reproductive part.
•  It is used in order to ensure that only the desired
pollen grains are transferred to the stigma.
•  It is not required since the given
•A  nthers from the flower bud are removed using
flower only has either the male or
a pair of forceps before the anther dehisces.
the female reproductive parts.
Stigma
Anthers

Emasculation

Bagging Bagging

•E
 masculated bisexual flowers or unisexual pistillate
flowers are covered with a bag of suitable size.
•B
 ag is generally made up of butter paper to prevent
the contamination of the stigma with unwanted
pollen. Bagging

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 06

•W
 hen the stigma of the bagged flower attains receptivity, mature pollen grains
collected from the anthers of the male parent are dusted on the stigma.

Rebagging Rebagging

 ebagging is the covering of stigma after dusting

•R
the pollen grains.
•T
 he flowers are rebagged and the fruits are allowed
to develop.

Rebagging

Benefits of artificial hybridisation

•T
 his process can help in achieving the following objectives

•P
 lants with high growth •D
 isease-resistant plants •  Plants that can sustain
rate and yield high temperatures

Pollen-Pistil Interaction

•  It covers the sequential events from the introduction of pollens on the stigma until the pollen
tubes enter the ovules.
•  During this interaction, the pistil screens the pollen grains.
•T  he pollens of the other incompatible species are inhibited at the level of pollen germination
or pollen tube growth in the style. Pollen grains

Stigma Stigma
Compatible Incompatible
pollen pollen

Pollen tube formation No pollen tube formation

•T  he stigma of the pistil is the checkpoint. •  If the pollen grain belongs
•  It checks for the compatibility of the pollen grains with the to incompatible species,
help of chemical interactions. then the stigma will not
allow the formation of
•  If the pollen grains are compatible, the stigma allows the
pollen tube.
pollen grain to form the pollen tube.

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 07

Self-incompatibility

•  It is the mechanism that prevents the pollen of one flower from fertilising the other flowers of
the same plants.
•S  elf-incompatibility is often observed in plants belonging to families like Solanaceae.
•T  his prevents inbreeding.

Post-Pollination Events

Pollen grain
Male gametes 2) Male gametes moving
towards the ovule
Vegetative cell

1) Pollen tube
growing

1.  V
 egetative cell directs the growth of pollen tube.
3) Male gametes entering embryo
2. M  ale gametes travel towards the ovule via pollen sac through the micropylar end
tube.
3. M  ale gametes enter embryo sac through the
micropylar end.

Fertilisation

•  It is the process of fusion of male gamete with the female gamete.

•  It takes place in the embryo sac.

•  The filiform apparatus present at the Filiform apparatus

micropylar end of the synergids guides the
entry of the pollen tube.
•T  he pollen tube bursts.
Male gametes
→ It opens into the embryo sac and releases
the male gametes. Polar nuclei
•  The synergid cell into which the male
gamete opens is destroyed, whereas the
other one remains the same.

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 08

Destroyed synergid
Male gametes
•  The male gametes move to the polar nuclei
and the egg cell.
Remaining synergid

•T  he synergid cell that remained unaffected Polar nuclei

gets deactivated. Destroyed synergid
•  This stops the growth of the pollen tube.
•O
 ne of the male gametes fuses with the egg
Egg cell
cell and the other fuses with the polar nuclei.
Deactivated
Male gametes synergid

Double fertilisation

•  In this phenomenon, two fertilisation events occurs:

1. One of the male gametes fertilises the egg cell, resulting in the formation of a zygote.
2. The other male gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei, resulting in the formation of
an endosperm.

Syngamy

•  The fusion of male and female gamete (egg cell) during double fertilisation is known
as syngamy.
•  This fusion results in formation of zygote.

1.

Male gamete (n) Female gamete (n)

Syngamy

Zygote (2n)

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 09

Triple fusion

•  The fusion of the male gamete with the two polar nuclei during double fertilisation is
known as triple fusion.
•  This fusion results in the formation of the primary endosperm nucleus (PEN).

2.
Male gamete (n) Polar nucleus (n) Polar nucleus (n)

Triple fusion

Primary endosperm nucleus (PEN) (3n)

Endosperm (3n)

Types of Fertilisation

Fertilisation (based on pollen tube entry site)

Chalazal end
Porogamy

•  It is the most common type of fertilisation

carried out in all angiosperms or flowering
plants.
Micropylar end
•  In this, the pollen tube enters the ovule
through the micropyle. Pollen tube
•  Example: Lily Porogamy

Chalazal end Pollen tube

Chalazogamy

•  In this, the pollen tube penetrates the

ovule through the tissue of chalaza.
•  Example: Casuarina

Micropylar
end
Chalazogamy

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 10

Mesogamy

•  In this, the pollen tube enters via integuments.

•  Example: Cucurbita

Chalazal end

Pollen tube

Integuments
Micropylar end

Mesogamy

Summary Sheet

Inbreeding depression

•  Inbreeding depression is the reduced biological fitness in a given population as a result of

inbreeding or breeding between related individuals.

Outbreeding devices: Devices that discourage self-pollination and encourage

cross-pollination (between genetically unique individuals)

Unisexuality

Dioecious plant

• M  ale and female flowers are present on different plants

•  Prevents autogamy and geitonogamy

Monoecious plant

•  Male and female reproductive parts are not present on the same flower.
•  However, male and female flowers are present on the same plant.
•  Prevents autogamy but not geitonogamy

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 11

Dichogamy

Protandry

•  Anthers mature before the stigma of the same flower

•  Prevents autogamy

Protogyny

• S  tigma matures before the anthers of the same flower

•  Prevents autogamy

Self-incompatibility

• P  ollen grains do not germinate on the stigma of the same flower or flowers of the
same plant
•  Prevents both autogamy and geitonogamy

Heterostyly

•  Anther and stigma are placed at different heights

•  Prevents autogamy

Artificial hybridisation

Individual 1 Individual 2
(With desirable traits) (With desirable traits)

Artificial hybridisation

Hybrid

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 12

Pollen-pistil interaction

Different/Self-incompatible species pollen Same species (compatible) pollen grain

grain

Pollen grain

Stigma Stigma

Pollen tube formation Pollen tube formation

Double fertilisation

1 Egg cell + 1 Male gamete = Zygote

2 Polar nuclei + 1 Male gamete = Primary endosperm nucleus (PEN)

•  Changes in embryo sac

Antipodal cells

Polar nuclei Fertilisation PEN (3n)

Synergids
Zygote (2n)
Egg cell

Filiform apparatus

Fertilisation (based on pollen tube entry site)

Porogamy Chalazogamy Mesogamy

Chalazal end Chalazal end Chalazal end

Pollen Integument
tube

Pollen Pollen
tube tube
Micropylar end Micropylar end Micropylar end

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 01

NOTE
B I O L O G Y

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN
FLOWERING PLANTS
ENDOSPERM DEVELOPMENT, EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT

Key Takeaways

•  Post-fertilisation events
→ Endosperm development → Embryo development
◆ Types of endosperm development ◆ Embryogenesis in dicots
◆ Embryogenesis in monocots

Prerequisites

A. Microsporogenesis

Sporogenous tissue
Cells of
sporogenous
tissue Pollen mother
cells (2n)
Pollen mother cells
or
Meiosis I
Microspore mother cells

Microsporangium

Pollen mother
cells (2n)

Microspore tetrad Meiosis II

Vegetative cell
Microspore

Generative cell

Pollen grain

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 02

B. Megasporogenesis and megagametogenesis

Meiosis

Megaspore Four haploid

mother cell megaspores
Ovule

Functional
Megasporogenesis megaspore

Mitosis I Mitosis II Mitosis III

Cytoplasmic
Functional division Embryo
megaspore sac
Megagametogenesis

C. Double fertilisation

Changes in embryo sac

Degenerated
Antipodal cells
antipodal cells

Polar nuclei Fertilisation PEN (3n)

Synergids
Zygote (2n)
Egg cell

Filiform apparatus Degenerated synergids

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 03

Post-Fertilisation Events

Endosperm development

•  The triploid primary endosperm cell divides repeatedly and forms a triploid endosperm tissue.

Primary
endosperm
cell
Endosperm
PEN (3n)
Embryo

Zygote (2n)

•  Endosperm development precedes embryo development.

•  The cells of triploid endosperm tissue are filled with reserve food materials and are used for the
nutrition of the developing embryo.

Types of seed based on endosperm development

Nuclear type

Primary endosperm Free nuclei

nucleus

•  PEN divides repeatedly (mitotic division) without cytokinesis.

•  It results in the formation of a large number of free nuclei in the cell.
•  A large central vacuole is formed and nuclei get arranged at the periphery.
•  Cell wall is formed from the periphery towards the centre.
•  Examples: Maize, rice, wheat, corn, sunflower

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 04

Cellular type

Primary endosperm Endosperm

nucleus

Transverse division

•  The division of PEN (karyokinesis) is followed by cytokinesis and two cells are
formed due to transverse division.
•  It leads to the formation of the cellular endosperm.
•  It is not very common.
•  Examples: Petunia, balsam, Datura

Helobial type

Primary endosperm Chalazal Endosperm

nucleus chamber Free
nuclei

Cell wall
Micropylar chamber formation

•  The first division results in a large micropylar cell and a small chalazal cell
(similar to cellular endosperm).
•  The chalazal cell divides like cellular endosperm, i.e., nuclear divisions are
immediately followed by cytokinesis.
•  The micropylar cell divides in the free nuclear fashion.
•  Hence, helobial type of endosperm is a combination of both nuclear and
cellular endosperms.
•  It is common in monocotyledons.
•  Example: Eremurus

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 05

Types of seeds based on endosperm utilisation

Endospermic seeds Non-endospermic seeds

Endosperm persists in the mature seed Endosperm is completely consumed by the
and is used up during seed germination. developing embryo before seed maturation.

Example: Coconut Examples: Peas and groundnut

Did you know?

Coconut Plant tissue culture

in coconut water

•  In coconut, the formation of cell wall is incomplete, resulting in the formation of the outer
multicellular solid endosperm (white kernel) and the inner multinucleated (having free nuclei)
liquid endosperm (coconut water). So, coconut is an exception.
•  Coconut water has the ability to stimulate cell division and morphogenesis.
•  Hence, coconut water is used in plant tissue culture to support plant growth in vitro.

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 06

What came first, the seed or the plant?

Neither of them came first. Although seeds are considered

to be the first stage of a new plant’s life, the foundation has
more to do with what is inside that seed: embryo.

Embryo development

•E  mbryo develops at the micropylar end of the

embryo sac where the zygote is situated. Primary
•  Most zygotes divide only after a certain amount of endosperm
endosperm is formed. cell
•  This is an adaptation to provide assured nutrition to
PEN (3n)
the developing embryo.
•  Embryogenesis/Embryo development varies
depending on the type of seed. Zygote (2n)

Zygote Embryo
Embryogeny

There are two types of seeds based on number of cotyledons

Monocots Dicots
One cotyledon Two cotyledons

•  Cotyledons are the first leaves to appear from a germinating seed.

•  Development of both types of seeds is similar in the early stages but differ in the later stages.

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 07

Embryogenesis in dicots

•  The zygote divides transversely to form Apical cell

two cells:
→ Terminal cell (Apical cell)
→ Basal cell
•T  he terminal cell gives rise to the
 embryo, while the basal cell contributes Fertilised
to the formation of suspensor. egg Basal cell

• The terminal cell divides by vertical

division, forming a four-celled stage, Four-celled stage
I-shaped embryo.
Embryo
•  Each of the four cells divide transversely
to from the octant stage (eight-celled) or
the globular stage.
•  At the same time, the basal cell divides
transversely to form a six to ten celled Suspensor
filament known as suspensor.
•T  he suspensor attains its maximum
development by the time embryo attains I-shaped embryo Basal cell
the globular stage.

•D  ue to uneven growth, the embryo Short axis Two cotyledons

becomes triangular and then
heart-shaped, which possesses a short
axis and two primordia of cotyledons.
Suspensor
•  The part of the embryo attached to the
tip of the suspensor is known as the Hypophysis
hypophysis, which gives rise to the
embryonic root and root cap.

•  The portion of embryonal axis above the

Embryonal
level of cotyledons is the epicotyl, which axis
terminates with the plumule or stem tip.
Hypocotyl
•  The cylindrical portion below the level of
Radicle
cotyledons is hypocotyl that terminates
at its lower end in the radicle or root tip. Root cap
Cotyledons
•T  he root tip is covered with a root cap. Mature embryo
Mature embryo
with in seed

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 08

Embryogenesis in monocots

•  Zygote divides transversely, forming the

terminal cell and the basal cell. Suspensor
•  The basal cell, which is larger and lies Oospore
towards the micropylar end, does not
divide again but becomes transformed
directly into a large vesicular cell.
Middle
•  The terminal cell divides transversely, cell
forming two cells.
•  This series of division leads to the Terminal cell Quadrant
quadrant stage. stage

Suspensor
•  The quadrants divide transversely,
forming octants arranged in two tiers
of four cells each.

Cotyledons

Plumule
Octant

•  The embryos of monocotyledons

possess only one cotyledon.
•  The single cotyledon of a monocot is Scutellum
referred to as the scutellum, which is (Cotyledon)
situated towards one side (lateral) of
the embryonal axis.
Coleoptile
•  At the lower end of the embryonal axis,
the radicle and root cap are enclosed Shoot apex
in an undifferentiated sheath known as Epiblast
coleorhiza.
Radicle
•  The portion of the embryonal axis
above the level of attachment of Root cap
scutellum is the epicotyl.
Coleorhiza
•  The epicotyl has a shoot apex and a
few leaf primordia enclosed in a hollow
foliar structure, the coleoptile.

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 09

Difference between dicot and monocot embryos

Monocot embryo Dicot embryo

There is a single cotyledon. There are two cotyledons.

Protective sheath known as

Coleorhiza sheath is absent.
coleorhiza is present on radicle.

Plumule envelope known as

Coleoptile envelope is absent.
coleoptile is present.

Summary Sheet

•  Post-fertilisation events

Endosperm
development

Embryo
development

Ovule seed

Ovary fruit

•  Endosperm
→ It is the main source of nutrition for embryo in the seed.
→ It develops prior to the embryo.

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 10

Types of endosperm development

Nuclear type Cellular type Helobial type

•P
 EN divides repeatedly •  PEN division is followed •  The first division results
without cytokinesis by cytokinesis. in a large micropylar cell
•E
 xamples: Maize, rice, •  Examples: Petunia, and a small chalazal cell.
wheat, cotton, sunflower balsam, Datura •  Example: Eremurus

•E
 mbryo development
→ It develops at the micropylar end of the embryo sac.
→ Most zygotes divide only after a certain amount of endosperm has formed.
→ The endosperm provides nutrition for development of the embryo.

Embryogenesis in dicots

Apical cell

Suspensor
Fertilized
egg
Basal cell I-shaped embryo Basal cell

Short axis Two cotyledons

Embryonal
axis
Hypocotyl
Suspensor
Radicle
Hypophysis
Root cap
Cotyledons
Mature embryo
Mature embryo
within seed

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 11

Embryogenesis in monocots

Suspensor Suspensor
Oospore

Cotyledons
Middle
cell
Plumule
Terminal cell Quadrant
Octant

Scutellum
(Cotyledons)

Coleoptile
Shoot apex

Epiblast
Radicle
Root cap
Coleorhiza

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 01

NOTE
B I O L O G Y

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN
FLOWERING PLANTS
SEEDS, FRUITS, SEED DORMANCY, SEED DISPERSAL

Key Takeaways

• Seed and fruit • Seed dormancy

• Importance of seed dispersal • Agents of seed dispersal

Prerequisites

Sexual reproduction

Pollen grains
Whorl of stamens
(Androecium) Stigma
Anther Style

Ovary

Filament Ovule
Whorl of carpels
(Gynoecium) Male Female

Sepals, petals Sepals, petals and

and stamens stamens fall off
wither

Ovary develops
Flower into fruit, ovules
(after fertilisation) become seeds

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 02

Seed and Fruit

Seed

• A seed consists of an embryo enclosed in a protective outer covering.

• It is also known as the fertilised ovule.

Embryo
Cotyledon

Seed coat

Comparison between seed and egg

Embryo Egg shell

Cotyledon
Yolk

Seed coat Embryo

Seed Egg

• Embryo: Develops from a zygote

• Cotyledon/Yolk: Food reserve, provides nutrition to the growing embryo
• Seed coat/Egg shell: Protects the developing embryo

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 03

Fruit

Ovary Fruit

Ovule Seed

Ovary wall Pericarp

Outermost layer Epicarp

Middle layer Mesocarp

Innermost layer Endocarp

Parts of a fruit

The fruit wall (pericarp) is differentiated into three layers:

Endocarp
Innermost layer

Mesocarp
Seed
Tissue between epicarp Pericarp
and endocarp

Epicarp
Skin

Characteristics of ovary Characteristics of fruit

Ovules Seeds

Integument Seed coat

Micropyle Micropyle

Nucellus Disappears or persists

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 04

Fruit
Perisperm
Seed

Perisperm

Beetroot Pepper

• In some seeds, nucellar cells that surround the embryo persist.

• This nucellar tissue is a nutritive tissue. It is known as perisperm.
• The examples of seeds that contain the remnant nucellar tissue are
→ Beetroot
→ Pepper

Did you know?

• We can store seeds for a long duration after they have been harvested since the seeds
are usually in a dormant or inactive state. This is because of the drying up and slow
metabolism within it.

Fresh seed Dormant seed

Wet (100% moisture Dry (10–15% moisture

by mass) by mass)

Normal metabolism Slow metabolism

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 05

Seed Dormancy

• During certain unfavourable conditions (high temperature, dryness, etc.), the embryo becomes
inactive, i.e., the metabolic activities slow down. This state is known as seed dormancy.
• The dormancy of seeds varies from species to species. However, there are some that can
remain dormant for long periods.

Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera): 2,000 Arctic lupine (Lupinus arcticus): 10,000
years years

Seed: Conditions for germination

Suitable temperature Adequate moisture Proper oxygen supply

• These conditions are important for photosynthesis and glucose formation.

• Absence of seed dormancy:
→ If there was no seed dormancy, then seeds would germinate soon after their formation.
→ As a result, they would have no shelf life.
→ The germinating plants would hence die if the conditions are not favourable at the time of
germination.
→ Farmers would also not be able to store the seeds and sow them whenever required.

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 06

Importance of Seed Dispersal

• Seed dispersal is the process by which seeds are dispersed to different places through agents
like wind, water, animals, and explosions.
• Once the fruit is formed it eventually
ripens and then falls off the branch.

• If the baby plants were to grow right next to

the parent, then it would be difficult for
the baby plants to grow.
• Since the parent would have larger
roots, the baby plant would not have access
to nutrients.
• Majority of the water and nutrients would be
taken up by the parent tree.
• The young plant would not have the space
for the shoot or root to grow.
• The larger tree would also have a larger
canopy, which would block the sunlight from
falling on the smaller plant.

Hence, seed dispersal is essential for the baby plants to have enough resources for their growth
and development.

Agents of Seed Dispersal

Wind

• Light seeds with wings or feathery structures get dispersed by wind.

• Example:

Dandelion Swan plant

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 07

Water

• As the seeds of plants float on water, they get dispersed.

• Example:

Lotus Coconut

Explosion

• Some seed-containing fruits burst on their own with some force, throwing the seeds at a
distance.
• Example:

Exploding cucumber Pea

Animals

• Birds consume seeds that they cannot digest, but the acids and enzymes in their gut
soften the seed coat, and they excrete the seeds. This makes seed germination easy.
• Apes eat fruits partially and throw the rest. This leads to the dispersal and germination of
seeds.
• Example:

Cherries Watermelon Guava

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 08

Did you know?

The hard seed coat of certain seeds prevents water and oxygen from reaching the seeds.
• When ingested, the acidic enzymes of animals weaken the hard seed coat.
• As they cannot digest the seed, they excrete it out.
• As a result, the seed coat becomes soft and starts germinating.

Seed with hard Animal gut Seed without Seed germinates

seed coat hard seed coat

Summary Sheet

Embryo Egg shell

Cotyledon
Yolk

Seed coat Embryo

Seed Egg

Comparison of ovary and fruit

Ovary wall Pericarp

Outermost layer Epicarp

Middle layer Mesocarp

Endocarp

Flower Fruit

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 09

Characteristics of ovary Characteristics of fruit

Ovules Seeds

Integument Seed coat

Micropyle Micropyle

Nucellus Disappears or persists (Perisperm)

Seed dormancy

• During certain unfavourable conditions (high temperature, dryness, etc.), the embryo becomes
inactive, i.e., the metabolic activities slow down. This state is known as seed dormancy.

Conditions for seed germination

Suitable temperature Adequate moisture Proper oxygen supply

Seed dispersal

It is the process by which seeds are dispersed to different places through agents like wind,
water, animals, and explosions.

Agents of seed dispersal

Wind Water Explosion Animals

Example: Swan plant Example: Coconut Example: Pea Example: Cherries

© 2021, BYJU'S. All rights reserved
01

NOTE
B I O L O G Y

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN
FLOWERING PLANTS
TYPES OF FRUITS AND SEEDS, APOMIXIS, POLYEMBRYONY, HYBRID SEEDS

Key Takeaways

• Types of fruits • Apomixis

• Types of seeds » Types of apomixis
» Advantages of seeds in angiosperms • Polyembryony
• Hybrid seeds

Prerequisites

Ovary
Ovule

Sepals, petals and Sepals, petals Fruit

stamens wither and stamens drop off
Seed

Flower Ovary develops into a fruit.

(After fertilisation) Ovules become seeds.

Transition of flower into fruit

Whorl of stamens Anther Stigma

(Androecium)
Style
Pollen
grains
Filament Ovary
Whorl of carpels Ovule
(Gynoecium) Male Female
1. Flowers contain the sex organs of the 2. Anther produces male gametes (pollen
plants: androecium and gynoecium grains), which are transferred to the ovary
by the process of pollination.
02

Polar nucleus (n)

Male gamete (n)

Female gamete (n) Zygote (2n)

2n

Male gamete (n)

3. Male and female gametes fuse together and 4. This diploid zygote divides mitotically.
form zygote by the process of fertilisation.

Embryo
2n 2n
2n
2n 2n
2n

Seed

5. This division forms the embryo. 6. Embryo forms in the seed.

Types of Fruits

True fruit False fruit Parthenocarpic fruit

• True fruit usually develops • False fruits develop from • Fruits develop without
from a mature ovary. parts of the flower other fertilisation of the ovules.
• Examples: Peas, grapes, than the ovary like the • These are seedless fruits.
mango, coconut thalamus in case of apple.
• Examples: Banana,
• Examples: Apple, pear watermelon (seedless),
grapes (seedless)

True fruit
Epicarp Ovary (with seeds)
Mesocarp

Seed
Endocarp
Thalamus (Receptacle)
Mango Apple Watermelon
03

Types of Seeds

Seeds
(Based on types of cotyledons)

Monocotyledonous Dicotyledonous

Seeds that have a single Seeds that have two

cotyledon cotyledons

Cotyledon Cotyledon

Examples: Maize, wheat Examples: Beans, maple

Seeds
(Based on types of endosperm)

Albuminous Non-albuminous

• Endosperm is present.
• Endosperm is absent.
• Endosperm is not fully consumed
• Endosperm is fully consumed
during embryo development.
during embryo development.
• Examples: Wheat, maize, barley,
• Examples: Pea, groundnut
castor, sunflower

Embryo Embryo

Endosperm Cotyledon
04

Advantages of seeds in angiosperms

Seed formation is dependable since pollination

and fertilisation are independent of water, They provide nourishment to the embryo.
unlike lower plants.
Cotyledon (Food reserves)
Endosperm

Seed Embryo
coat Embryo

They provide protection to the embryo.

Embryo
Seed coat

Seeds are formed from sexual reproduction

Seeds are dispersed by various agents.
which leads to genetic variation.

Stigma

Stamen

Apomixis

• It is the process of production of seeds without fertilisation.

• The term was coined by Hans Karl Albert Winkler.
• Apomixis = Apo (Without) + Mixis (Mingling)
• It is a type of asexual reproduction that mimics sexual reproduction.
• Examples: Poa (Meadow grasses), Hieracium (Hawkweed)

Poa (Meadow grasses) Hieracium (Hawkweed)

05

Apomixis

Type 1

Endoreplication

Egg cell Egg cell

n
Egg cell (n) Egg cell (2n)

1. Egg cell of embryo sac (n) 2. The egg cell that is haploid 3. The egg cell replicates its
in nature undergoes genetic material without
endoreplication. cytokinesis.

Zygotic
2n 2n
Egg cell embryo
2n
Egg cell 2n
2n 2n 2n

4. The egg cell becomes 5. The diploid cell divides 6. Multiple egg cells give rise
diploid (2n). mitotically. to the zygotic embryo.

Embryo

7. The embryo is formed.

06

Type 2

Antipodal cell (n) Embryo sac

Embryo sac Nucellar cell (2n)
Polar
nuclei (n) Nucellar cells (2n)
Egg cell (n)
Egg cell (n)
Synergid cell (n)

1. Female gametophyte 2. Nucellus cells are somatic diploid cells.

Penetrating 2n Dividing Nucellar

2n
2n
nucellar cell 2n nucellar cells 2n embryo

Egg cell (n) Egg cell (n) Egg cell (n)

2n
Dividing 2n
2n Penetrating 2n
2n
nucellar cells
nucellar cell

3. Nucellar cells penetrate 4. Some of the nucellar cells 5. Thus, the nucellar
into the embryo sac. penetrate into the embryo sac embryo is formed.
and then start dividing inside.

Polyembryony

• The occurrence of more than one embryo is termed as polyembryony.

Examples:

Types of mango seeds Monoembryonic

Nucellar seeds
2n embryo
Egg Cell
Polyembryonic
2n
seeds
Seed with one Seed with two
embryo embryos
Mango seeds Orange seeds

Hybrid Seeds

• Hybrid seeds are produced by cross-pollination.

• They contain characteristics of diverse plant species.
07

• They show extensive growth and productivity.

Hybrid seeds can be produced by two methods

Method 1 Method 2
Create hybrid Produce hybrid
seeds every year seeds by apomixis

Production of seeds through apomixis is better because:

• There is no occurrence of meiosis.
• There is no segregation of chromosomes in gametes.
• Hybrid nature of the seeds is maintained.

AA BB AA BB
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
Apomixis

Hybrid parent Hybrid zygote

(2n) (2n)

Summary Sheet

Types of fruits

True fruit False fruit Parthenocarpic fruit

True fruit
Epicarp Ovary (with seeds)
Mesocarp

Seed
Endocarp
Thalamus (Receptacle)
Mango Apple Watermelon
08

Types of seeds Seeds

(Based on types of cotyledons)

Monocotyledonous Dicotyledonous

Seeds that have a single Seeds that have two

cotyledon cotyledons

Cotyledon Cotyledon

Examples: Maize, wheat Examples: Beans, maple

Seeds
(Based on types of endosperm)

Albuminous Non-albuminous

• Endosperm is present.
• Endosperm is absent.
• Endosperm is not fully consumed
• Endosperm is fully consumed
during embryo development.
during embryo development.
• Examples: Wheat, maize, barley,
• Examples: Pea, groundnut.
castor, sunflower.

Apomixis

• It is the process of production of seeds without fertilisation.

Apomixis

Type 1 Type 2

The haploid egg cell undergoes Diploid nucellar cells divide

endoreplication and forms diploid mitotically and form the zygotic
cells that divide mitotically to give nucellar embryo.
the zygotic embryo.
09

2n Dividing
2n
2n nucellar cells
Endoreplication
Egg cell
2n
2n Dividing
2n
nucellar cells
Egg cell (n) Egg cell (2n)

Nucellar
Zygotic 2n embryo
embryo (2n) Egg cell
2n

Polyembryony

• The occurrence of more than one embryo is termed as polyembryony.

Hybrid seeds

• Hybrid seeds are produced by cross-pollination.

• They contain characteristics of diverse plant species.
• They show extensive growth and productivity.
• The production of hybrid seeds using apomixis can sustain the hybrid characteristics.