CSEC CHEMISTRY

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty

LESSON 1
“Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”
2 MATERIALS NEEDED FOR CLASS

 SYLLABUS (THIS IS YOUR CHEMISTRY BIBLE FOLKS!!!!)

 PENCIL
 SCIENTIFIC CALCULATOR
 BLANK LEAVES
 GRAPH LEAVES
 PERIODIC TABLE (DO NOT SHOW UP TO CLASS WITHOUT THIS!)

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

3

 The syllabus is divided into three sections, namely:

 SECTION A - Principles of Chemistry

 SECTION B - Organic Chemistry

 SECTION C - Inorganic Chemistry

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

4 SECTION A- PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY
 STATES OF MATTER

 MIXTURES AND SEPARATIONS

 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

 PERIODIC TABLE AND PERIODICITY

 STRUCTURE AND BONDING

 MOLE CONCEPT

 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

 ELECTROCHEMISTRY

 RATES OF REACTION

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty  ENERGETICS

“Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”
5
LET’S GET THIS PARTY STARTED

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

6 WHAT IS CHEMISTRY?

Chemistry is concerned with the physical and

chemical properties of substances and the
interaction of energy and matter.
 The study of Chemistry involves an investigation
into chemical reactions and processes and thus
explain and predict events at the atomic and
molecular level.
A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”
7 States of Matter

 Matter is anything that takes up space (volume) and has weight (mass)
 There are three states of matter and most substances can exist in all three
(3) state depending on the temperature eg WATER:
 A. Solid eg Ice (below 0℃)
 B. Liquid eg water (between 0℃ and 100℃)
 C. Gas eg steam (> 100℃)

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

8 PARTICULATE MATTER THEORY

 There are four (4) main postulates of the Particulate Matter theory:
1. All matter is comprised of particles which can be atoms, ions, molecules etc
a. Atoms are the smallest units of a chemical element which have all the
characteristics of the element
b. Molecules are groups of two or more atoms bonded together and which can
exist on their own. These can be same or different.
c. Ions are electrically charged particles.

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

9 PARTICULATE MATTER THEORY

2. These particles are in constant random motion and

temperature affects the speed of this motion. They either
vibrate (in cases of solids) or move from place to place
(liquid or gas)

3. There are forces of attraction and repulsion between the

particles.

4. Particles have empty spaces between them

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”
10 Support for the Particulate Matter Theory

1. Diffusion

2. Osmosis

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

11 DIFFUSION

DIFFUSION is the process by which

particles move from an area of high
concentration to an area of low
concentration till dynamic equilibrium is
established.

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

12 Diffusion: Reaction of Hydrogen Chloride and
Ammonia

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

 Diffusion: Reaction of Hydrogen Chloride and
13
Ammonia
 When pieces of cotton wool soaked in concentrated ammonia solution
and concentrated hydrochloric acid are placed simultaneously at
opposite ends of a glass tube, a white ring of ammonium chloride forms
inside the tube.
 Ammonia solution gives off ammonia gas and hydrochloric acid gives
off hydrogen chloride gas.
 The particles of the gases diffuse through the air inside the tube, collide
and react to form ammonium chloride

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

14 Diffusion: Reaction of Hydrogen Chloride and
Ammonia
 Ammonia + Hydrogen Chloride → Ammonium Chloride
NH3(g) + HCl(g) → NH4Cl(s)

 The ammonia gas, having a lower molecular weight than the

hydrogen chloride, will diffuse faster and travel a greater length of the
tube. Consequently, the white ring of ammonium chloride will form
much closer to hydrochloric acid end of the tube.

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

 15 Diffusion: Reaction of hydrogen chloride and
ammonia

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

16 Diffusion: Potassium Permanganate Crystals
dissolving

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

17 Diffusion: Potassium Permanganate Crystals
dissolving
Due to the random movement of potassium
permanganate particles, a dense purple solution
forms in water at base of the beaker. The purple
solution will slowly spread into the rest of the
water throughout the beaker creating a less dense
but evenly colored purple solution.

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

18 Support for the Particulate Matter Theory

OSMOSIS

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

19
Osmosis
This is defined as the process by which water
molecules from an area of higher water concentration
moves to an area of lower water concentration, across
a differentially permeable membrane until dynamic
equilibrium is established.

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

20 Effects of Osmosis in cells
 NB The more particles there are dissolved in a solution, the less water there is in it,
so osmosis is sometimes described as the diffusion of water from areas of low
solute concentration to areas of high solute concentration).
 Isotonic: when the solute concentration outside the cell is balanced with the
concentration inside the cell.
 Hypotonic: when the solute concentration outside the cell is lower than the
concentration inside the cell
 Hypertonic: is when the solute concentration outside the cell is higher than the
concentration inside the cell

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

21 Effects of Osmosis in cells
 Effects of osmosis in plant cells
• Plant cells are enclosed by a rigid cell wall. When the plant cell is placed in
a hypotonic solution, it takes up water by osmosis and starts to swell, but the
cell wall prevents it from bursting. The plant cell is said to have become
‘turgid’, i.e. swollen and hard.
• When a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, the water from inside
the cell‘s cytoplasm diffuses out and the plant cell is said to have become
‘flaccid’. ( Try experiment with Irish Potato)

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty

“Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”
22 Effects of Osmosis on Animal Cells
 Osmosis can be used to control gardening pests. For example Slugs and
Snails.
 When salt is sprinkled on slugs and snails, it dissolves in the moisture
around their bodies forming a concentrated solution. Water inside their
bodies then moves out by osmosis and into the solution.
 The slugs and snails die from dehydration if their bodies lose more water
than they can tolerate. The cells in the snail’s body is said to be
HYPERTONIC
 Why can’t I swim in the dead sea for long???
 Can humans die from drinking too much water? Why? or Why not?
A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”
23 Effects of Osmosis in Food Preservation

 Salt and sugar are used to preserve foods such as meat, fish and fruit.
They both work in the same way:
 They draw water out of the cells of the food by osmosis. This prevents
the food from decaying because there is no water available in the cells for
the chemical reactions which cause the decay .
 They draw water out of microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) by osmosis.
This prevents the food from decaying because it inhibits the growth of
the microorganisms that cause the decay.

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

24 Brownian Motion
 Brownian motion is the random movement of fluid particles.
 They do this because they are bombarded by the other moving particles
in the fluid. Larger particles can be moved by light, fast-moving
molecules.
 The botanist Robert Brown used a microscope to look at pollen grains
moving randomly in water but could not explain it. Later Albert
Einstein explained that the pollen grains were being moved by
individual water molecules. This confirmed that atoms and molecules did
exist and provided evidence for particle theory.

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

 Nature of the States of Matter
25
Characteristics Solid Liquid Gas
Arrangement of Particles Packed closely together, usually Have small spaces between and Have large spaces between and
in a regular way are randomly arranged are randomly arranged

Energy of Particles Possess very small amounts of Possess more kinetic energy that Possess large amounts of kinetic
kinetic energy. the particles in a solid. energy.

Strength of attraction of Strong. Weaker than those between the Very weak.
Particles particles in a solid.
Movement of Particles Vibrate in their fixed position. Move slowly past each other Move around freely and rapidly.

Volume Fixed Fixed Variable (expands to fit

container)
Density High density Density lower than solids but Very low density
still high
Compressibility Difficult to compress because Slightly compressible Easily compressed because their
their intermolecular forces are intermolecular forces are
so strong that the molecules are relatively weak, so their
essentially locked in place molecules are constantly
moving independently of the
A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon” other molecules present
26 Changing States

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

27 Changing States
Five Changes of State

Melting Freezing Evaporation Condensation Sublimation

The transition of
the gaseous phase
to the solid phase
The process by The process by
The process by The process by without passing the
which a substance which a substance
which a substance which a substance intermediate liquid
changes from the changes from the
changes from the changes from the phase is known as
liquid phase to the gaseous phase to
solid phase to the liquid phase to the sublimation. E.g.
gaseous phase is the liquid phase is
liquid phase is solid phase is carbon dioxide
known as known as
known as melting. known as freezing. ('dry ice'), iodine
evaporation. evaporation.
and naphthalene
(moth balls)

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

28

Evaporation can take place at any temperature,

whereas boiling occurs at a specific temperature.
 Evaporation takes place at the surface of the
liquid only, whereas boiling takes place
throughout the liquid.

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

29 Heating and Cooling Curves
 A heating curve is drawn when the temperature of a solid is
measured at intervals as it is heated and changes state to a
liquid and then to a gas, and the temperature is then plotted
against time.
 A cooling curve is drawn when the temperature of a gas is
measured at intervals as it is cooled and changes state to a
liquid and then to a solid, and the temperature is then plotted
against time.

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

30

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

31
The melting point is the constant temperature at which a solid
changes state into a liquid.
The boiling point is the constant temperature at which a liquid
changes state into a gas.
The freezing point is the constant temperature at which a liquid
changes state into a solid.
Note The melting and freezing points of any pure substance
have the same value.

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

32
What was accomplished?
 Explain how evidence supports the particulate theory of matter
o diffusion and osmosis.
o Use of salt or sugar to control garden pests and as a preservative.
 Distinguish among the three states of matter
o Arrangement of particles,
o energy of particles,
o strength of forces of interaction.
o Consideration of physical characteristics of states.
 Explain the changes between the three states of matter in terms of energy and arrangement of
particles.
o Consideration of freezing, melting, boiling, evaporation, sublimation, condensation
o heating and cooling curves.
A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”
33 SOURCES

 https://cxc.org/SiteAssets/syllabusses/CSEC/CSEC%20Chemistry%20Syllabus%20with%
20Specimen%20Papers%20and%20Mark%20Scheme-Keys.pdf
 https://wou.edu/chemistry/courses/online-chemistry-textbooks/ch150-preparatory-
chemistry/ch150-chapter-4-covalent-bonds-molecular-compounds/
 https://alevelbiology.co.uk/notes/osmosis/
 https://byjus.com/physics/changing-states-of-matter/

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemisty “Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”