SECA1303

Analog Communication

Dr.A.SAHAYA ANSELIN NISHA

Professor / Dept., of ECE

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 UNIT 1
AMPLITUDE MODULATION & DEMODULATION

Need for modulation – Model of communication system and

classification, Representation of AM – Modulation index and power
calculation

Types of AM: DSB-FC: Collector and base modulation circuits, square law
modulator - DSB-SC: Balanced modulator circuit using FET – SSB: Filter
method and phase shift method – VSB, Comparison of various AM schemes

AM transmitter: Low level and high level Modulation.

Demodulation –Envelope detector, Significance of RC time constant - Square

law detector.

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What is a communication system?.

Communication is the transfer of information from one

place to another.

This should be done

- as efficiently as possible
- with as much fidelity/reliability as possible
- as securely as possible

Communication System:
Components/subsystems act together to
accomplish information transfer/exchange.

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 Types of Signals
➢ Conveying an information by some means such as gestures, sounds, actions,
etc., can be termed as signaling.
➢ Hence, a signal can be a source of energy which transmits some information.
This signal helps to establish a communication between the sender and the
receiver.
➢ An electrical impulse or an electromagnetic wave which travels a distance to
convey a message, can be termed as a signal in communication systems.
➢ Depending on their characteristics, signals are mainly classified into two types:
Analog and Digital.

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Analog Signal
A continuous time varying signal, which represents a time varying
quantity can be termed as an Analog Signal. This signal keeps on varying with
respect to time, according to the instantaneous values of the quantity, which
represents it.

Digital Signal
A signal which is discrete in nature or which is non-continuous in form can be
termed as a Digital signal. This signal has individual values, denoted separately, which are
not based on the previous values, as if they are derived at that particular instant of time.

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Periodic Signal

Any analog or digital signal, that repeats its pattern over a period of time,
is called as a Periodic Signal. This signal has its pattern continued repeatedly and
is easy to be assumed or to be calculated.

Aperiodic Signal
Any analog or digital signal, that doesn’t repeat its pattern over a period of time
is called as Aperiodic Signal. This signal has its pattern continued but the pattern is not
repeated. It is also not so easy to be assumed or to be calculated.

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 Basic Characteristics of Signals

1. Amplitude
- Amplitude of a signal refers
to the height of the signal.
- The maximum amplitude of a
sine wave is equal to the highest value
it reaches on the vertical axis
- Amplitude is
measured in volts
2. Period
- Period refers to the
amount of time in which a signal
completes one cycle.
- It is measured in
seconds.

3. Frequency
- Number of periods in one second or number of cycles per second.
- Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz)

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4. Phase
- Phase describes the
position of the waveform relative to
time zero.
- Phase is measured in
degrees or radians.

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 5. Wavelength

- The wavelength of a signal refers to the relationship between frequency (or

period) and propagation speed of the wave through a medium.
- The wavelength is the distance of a signal travels in one period.
- Distance between the two point on the wave that are identical – so at the
same height and on slopes that go on the same way

➢ Wavelength is a
displacement in space (in
meters)

➢ Period is a displacement in
time. (in sec)

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6. Bandwidth
- Bandwidth is defined as the frequency range over which an information
signal is transmitted.
- Bandwidth can be calculated as the difference between the upper and lower
frequency limits of the signal.

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Crests
Any of the parts of the wave that are pointing up like mountains

Trough
Any part that is sloping down like a valley

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 Representation of Signals or Analysing the signal

Time Domain Representation :

- It shows changes in amplitude w.r.t. time
- So it is basically an amplitude Vs time plot

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 Frequency Domain Representation
• Two things are important - Peak amplitude and Frequency
• It is an amplitude Vs frequency Plot

➢ Fourier Series and Transforms

➢ Laplace Transforms
➢ Z Transforms
➢ Wavelet Transforms

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Block Diagram of A Communication System

➢ All communication systems contain three main sub

systems:
1. Transmitter
2. Channel
3. Receiver

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 Information Source
• A communication system serves to communicate a message or information.
This information originates in the information source.
• In general, there can be various messages in the form of words, group of words,
code, symbols, sound signal etc. However, out of these messages, only the
desired message is selected and communicated.
• Therefore, the function of information source is to produce required message
which has to be transmitted.

Input Transducer
• A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy into another form.
The message from the information source may or may not be electrical in
nature.
• In a case when the message produced by the information source is not
electrical in nature, an input transducer is used to convert it into a time-varying
electrical signal.
• For example, in case of radio-broadcasting, a microphone converts the
information or message which is in the form of sound waves into corresponding
electrical signal.

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 Transmitter

• The function of the transmitter is to process the electrical signal from different
aspects.

• It does modulation and amplification of the signal to be transmitted.

• In the modulation process, some parameter of the carrier wave (such as amplitude,
frequency or phase ) is varied in accordance with the modulating signal .
• This modulated signal is then transmitted by the transmitter.

• Modulation is the main function of the transmitter. In modulation, the message signal
is superimposed upon the high-frequency carrier signal.

• All these processing of the message signal are done just to ease the transmission of
the signal through the channel.

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 Channel and the Noise
• The term channel means the medium through which the message travels from
the transmitter to the receiver.
• The function of the channel is to provide a physical connection between the
transmitter and the receiver.
• There are two types of channels, general classification of channels are:
• Wire : Twisted-pair telephone line, coaxial cable, waveguide, and fiber-optic
cables. (Point to point Channel)
• Wireless: Air, vacuum and seawater. (Broadcast Channel)
• Example of point-to-point channels is wire lines, microwave links and optical
fibers. They all provide a physical medium for the transmission of signals from one
point to another point. Therefore, for these channels, the term point-to-point is used.
This type of communication is said to be point to point communication
• On the other hand, the broadcast channel provides a capability where several
receiving stations can be reached simultaneously from a single transmitter. An
example of a broadcast channel is a satellite in geostationary orbit, which covers
about one third of the earth’s surface.
• Noise is an unwanted signal which tends to interfere with the required signal during the
process of transmission and reception. The signal gets distorted due to noise introduced in
the system. Noise signal is always random in character. Noise may interfere with signal at any
point in a communication system. However, the noise has its greatest effect on the signal in
the channel.
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 Receiver
➢ The main function of the receiver is to reproduce the message signal in electrical
form from the distorted received signal.

➢ This reproduction of the original signal is accomplished by a process known as

the demodulation or detection. Demodulation is the reverse process of
modulation carried out in transmitter.

Destination / Output Transducer

➢Destination is the final stage which is used to convert an electrical message signal
into its original form.

➢For example in radio broadcasting, the destination is a loudspeaker which works as a

transducer i.e. converts the electrical signal in the form of original sound signal.

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 Need for modulation
The process of modulation provides the following benefits:

▪ Reduction in the height of antenna

▪ Avoids mixing of signals
▪ Increases the range of communication
▪ Multiplexing is possible
▪ Improves quality of the signal

1. Reduction in the height of antenna

For the transmission of radio signals, the antenna height must be multiple of
λ/4 ,where λ is the wavelength .

λ = c /f
where c : is the velocity of light
f : is the frequency of the signal to be transmitted

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2. Avoids mixing of signals

➢ If the baseband sound signals are transmitted without using the modulation by
more than one transmitter, then all the signals will be in the same frequency range
i.e. 0 to 20 kHz.
➢ Therefore, all the signals get mixed together and a receiver cannot separate them
from each other.
➢ Hence, if each baseband sound signal is used to modulate a different carrier then
they will occupy different slots in the frequency domain. Thus, modulation avoids
mixing of signals.
➢ Example : FM stations broadcasting at different carrier frequencies.
3. Increase the Range of Communication

➢ The frequency of baseband signal is low, and the low frequency signals cannot
travel long distance when they are transmitted.
➢ They get heavily attenuated. The attenuation reduces with increase in frequency
of the transmitted signal, and they travel longer distance.
➢ The modulation process increases the frequency of the signal to be transmitted.
Therefore, it increases the range of communication.

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4. Multiplexing is possible

➢ Multiplexing is a process in which two or more signals can be transmitted

over the same communication channel simultaneously.
➢ This is possible only with modulation. The multiplexing allows the same
channel to be used by many signals.
➢ Hence, many TV channels can broadcast simultaneously without getting
mixed with each other as they use different carrier frequencies. It is
referred to as frequency division multiplexing.

5. Improves Quality of Reception

➢ With frequency modulation (FM) and the digital communication techniques

such as PCM, the effect of noise is reduced to a great extent.
➢ This improves quality of reception.

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 Modulation
➢ It is the process of varying the characteristics of high frequency carrier in accordance
with instantaneous values of modulating or message or baseband signal.
➢ (Or) It is a frequency translation technique which converts baseband or low frequency
signal to bandpass or high frequency signal.
➢ Modulation is used in the transmitter.

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 Amplitude Modulation

Amplitude of the carrier is varied in accordance with the instantaneous

values of modulating signal.

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 Frequency Modulation

Frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with the instantaneous values of

modulating signal.

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 Phase Modulation
Phase of the carrier is varied in accordance with the instantaneous values of
modulating signal

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Pulse Amplitude Modulation
By varying the amplitude of
the pulses (the carrier signal) in
proportion to the instantaneous values
of the analog signal (the message
signal).

Pulse Width Modulation

By varying the width of the
pulses (the carrier signal) in proportion
to the instantaneous values of the
analog signal (the message signal).

Pulse Position Modulation

By varying the position of the
pulses (the carrier signal) in proportion
to the instantaneous values of the
analog signal (the message signal). Examples of the basic pulse modulations

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 Classification of Communication System

It shows that the electronic communication system may be basically

categorized into three groups based on :
1.Whether the system is unidirectional or bidirectional
2.Whether it uses as analog or digital signal
3.Whether the system uses baseband transmission or uses some kind of
modulation

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 Based on whether the system communicates only in one direction or
otherwise, the communication systems are classified as under :

Simplex System - The information is communicated in only one direction . For

example, the radio or TV broadcasting system can only transmit, they can not receive

Half duplex System - These systems are bidirectional, i.e. they can transmit as well
as receive but not simultaneously . The radio communications such as those in
military, fire fighting, citizen band (CB) and amateur radio are half duplex system .

Full duplex System - These are truly bidirectional systems as they allow the
communication to take place in both the directions simultaneously. These systems
can transmit as well as receive simultaneously. The best example of full duplex
communication system is telephone system .

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 Classification Based on The Nature of Information Signal

Analog communication
The modulation systems or techniques in which one of the characteristics of the
carrier is varied in proportion with the instantaneous value of modulating signal is called as
analog modulation system .
If the carrier is sinusoidal, then its amplitude, frequency or phase is changed in
accordance with the modulating signal to obtain AM, FM or PM respectively . These are
continuous wave modulation systems.
Analog modulation can be pulsed modulation as well . Here the carrier is in the
form of rectangular pulse . The amplitude, width or position of the carrier pulses is varied in
accordance with the modulating signal to obtain the PAM, PWM or PPM outputs .
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 Examples of analog modulation

1. Amplitude modulation (AM)

2. Frequency modulation (FM)
3. Phase modulation (PM)
4. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
5. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
6. Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

Advantages of analog communication

1. Transmitters and receivers are simple
2. Low bandwidth requirement
3. FDM (Frequency division multiplexing) can be used

Drawbacks of analog communication

1. Noise affects the signal quality
2. It is not possible to separate noise and signal
3. Repeaters can not be used between transmitter and receiver
4. Coding is not possible
5. It is not suitable for the transmission of secret information

Applications
1. Radio broadcasting (AM and FM)
2. TV broadcasting
3. Telephones

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Digital Communication

The modulation system or technique in which the transmitted signal is in

the form of digital pulses of constant amplitude, constant frequency and phase is
called as digital modulation system .
Pulse code modulation (PCM) and delta modulation (DM) are the
examples of digital modulation .
In PCM and DM , a train of digital pulses is transmitted by the
transmitter . All the pulses are of constant amplitude, width and position . The
information is contained in the combination of the transmitted pulses .

Classification Based on the Technique of Transmission

➢ Baseband transmission system or Low frequency Communication

➢ Communication systems using modulation or Pass band Transmission or High
frequency Communication

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 Amplitude Modulation
Wavelength λ = c / f where c = 2.99 ×10^8 m/s

➢ Modulation is the process of

changing the parameters of the
carrier signal, in accordance with the
instantaneous values of
the modulating signal.
➢ Parameters → Amplitude,
Frequency, Phase
➢ Message signal is low frequency
signal, Carrier signal is High
frequency signal
➢ Modulated signal is high
frequency signal
➢ Converting low frequency signal
into radio wave signal
➢ Multiplication Process

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 Amplitude Modulation
➢Amplitude Modulation is the process of changing the amplitude of a relatively high
frequency carrier signal in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal
(Information).
➢ Frequency and Phase of the carrier remains constant
➢Application of AM - Radio broadcasting, TV pictures (video), facsimile transmission
➢ Frequency range for AM - 535 kHz – 1600 kHz
➢ Bandwidth - 10 kHz
Types of Amplitude Modulation (AM)
➢Double Sideband with Full Carrier (DSBFC) (we will call it AM): This is the
most widely used type of AM modulation. In fact, all radio channels in the
AM band use this type of modulation.
➢Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC): This is the same as the AM
modulation above but without the carrier.
➢Single Sideband (SSB): In this modulation, only half of the signal of the
DSBSC is used.
➢Vestigial Sideband (VSB): This is a modification of the SSB to ease the
generation and reception of the signal.
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 AM ENVELOPE

➢ The shape of the modulated wave (AM)

is called AM envelope which contains
all the frequencies and is used to
transfer the information through the
system.
➢ An increase in the modulating signal
amplitude causes the amplitude of the
carrier to increase.
➢ Without modulating (i.e. absence of
message) signal, the AM output
waveform is simply the carrier signal
(i.e. no change in the amplitude of the
carrier signal)
➢ The repetition rate of the envelope is
equal to the frequency of the
modulating signal
➢ The shape of the envelope is identical
to the shape of the modulating signal.

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 MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF Amplitude
Modulation or DSBFC or single tone amplitude modulation

Let the modulating (message/information) signal

Vm(t) =Vm sin (ωm + θm)t

Where, Vm - (Max.) Amplitude of the modulating signal (volts),

ωm = 2πfm - Angular frequency of the modulating signal in radian (or) fm frequency of
the modulating signal in Hertz i.e., Hz.
θm – Initial phase angle of the modulating signal in degree (θm is zero degree, it can
be ignored)
Vm(t) =Vm sin (ωm t) ………………….(1)

Similarly Let the Carrier signal (radio frequency)

Vc(t)= Vc sin (ωc + θc)t

Where, Vc - (Max.) Amplitude of the carrier signal (volts).

ωc = 2πfc - Angular frequency of the carrier signal in radian (or) fc frequency of the
carrier signal in Hertz i.e., Hz.
θc – Initial phase angle of the carrier signal in degree (θc is zero degree, it can be
ignored)
Vc(t)= Vc sin (ωct)…………………………………(2) 36
➢ From the graphical representation, we
observe that the amplitude of carrier wave Vc
remains constant (unaffected) when there is
no modulation.

➢ According to the definition of AM, the amplitude of the carrier (Vc) is changed with
respect to the instantaneous values of the message signal i.e. Vm(t)
➢ Therefore we will get a new mathematical expression for a complete amplitude
modulated signal.
𝑉𝐴𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑚 𝑡
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝐴𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 1 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 1 + 𝑚𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑚 𝑡
𝑉𝑐
Where ma = Vm / Vc = Modulation index or depth of Modulation - It states the level of
modulation that a carrier wave undergoes.
This expression represents the time domain representation of an AM signal.
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The instantaneous amplitude of modulated signal or AM envelope can be written as
𝑉𝐴𝑀 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝐴𝑀 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑐 𝑡

𝑉𝐴𝑀 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑚 𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑐 𝑡

𝑉𝐴𝑀 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 1 + 𝑚𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑚 𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑐 𝑡
𝑉𝐴𝑀 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑐 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑉𝑐 𝑚𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑚 𝑡 ∗ 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑐 𝑡
We know
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝐴 − 𝐵 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝐴 + 𝐵)
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝐴 ∗ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐵 =
2
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
𝑉𝐴𝑀 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑉𝑐 𝑚𝑎
2

𝑉𝑐 𝑚𝑎
𝑉𝐴𝑀 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑐 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
2

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 𝑉𝑐 𝑚𝑎
𝑉𝐴𝑀 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑐 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
2
𝑉𝐴𝑀 𝑡
𝑽𝒄 𝒎𝒂 𝑽𝒄 𝒎𝒂
= 𝑽𝒄 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 − 𝝎𝒎 𝒕 − 𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 + 𝝎𝒎 𝒕
𝟐 𝟐
Thus, Observations made from the AM wave equation are (The expression for the AM
wave shows that it consists of three terms)
✓ First term represents the carrier signal which is same as the un-modulated carrier
signal. (Observed that the carrier signal is present even after modulation process)
✓ The second term represents amplitude modulated term of Lower Side Band (LSB)
with the (new) amplitude of mavc/ 2 at the frequency of (ωc-ωm or fc - fm).
✓ The third term represents amplitude modulated term of Upper Side Band (USB)
with the (new) amplitude of mavc/ 2 at the frequency of (ωc+ωm or fc + fm).
✓ The (-) sign associated with the USB represents a phase shift of 180 degree

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 Time Domain Representation of AM

Vm(t) = Vm sin ωmt

Vc(t) = Vc sin ωct

𝑉𝐴𝑀 (𝑡)

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 AM Frequency spectrum or
Frequency Domain representation of AM

The equation of an amplitude modulated wave contains 3 terms.

• 1st term R.H.S represents the carrier wave.
• 2nd term R.H.S represents the Lower Side Band (LSB).
• 3rd term R.H.S represents the Upper Side Band (USB).

➢ The above figure represents the frequency spectrum of AM. It shows two side band
terms lying on either sides of carrier term which are separated by ωm.
➢ The range of frequency between (ωc - ωm) is known as LSB and (ωc + ωm) is known as USB.
➢ The spacing between these two bands w.r.t carrier is ωm .
➢ Frequency spectrum is a graph of amplitude in Y axis and frequency in X axis

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 Bandwidth of AM

➢ The bandwidth of a complex signal like AM is the difference between its highest and
lowest frequency components and it is expressed in Hertz (Hz). Bandwidth deals with
only frequencies. As shown in the following figure

Bandwidth = (fc + fm) – (fc - fm) = 2 fm

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 Phasor representation of AM

➢ The two side bands having frequencies (ωc -ωm) and (ωc +ωm) are represented by
two phasors rotating in opposite directions with angular frequency ωm.
➢ The resultant phasor VAM(t) is the vector sum of two side bands with carrier.
➢ The maximum positive amplitude of the envelope occurs if the carrier, LSB and
USB all have positive values or in phase.
Vmax= Vc+VLSB+VUSB
➢ The maximum negative amplitude of the envelope occurs if the carrier, LSB and
USB all have negative values or out of phase.
Vmin= Vc-VLSB-VUSB

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 Modulation Index and Percent Modulation or
Coefficient of Modulation
➢Modulation index is a term used to describe the amount of amplitude change present in an AM
waveform.
➢The extent of amplitude variation in AM about an unmodulated carrier amplitude is measured in
terms of a factor called modulation index.
➢In AM wave, the modulation index (ma) is defined as the ratio of maximum amplitude of
modulating signal to maximum amplitude of carrier signal.
ma = Vm / Vc
➢Value of Vm must be less than value of Vc(Vc>Vm) to avoid distortion in the modulated signal.
➢Hence the maximum value of ma is 1 (ma = one).
➢The modulation index should be a number between 0 and 1
✓ When modulator index is express in percentage, it is called percent modulation.
✓ Percent modulation gives the percentage change in the amplitude of the output wave when
the carrier is acted on by a modulating signal.
✓ For example, ma = 0.5 corresponds to 50% modulation
✓ % modulation = (Vm / Vc ) *100
✓ or % modulation = m𝐚 ∗ 100

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 From the figure, we can write
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚 … … . 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉𝑚 … … . (2)
Subtracting these two equations
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚 − 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
= 𝑉𝑚
2
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑚 = ………. (3)
2
Similarly if we are adding (1) and (2)
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚 + 𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑉𝑐
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑐 = …………….(4)
2

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 Modulation Index is given by
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑚 2
𝑚𝑎 = =
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
2

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚𝑎 =
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛

The modulation index is a number lying between 0 and l , and its very often
expressed as a percentage and called the percentage modulation.

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
% 𝑚𝑎 = ∗ 100
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛

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 DEGREE OF MODULATION

➢The modulating signals (input data) preserved in the envelope of amplitude modulated
signal only if Vm < Vc then ma < l . Where.

➢Vm = Maximum amplitude of modulating signal.

➢Vc = Maximum amplitude of carrier signal.

➢ In AM, three types of degree of modulation are available. It depends upon the amplitude
of the modulating signal relative to carrier amplitude.

✓Under modulation,

✓Critical modulation

✓Over modulation.

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Under Modulation: ma < l when Vm < Vc
➢ Here the envelope of amplitude modulated signals does not
reach the zero amplitude axis. Hence the message signal is
fully preserved in the envelope of the AM wave.
➢ An envelope detector can recover the message signal without
any distortion.
➢ AM wave with ma < l when Vm < Vc

Critical Modulation: ma = l when Vm = Vc

➢ Here the envelope of the modulated signal just reaches the
zero amplitude axis. The message signal remains preserved.
An envelope detector can recover the message signal without
any distortion.
➢ AM wave with ma=l i.e., 100% modulation Vm = Vc

Over Modulation: ma > I when Vm > Vc

➢ Here both positive and negative extensions of the modulating
signals are cancelled (or) clipped out. The envelope of
message signal are not same. Due to this envelope detector
provides distorted message signal.
➢ AM wave with ma > 1 i.e., overmodulation Vm > Vc

48
 AM POWER DISTRIBUTION

➢An AM wave consists of carrier and two sidebands.

➢The carrier component of the modulated wave has the same amplitude as the unmodulated
carrier.
➢The modulated wave contains extra power in the two sideband components.
➢The amplitude of the sidebands depends on the modulation index 'ma'. Therefore the total power
in the modulated wave will depend on the modulation index also.
➢The total power in the modulated wave will be
Pt=[carrier power]+ [power in LSB] + [power in USB]
Pt= PC+ PLSB+ PUSB

𝟐
𝑽c (𝑽LSB )𝟐 (𝑽USB )𝟐
𝑷𝒕 = + +
(𝒓𝒎𝒔)
𝑹 𝑹 𝑹

➢Where all three voltages are in RMS values, and R is the resistance (ex. Antenna resistance), in
which the power is dissipated.
RMS is considered -- > Variable voltage

49
 Carrier Power (Pc)

➢The average power dissipated in a load by an unmodulated carrier is equal to the RMS carrier voltage
squared divided by the load resistance.

𝑉
we know that RMS value of Vc = c
2
𝑉𝑐 2
𝑉𝑐 2 2 𝑉𝑐 2
𝑃𝑐 = = =
𝑅 𝑅 2𝑅

➢Where, Pc - Carrier power (watts);

Vc- Peak carrier voltage (volts);

R - Load resistance (ohms).

50
 Power in the Sidebands
➢ The sideband powers are expressed mathematically
𝒎𝒂 𝑽𝒄 𝟐 𝒎𝒂 𝑽𝒄
(𝑽USB)𝟐 Since 𝑽
𝟐 𝑺𝑩 =
𝑷USB = =
2
𝑹 𝑹

𝒎𝒂 𝟐 𝑽𝒄 𝟐
𝟒 𝒎𝒂 𝟐 𝑽𝒄 𝟐
𝑷USB = =
𝑹 𝟒𝑹
Similarly
𝒎𝒂 𝟐 𝑽𝒄 𝟐
𝟒 𝒎𝒂 𝟐 𝑽𝒄 𝟐
𝑷LSB = =
𝑹 𝟒𝑹

𝑷SB =
𝑷LSB + 𝑷USB
RMS value of Vc= c
𝑽
where
𝟐
2 2
𝑉/ 2 𝑉/ 2
ma c ma c
𝑃SB = 2 2
+
𝑅 𝑅
ma 2 𝑉c 2 ma 2 𝑉c 2 2 2
2ma 𝑉c ma 2 𝑉c 2
𝑃SB = + = =
8𝑅 8𝑅 8𝑅 4𝑅

𝑉c 2 ma 2 ma 2
𝑃SB = = 𝑃𝑐
2𝑅 2 2
51
Total power in AM wave

➢ Equation relates the total power

in the amplitude modulated wave to the
unmodulated carrier power with
increases in the value of 'ma', the total
power also increases.

➢ If ma = 1 for 100% modulation

➢ Pt = 1.5 Pc

52
Modulation Index in terms of Pt and Pc:
ma 2 𝑃𝒕 ma 2 𝑃𝒕 ma 2
𝑃𝒕 = 𝑃𝑐 1 + 2
→ 𝑃𝑐
= 1+ 2
→ 𝑃𝑐
−1= 2

ma 2 𝑃𝑡 𝑃𝑡 𝑃𝑡
= 𝑃𝑐 − 1→ ma 2 = 2 − 1 → ma = 2 −1
2 𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐

Current calculations of AM
ma 2 𝑃𝒕 ma 2
𝑃𝒕 = 𝑃𝑐 1 +
2
→ 𝑃𝑐
= 1+
2
➢we know that 𝑷𝒕 = It 𝟐 𝑹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑷𝒄 = Ic 𝟐 𝑹
➢Where, Pt - Total transmit power (watts) ; Pc - Carrier power (watts) ;
It-Total transmit current (ampere); Ic - Carrier current (ampere) ; R - Antenna resistance (ohms)
𝑃𝒕 It 2 𝑅 It 2 ma 2 It ma 2 ma 2
= 2 = 2 = 1 + 2 → I = 1 + 2 → It = Ic 1 + 2
𝑃𝑐 Ic 𝑅 Ic c

53
 Modulation Index in terms of Current
We know that
2
It = 1 + ma 2 ma 2 It 2
→ = 2 −1
Ic
2 2 2 Ic
ma 2 It 2 I 2
I 2

= 2 − 1 → ma 2 = 2 t 2 − 1 → ma = 2 t 2 − 1
2 Ic Ic Ic

Transmission Efficiency (%) of AM

➢The amount of useful message power present in AM wave is expressed by a term

called transmission efficiency
➢The transmission efficiency of an AM wave is the "ratio of the transmitted power
which contains the information (i.e., the total sideband power) to the total transmitted
power"
➢Because AM wave expression contains three components such as carrier, USB and
LSB.
power in sideband
%ɳ = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
Total Transmitted powe𝒓
54
 𝑃USB + 𝑃LSB
%ɳ = × 100
𝑃t
𝑉c 2 ma 2 ma 2
We know that = = 𝑃𝑐
𝑃SB 2𝑅 2 2

ma 2
And 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 1 + 2

ma 2
𝑃𝑐 2
%ɳ = ∗ 100
ma 2
𝑃𝑐 1 + 2

ma 2
2 ma 2
%ɳ = ∗ 100 = 2+m 2 ∗ 100
ma 2 a
1+
2

If ma = 1 then %ɳ=1/3*100 =33.3%

Only 33.3% of energy is used and remaining power is wasted by the carrier
information along with the sidebands.

55
 Single-tone Amplitude Modulation (AM) – The message signal consist of only
single frequency component

Multiple-tone Amplitude Modulation (AM) - A multiple-tone amplitude

modulation is that type of modulation in which the modulating signal consists of more
than one frequency components.

Modulation Index for Multiple Modulating Frequencies

When two or more modulating signals are modulated by a single carrier. Then the
modulation index is given by,
ma = 𝑚1 2 + 𝑚2 2 + ⋯

Where, ma = total resultant modulation index

ml, m2, .. = Modulation indices due to individual modulating components.

56
 Vm (t) = Vm Cos ωm(t) and Vc (t) = Vc Cos ωc(t)
• Notes :
✓Instead Vmsinωm(t) and Vcsinωc(t) we can take
VmCosωm(t) and VcCosωc(t) then the final
answer will be
𝑉𝐴𝑀 𝑡
𝑉𝑐 𝑚𝑎
= 𝑉𝑐 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
2
𝑉𝑐 𝑚𝑎
+ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑐
2
+ 𝜔𝑚 )𝑡
Same carrier and two sideband will be there
but both USB and LSB will be rotating in same
direction
But we should not take Vm sinωm(t) and VcCos
ωc(t) or VmSin ωm(t) and Vc Cos ωc(t) since it is
amplitude modulation, same phase signal only
considerable.
✓ Instead 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑚 − 𝜔𝑐 𝑡
because 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −𝜃 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
✓The transformer permits the use of a class B
modulator, giving, good audio efficiency. It
also allows 100 percent modulation to be
achieved, since the output of the modulator
can be stepped up to any value required. As a
result of these considerations, this
modulation system is employed in a vast
majority of AM broadcasting transmitters. 57
 AM Modulators

Based on the power level at which modulation is carried out

➢ Low level modulation: Modulation is carried out the low power level
➢ High level modulation: Modulation is carried out at a high power level

Linear modulators or large-scale modulators:

Device having linear V-I characteristics, i.e, they are operated in linear region of it’s
transfer characteristics is called linear modulators
➢ Transistor modulator (will be producing DSB-FC-AM)
➢ Switching modulator (will be producing DSB-SC-AM)
Non linear modulator or small signal modulator
➢ Square Law modulator
➢ Product modulator
➢ Balanced modulator

58
 LINEAR MODULATORS
Transistor Modulator
Modulation can be achieved in transistor RF power amplifier stages. The
modulating signal can be conveniently supplied on any of the three terminals of the
device, emitter base or collector.
Accordingly the type of modulator will be called
1. Collector modulator
2. Base modulator
3. Emitter modulator

Switching Modulator
✓ Square waves can be used instead of sinusoidal waves to modulate the message
signal.
✓ Since a square wave can be represented in terms of a sum of sinusoids with
fundamental frequency ωo equal to the frequency of the square wave.
✓ So, if a message signal is modulated using a square wave with frequency equal to
the desired carrier frequency ωc and then this modulated signal is filtered using a
BPF centered at ωc with bandwidth twice the bandwidth of the message signal, the
resulting signal is a DSBSC signal.
59
 Double side band Full carrier (DSB-FC-AM) AM Modulators

BJT Collector Modulator

➢ The diode modulator circuit doesn't

provide amplification and hence it can

be used for low power applications.
➢ However, amplifying devices like
transistors and FET can be provided
amplification
➢ It can be used for high power
applications
➢ Anyone of the device can be used for
generation of amplitude modulation by
varying their gain parameters in
accordance with the modulating signal.

60
 Circuit Arrangement and Operation
➢ The modulating signal is applied to the collector of the transistor and hence this
circuit is called collector modulator
➢ It has RF amplifier in class C mode, in which the amplifier conducts only for a portion
of positive half cycle of input signal.
➢ LC tank circuit is tuned to resonate at carrier frequency.
➢ The signal to be modulated is connected to the class C amplifier through the
transformer T1
➢ The secondary winding of transformer T1 connects the modulating signal in series
with collector supply Vcc.
➢ Thus amplitude of collector current varies with amplitude of modulating signal.
➢ A voltage is induced across the secondary of transformer T1 when signal is fed to its
primary.
➢ The induced voltage is added or subtracted from Vcc depending on phase at that
instant of time.
➢ With change in collector voltage, the transistor output characteristics changes and
accordingly Q point changes.
➢ Thus amplitude of current pulses through the transistor vary.
➢ These current pulses excite tuned circuit to oscillate at required frequency.
➢ Hence, we get a sinusoidal RF voltage across tank circuit at carrier frequency whose
peak amplitude varies in accordance with the modulating signal.
61
 Operation without modulating signal
(with reference of collector waveforms without modulating signal amplitude is zero )

➢ Amplitude of output signal constant which is equal to

Vcc, in the absence of modulating signal.
➢ The reason is when the amplitude of the carrier
exceeds the barrier potential (0.7v) of the emitter base
Junction the (Vbe>0.7v) transistor Q1 turns on and
collector current flows which is equal to Vcc.
➢ When Vbe<0.7 i.e carrier signal voltage drops below
0.7v transistor Q1 turns off and no collector current flows.
➢ Consequently transistor Q1 switches between
saturation(on) and cut off(off) controlled by carrier signal,
electric current flows for less than 1800 of each carrier
cycle class C operation is achieved
➢ Each successive cycle of the carrier turns Q1 on for an
instant and allows current to flow for a short time,
producing negative-going waveform at the collector. The
collector current and voltage waveforms are shown in Fig
which resembles a repetitive half wave rectified signal.
➢ With a zero modulation input signal, the collector
supply voltage is directly applied to the class C amplifier,
and the output carrier is a steady sine wave.
➢ Then in RC combination the current will flow in
opposite direction in 2nd tank circuit will produce the same
wave form with 180 degree phase change
62
 WAVE OPERATING PRINCIPLE – with Modulating Signal

➢ The waveforms displayed below are

generated when the maximum peak
modulating signal amplitude
equals Vcc.
➢ It can be seen that the output voltage
waveform swings from a maximum
value of 2Vcc to approx 0V i.e
VCE(sat).
➢ The peak change in collector voltage
is equal to Vcc.
➢ Again the waveform resembles a half
wave rectified carrier superimposed
onto a low frequency ac modulating
signal.
➢ Then in RC combination the current
will flow in opposite direction in 2nd
tank circuit will produce the same
wave form with 180 degree phase
change
➢ This will be the final DSBFC signal

63
 Operation with modulating signal
➢ When modulating signal appears across the modulation transformer is added with Vcc.
➢ The net voltage is Vcc+Vm(t)=Vcc' of transistor changes according to the slow variation
in Vcc and Vm(t)
➢ This slow variations in Vcc supply voltage changes the amplitude of the carrier voltage
at the output of the modulated wave.
➢ The envelope of the output voltage is identical with the modulating voltage
➢ The amplitude of the modulated voltage is
𝑉𝑐𝑐 ′ = 𝑉𝑐𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑐𝑐 ′= 𝑉𝑐𝑐 1 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
𝑉𝑐𝑐
𝑉𝑐𝑐 ′ = 𝑉𝑐𝑐 1 + 𝑚𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
➢ The instantaneous value of the modulated signal
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑐 𝑡
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑐𝑐 1 + 𝑚𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

𝑽𝒄𝒄 𝒎𝒂 𝑽𝒄𝒄 𝒎𝒂
𝑉𝐴𝑀 𝑡 = 𝑽𝒄𝒄 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 − 𝝎𝒎 𝒕 − 𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 + 𝝎𝒎 𝒕
𝟐 𝟐
64
 Advantages of collector modulator

1. Linearity is usually good.

2. Collector efficiency is high
3. Power output per transistor is usually high

Disadvantages of collector modulator

1.Large modulating power is required, then the modulating amplifier is the high
power amplifier
2. Collector saturation prevents 100 under percent modulation from being
achieved with just the collector being modulated.

65
 Base modulator for DSC-FC-AM
➢ The circuit is called a base injection modulator because the modulating signal is
injected into the Base side of the transistor circuit, along with the carrier wave.
➢ The NPN transistor [Q1] is configured as a common-emitter circuit.
➢ The transistor circuit receives its input via the Base-Emitter side of the device and
outputs the signal on the collector-emitter side.
➢ The voltage supply [Vcc] used to power the transistor is setup to supply a positive
voltage to the circuit.
➢ The Radio Frequency [RF] signal is applied to the primary side of T1, and coupled
through the secondary to the Base of the transistor.
➢ The Base is biased by the resistor voltage divider formed by R1 and R2. The resistors
fix the static voltage with no signal applied.
➢ The modulating signal [AF input] is applied to the lower leg of the voltage divider,
R1.
➢ As the voltage varies on the incoming modulating signal, it causes the voltage
across R1 to vary.
➢ The modulating signal adds or subtracts to the static voltage developed by the
resistors.

66
➢ Capacitor C2 acts as a DC blocking capacitor to prevent any DC bias voltage [originating
from the AF portion of the circuit] from changing the set-point of the Base circuit.
➢ The Tank Circuit comprised of the capacitor and inductor produce the output
modulating signal.
➢ The variable capacitor is adjusted to the frequency of the RF carrier wave.

➢ The amplitude of the modulated voltage is

𝑉𝑐𝑐 ′ = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑐𝑐 ′= 𝑉𝑐 1 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
𝑉𝑐
𝑉𝑐𝑐 ′ = 𝑉𝑐 1 + 𝑚𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
➢ The instantaneous value of the modulated signal
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑐 1 + 𝑚𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

𝑽𝒄𝒄 𝒎𝒂 𝑽𝒄𝒄 𝒎𝒂
𝑉𝐴𝑀 𝑡 = 𝑽𝒄𝒄 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 − 𝝎𝒎 𝒕 − 𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 + 𝝎𝒎 𝒕
𝟐 𝟐

67
BASE MODULATOR CIRCUIT

VC

C2

68
 Advantages of Base Modulator

1. The amount of power required for the power supply is low as compared to collector
modulation.
2. The power output and efficiency are comparatively low, since the modulated
collector current peaks can be only about half as large as in the collector modulated
circuit.
3. It is used in television transmission because it requires little power and can we
power requirement of large bandwidth.

Disadvantages of Base Modulator

1. Linearity is very poor than collector modulator
2. The efficiency is less than collector modulator
3. The adjustment of the base modulated amplifier is more critical and the high
degree of linearity is more difficult to obtain

69
 NONLINEAR MODULATOR
Square Law Modulator for DSB-FC – Amplitude Modulation

Adder

It consists of
✓Summer – It adds the modulating signal and carrier are connected in series
with each other and their sum V1(t) is applied at the input
✓A non-linear device – A device with non linear input output relation. Diode
and Transistor can be used as a non linear device.
✓A Band Pass filter – It extracts the signal between upper and lower
frequency from the modulated output. Tuned circuit is used as a
filter
70
 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑉𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 & 𝑉𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 is considered for derivation
instead 𝑉𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 & 𝑉𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑐 𝑡
For easy derivation 𝑉𝑚 𝑡 taken as it is

𝑉1 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 (𝑡) + 𝑉𝑐 (𝑡)

𝑉1 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 (𝑡) + 𝑉𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 (𝑡)…………………………(1)

The input output relation for non-linear device is

𝑉2 (𝑡) = 𝑎𝑉1 (𝑡) + 𝑏𝑉1 2 (𝑡)…………….………….…..(2)

where a and b are constants.

Now, substituting the expression (1) in (2), we get

𝑉2 (𝑡) = 𝑎 𝑉𝑚 (𝑡) + 𝑉C cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑏[𝑉𝑚 (𝑡) + 𝑉C cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡]2

𝑉2 (𝑡) = 𝑎𝑉𝑚 (𝑡) + 𝑎𝑉C cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑏 𝑉𝑚 2 (𝑡) + 2𝑉𝑚 (𝑡)𝑉C cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑉c 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑐 (𝑡)

71
 𝑉2 (𝑡) = 𝑎𝑉𝑚 (𝑡) + 𝑎𝑉C cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑉𝑚 2 (𝑡) + 𝑏2𝑉𝑚 (𝑡)𝑉C cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑏 𝑉c 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑐 (𝑡)]
1 2 3 4 5

The five terms in the expression for V2(t) are as under

Term 1 – Modulating Signal

Term 2 – Carrier Signal
Term 3 - Squared modulating signal
Term 4 – AM wave with only sidebands
Term 5 – Squared carrier signal

Out of these five terms, terms 2 and 4 are useful whereas the remaining terms are not useful .
Let us club terms 2, 4 and 1, 3, 5 as follows to get ,

𝑉2 (𝑡) = 𝑎𝑉𝑚 (𝑡) + 𝑏𝑉𝑚 2 (𝑡) + 𝑏𝑉c 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜔𝑐 (𝑡) + 𝑎𝑉C cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑏2𝑉𝑚 (𝑡)𝑉C cos 𝜔𝑐 (𝑡)

𝑎𝑉𝑚 (𝑡) + 𝑏𝑉𝑚 2 (𝑡) + 𝑏𝑉c 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝑈𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠

𝑎𝑉C cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑏2𝑉𝑚 (𝑡)𝑉C cos 𝜔𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠

72
 The LC tuned circuit acts as a band pass filter. This band pass filter eliminates the
unuseful terms from the equation of v2(t) .
Hence the output voltage vo(t) contains only the useful terms .

𝑉0 (𝑡) = 𝑎𝑉C cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑏2𝑉𝑚 (𝑡)𝑉C cos 𝜔𝑐 (𝑡)

𝑉0 (𝑡) = 𝑎𝑉C + 2𝑏𝑉𝑚 (𝑡)𝑉𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 (𝑡)

Therefore,
2𝑏
𝑉0 (𝑡) = 𝑎𝑉C [1 + 𝑉𝑚 (𝑡)]𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 (𝑡)………………………….(3)
𝑎

Comparing this with the expression for standard AM wave i.e

𝑉AM (𝑡) = 𝑉C [1 + 𝑚a 𝑉𝑚 (𝑡)]𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 (𝑡)

Vo(t) of equation (3) represents an AM wave with m = (2b/a) . Hence, the square
law modulator produces an AM wave.
73
 Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier
(DSB-SC) Modulation
❖ In the standard form of Amplitude Modulation (AM), the carrier wave c(t) is completely
independent of the message signal m(t), which means that the transmission of the carrier wave
represents a waste of power.
❖ To overcome this shortcoming , we may suppress the carrier component from the
modulated wave, resulting in double-sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulation.
❖ Thus, by suppressing the carrier, we obtain a modulated wave that is proportional to the
product of the carrier wave and the message signal.
DSBFC Spectrum DSBSC Spectrum

VcSinωct

VmSinωmt

74
 Mathematical representation of DSC- SC - AM
Let modulating signal Vm(t)=Vm sinmt……..(1)
Vm= Amplitude or voltage of message signal
m= Frequency of message signal

Carrier signal Vc(t)=Vc sinct ………………(2)

Vc= Amplitude or voltage of carrier signal
c= frequency of carrier signal

Multiplying (1) and (2)by product modulator, modulated DSB-SC signal is

generated

V(t) = Vm(t)* Vc(t) = Vm sinmt* Vc sinct = VmVc sinmt sinct

Apply 2sinA sin B=cos(A-B)-cos(A+B)

Vm V
Then VDSB-sc(t)= 2 c [cos(m − c )𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(m + c )𝑡] ……(3)
We know that DSB with carrier AM wave modulated representation,

𝑚 a Vc
VAM(t)= Vc sinct + 2
[cos(m − c )𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(m + c )𝑡] ……..(4)
By comparing DSB with carrier and DSB-SC, Vc sinct (ie) carrier wave is
missing ;remaining two terms are same.

75
 Bandwidth
Bandwidth (BW) is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies of
the signal. Mathematically, we can write it as
BW = fmax -fmin

BW = (fc+fm) – (fc-fm) BW = (fc+fm) – (fc-fm)

= fc+fm – fc +fm = fc+fm – fc +fm
BW = 2fm BW = 2fm

76
 Phasor Diagram
Phasor Diagrams are a graphical way of representing the magnitude and directional
relationship between two or more alternating quantities.

For AM or DSBFC For DSBSC

➢ Carrier wave phase → Reference Phase

➢ Two sidebands having a frequency of (ωc+ωm) (USB) & (ωc-ωm) (LSB) are represented
by two phasors rotating in opposite directions with angular frequency of ωm
➢ The net or resultant phasor is VAM(t) , the vector sum of two sidebands with carrier.
➢ If the carrier, LSB & USB are positive or inphase Vmax = VLSB+VUSB
➢ or if carrier and sidebands are out of phase Vmax = -VLSB -V USB

77
 Power calculation in DSB-SC AM
In DSB-SC carrier is suppressed, then total power is only the sum of sideband power
ma 𝑉 c 2 ma 𝑉 c 2
2 2
Pt DSB-SC=PUSB+PLSB = = +
𝑅 𝑅

𝑉c
we know that RMS value of Vc =
2

2 2
𝑉/ 2 𝑉/ 2
ma c 2 ma c 2
𝑃𝑡DSB-SC = +
𝑅 𝑅
2 2
2 𝑉c 2 𝑉c 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
ma
𝑃𝑡DSB-SC = 8 + ma 8 = ma 𝑉c + ma 𝑉c = 2ma 𝑉c = ma 𝑉c
𝑅 𝑅 8𝑅 8𝑅 8𝑅 4𝑅
2 2 2
𝑉c ma ma
𝑃𝑡DSB-SC = = 𝑃𝑐
2𝑅 2 2

Total power in both side bands are

ma 2
𝑃𝑡DSB-SC = 𝑃𝑐
2
78
 Transmission Efficiency (%)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 − 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑡 − 𝑃𝑆𝐵
%η = =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑡

79
 Advantages of DSB-SC Modulation

✓It provides 100% modulation efficiency.

✓Due to suppression of carrier, it consumes less power.
✓It provides a larger bandwidth.

Disadvantages of DSB-SC modulation

✓It involves a complex detection process.
✓Using this technique it is sometimes difficult to recover the signal at the receiver.
✓It is an expensive technique when it comes to demodulation of the signal.

Applications of DSB-SC modulation

✓During the transmission of binary data, DSB-SC system is used in phase shift keying methods.
✓In order to transmit channel stereo signals, DSB signals are used in Television and FM
broadcasting.

80
 BALANCED MODULATOR USING FETS /
GENERATION OF DSB-SC-AM

❖ A balanced modulator is a device that modifies a signal, usually in the form of an

amplitude modulated (AM) radio signal.
❖ It takes the original signal that has both sidebands and a carrier signal, and then
modulates it so that only the sideband signals come through the output modulator.
❖ This creates a balanced signal, as there is less noise because the carrier signal has been
removed.
81
 Illustration of Circuit Diagram

➢ There are three transformers T1,T2 and T3.

➢ The carrier signal is applied to the center taps of the input transformer T1 and the output transformer T3
through T2
➢ The modulating signal is applied to the input transformer T1.
➢ The carrier signal is applied to the primary of transformer T2.
➢ This signal is further applied to two gates of FETs in phase through the secondary of T1.
➢ The modulating voltage appearing 180 degree out of phase at the gates, since these are the opposite ends
of the center tapped transformer.
Consider that there is no modulating signal is applied.
➢ Then FET currents due to carrier signal are equal in amplitude but opposite in the directions.
➢ These opposite and equal currents are the primary of the output transformer cancel each other.
➢ Hence, no output is produced at the secondary of T3.
➢ Thus the carrier is suppressed.
When modulating signal is applied,
➢ When modulating signal is applied , the currents id1 and id2 flow in the primary of T3 due to carrier signal
as well as the modulating signal.
➢ The FET currents due to carrier are equal and opposite and cancel each other .
➢ Since the modulating signal is applied 1800 out of phase at the gates , the FET currents due to modulating
signal are equal but not opposite , hence do not cancel each other.
➢ Therefore , output is produced at the secondary of the transformer T3.
➢ Thus DSB output is produced by FET balanced modulator

82
 Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier (SSB-SC) Modulation
➢ Only one side band is transmitted, it means, the carrier wave and one side band is
suppressed
➢ In conventional amplitude wave, two sidebands and carrier signal is there
➢ In DSB – SC, only two side bands without carrier signal is transmitted that is carrier is
not transmitted here.
➢ But in SSB – SC , only one side band is transmitted another side band and carrier is
suppressed.
➢ One disadvantage of transmitting carrier is waste of power. ie 67% of power is used by
the carrier only 33% of power is used by sidebands.
➢ Benefit → All information is transmitted using Single side band.
➢ The USB and LSB are uniquely related to each other by their Symmetry of their carrier
frequency, it means the amplitude and phase frequency of any one is given we can easily
identify the other one.
➢ Standard AM and DSBSC require transmission bandwidth equal to twice the message
bandwidth.
➢ USB occupied one half of the transmission bandwidth and LSB occupied another half
of the transmission bandwidth. So total BW is 2fm.
➢ In SSB-SC only one side band is transmitted, and if both the carrier and the other side
band are suppressed at the transmitter, No information is lost.
➢ Also Bandwidth for only one side band is fm. 83
Spectrum of SSB – SC AM

84
 Phasor Diagram
Phasor Diagrams are a graphical way of representing the magnitude and directional
relationship between two or more alternating quantities.

For AM or DSB-FC-AM For DSBSC- SC-AM

For SSBSC-SC-AM

85
 Advantages of SSB modulation

➢ Bandwidth of SSB is half that of DSB-SC AM. Thus twice the number of channels can
be accommodated at a given frequency spectrum.
➢ No carrier is transmitted, hence possibility of interference with other channels are
avoided.
➢ There is an improvement in signal to noise ratio from 9 to 12 dB at the receiver
output over DSB-SC-AM.
➢ SSB requires less number of amplifying stages. Hence net volume of operating cost is
reduced.
➢ Less power is consumed. ie 83.3% power is saved over conventional AM and 50% of
power saved over DSB- SC AM
➢ It allows transmission of the high power signal.
➢ During demodulation of SSB, carrier of same frequency and phase of requisite
strength is to be inserted, and at the receiver one can get output message signal without
the knowledge of carrier, Hence some secrecy is automatically achieved.

86
 Advantages of SSB modulation Cont..

➢ It eliminates the possibility of fading.

Fading occurs due to multipath propagation of electromagnetic waves. That is RF waves at
same frequency may travel by two path which may be different wave lengths so that signals
received by these paths may be unequal amplitude and phases, which is known as fading. This
fading is selective over the received band. This is said to be selective fading. Selective fading is of
three types in Amplitude Modulation. They are
Sideband fading : one sideband is significantly attenuated
Carrier fading : Fading Carrier alone
Carrier or sideband phase shift : Fading the amplitude and phase of one side band
component with respect to other side band and carrier.

87
 Disadvantages of SSB modulation

➢ Implementation of SSB holds complex nature.

➢ It is expensive.
➢ SSB technique requires a transmitter and receiver to be highly frequency
stable.

Applications of SSB Modulation

➢ It is needed in all such applications where power saving and low bandwidth is required.
➢ The technique is utilized in point to point communication.
➢ It is also used in land and air mobile communication.
➢ It also finds its applications in telemetry and radar communication.

88
 Generation of SSB SC AM Wave

• Lower sideband: LSSB or LSB

• Upper sideband: USSB or USB
• The decision to choose one over the other is dictated by:
❖ Convention or prior assignment
❖ Technological considerations
• Neither USSB or LSSB is inherently better than the other
➢Frequency Discrimination Method / Filter Method - Use a high-Q filter to
suppress one of the sidebands.
➢Phase methods: Shift sidebands using a phase shift method to cancel one of
them out
✓Phase shift method
✓Third Method (Weaver’s Method)

89
 Frequency Discrimination Method /
Filter Method

Two requirements have to be satisfied. They are

❖ The message signal should not have any low frequency content . The audio signal
posses this property, e.g. the telephone signal will have a frequency range extending
from 300 Hz to 3.4 kHz . The frequencies in the range 0-300 Hz are absent .
❖ The highest frequency component ω of the message signal m(t) is much less than
the carrier frequency fc.

90
 REQUIREMENTS FOR BANDPASS FILTER (BPF)

❖ Then, under these conditions, designing the band pass filter, the following
requirements should be satisfied:
1. The pass band of the filter should be same that of the desired side band.
2. The separation region between pass band and stop band should not exceed
twice the maximum frequency component present in the base band.

Problems in designing BPF :

❖ It becomes very difficult to design an
appropriate filter that will pass the desired
side band and reject the other.
❖ SSB wave occupies a frequency band
which is much larger than the baseband
signal.
-Therefore Multiple modulation process
is used

91
 Illustration of the block diagram
1. A crystal controlled master oscillator produces a stable carrier frequency fc (say 100 KHz)
2. This carrier frequency is then fed to the balanced modulator through a buffer amplifier .
(buffer → used to transfer a voltage from a first circuit, having a high output impedance
level, to a second circuit with a low input impedance)
3. The audio signal from the modulating amplifier modulates the carrier in the balanced
modulator. Audio frequency range is 300 to 2800 Hz. The carrier is also suppressed in this
stage but allows only to pass the both side bands. (USB & LSB).
4. A band pass filter (BPF) allows only a single band either USB or LSB to pass through it. It
depends on our requirements. Let we want to pass the USB then LSB will be suppressed.
In this case.
fc = 100 KHz & Audio range = 300 - 2800 Hz
USB frequency range = fc + 300 to fc + 2800 = 100000 + 300 to 100000 + 2800
= 100300 to 102800 Hz
So this band of frequency will be passed on through the USB filter section
5. This side band is then heterodyned in the balanced mixer stage with 12 MHz frequency
produced by crystal oscillator or synthesizer depends upon the requirements of our
transmission. So in mixer stage; the frequency of the crystal oscillator or synthesizer is
added to SSB signal. The output frequency thus being raised to the value desired for
transmission.
6. Then this band is amplified in driver and power amplifier stages and then fed to the aerial
for the transmission. 92
 Advantages of Filter Method
✓ It provides sufficiently flat and wide bandwidth.
✓ By this method, we can have suitable sideband suppression.
✓ It allows better management of the frequency spectrum. More transmission can fit
into a given frequency range than would be possible with double side band DSB
signals.
✓ All of the transmitted power is message power none is dissipate as carrier power.
✓ The noise content of a signal is an exponential function of the bandwidth: the noise
will decrease by 3dB when the bandwidth is reduced by half. There fore, single side
band SSB signals have less noise around, Low Cost
Disadvantages of Filter Method
✓ Frequency up-conversion at the end is necessary as the system does not generate SSB
at very high frequencies.
✓ The cost of the Single side band SSB receiver is higher than the double band DSB
counterpart be a ratio of about 3:1. So the expensive filter increases the overall cost of
the system.
✓ The average radio user wants only to flip a power switch and dial a station. Single side
band SSB receivers require several precise frequency control settings to minimize
distortion and may require continual readjustment during the use of the system.

93
 Phase Discrimination Method (Hartley Modulator)

✓ It consists of two balanced modulators

instead of one in filter method, with
carrier wave in-phase quadrature to V1(t)
each other.
✓ The balanced modulators effectively
eliminates the carrier.
✓ The incoming baseband signal m(t) and
carrier signal from oscillator is applied
to the Balanced Modulator ‘1’
producing DSB SC AM signal
✓ Then both signals with 900 phase shift
is applied to the Balanced Modulator-2 V2(t)
will produce DSB SC AM signal with 900
phase shift
✓ The two balanced modulators outputs
are added algebraically
✓ The phase shift option causes one side
band to be concealed out when the
output of two balanced modulators
added together.
✓ This arrangement is also known as
Hartley modulator. 94
 SSB – SC Wave Equation (Mathematical Expression)
Let us take
Vm t = Vm sin ωm t and Vc t = Vc sin ωc t

𝑉1 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 × 𝑉𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

𝑉2 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 900 − 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 × 𝑉𝑐 sin 900 − 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

𝑉2 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 × 𝑉𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡
𝑉0 𝑡 = 𝑉1 𝑡 + 𝑉2 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 × 𝑉𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 × 𝑉𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡
𝑉0 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡
cos (A−B)
We know that Sin A Sin B + Cos A Cos B =
2

Vm Vc
VSSB −SC (t) = cos(ωc − ωm )t = Lower side band (LSB)
2
Similarly (if subtraction is taken instead of summation)
Vm Vc
VSSB −SC (t) = cos(ωc + ωm )t = Upper side band (USB)
2

We know that
Vm Vc
VDSB −SC (t) = cos(ωc − ωm )t − cos(ωc + ωm )t
2
When comparing the above equations one of the side band is
suppressed. Hence this scheme is known as SSB – SC AM 95
 POWER CALCULATION: SSB - SC - AM
Power of SSBSC wave is equal to the power of any one sideband frequency
components.
Pt = PUSB = PLSB

Conventional Amplitude modulation total power is

2 2 2
Vcarrier VUSB VLSB
Pt = Pc + PUSB + PLSB = + +
R R R
DSB-SC total power is
2 2
VUSB VLSB
Pt(DSBSC ) = PUSB + PLSB = +
R R
SSC – SC total power is
V2
USB V2
Pt(SSBSC ) = PUSB = PLSB = = LSB
R R
Where Vcarrier = RMS value of the carrier voltages
VLSB = VUSB = RMS value of upper and lower side band voltages
R = Resistance in which power is dissipated

96
 Power efficiency of SSB SC compared with DSB - FC- AM

Power saving with respect to AM with carrier (Power efficiency)

Pt − PSSB
Power saving =
Pt
Where Pt is total power transmitted

ma 2 ma 2 Pc ma 2 ma 2
1+ Pc − Pc + P − P
2 4 2 c 4 c
Power saving = =
m 2 m 2
1 + a Pc 1 + a Pc
2 2

ma 2 ma 2 4 + 𝑚𝑎 2
Pc + P 1+ Pc 4 + 𝑚𝑎 2 4 + 𝑚𝑎 2
4 c = 4 4
= = =
m 2 m 2 2 + 𝑚𝑎 2 2 ∗ (2 + 𝑚𝑎 2 ) 4 + 2𝑚𝑎 2
1 + a Pc 1 + a Pc
2 2 2

If modulation index is 1, then

5
Power saving = = 83.3%
6

97
 Power efficiency of SSB SC compared with DSB -SC - AM

Power saving with respect to DSB-SC-AM

ma 2 Pc ma 2 Pc
PDSB − PSSB 2 − 4
Power saving = =
PDSB ma 2 Pc
2
m a 2 Pc
4
= m a 2 Pc
2
If modulation index is 1, then
1 4 1
Power saving = = = 50 %
1 2 2
ma 2
It has been noted that the total AM power is 1 + 2
If only the carrier is suppressed then 66.67% power will be saved.
If in addition to carrier one side band is suppressed 83.3% power will be
saved.

98
 Advantages of Phase shift Method

❖ It does not require a frequency up-conversion stage.

❖ The modulating signal can be a low-frequency audio signal.
❖ Switching between the sidebands is easier.
Disadvantages of Phase shift Method
❖ The designing of phase shifting circuitry is complex.
❖ It requires phase shifting to be accurate, which is a difficult task.

99
 COMPARISION BETWEEN SSB TECHNIQUES

S.NO PARAMETER FILTER METHOD PHASE METHOD

1 Method used Filter is used to remove Phase shifting is required to remove
unwanted signal unwanted signal
2 90° Phase shift Not required Required complex phase shift method
3 Possible frequency range Not Possible to generate Possible to generate any frequency
of SSB any frequency range of SSB range of SSB
4 Need for required Not required
up - conversion
5 Complex Less Medium
6 Design Aspects Q of tuned circuit, Filter Design of 90° Phase shifter for entire
type, size, weight and upper modulating frequency range.
frequency range Symmetry of balanced modulators.
7 Bulkiness Yes No
8 Switching ability Not possible with Easily possible
existing circuit. Extra
Filter & Switching
network added
100
 Vestigial Side Band Modulation (VSB AM)

➢ In case of SSB modulation, when a sideband is passed through the filters, the band
pass filter may not work perfectly in practice. As a result of which, some of the
information may get lost.
➢ Hence to avoid this loss, a technique is chosen, which is a compromise
between DSB-SC and SSB, called as Vestigial Sideband (VSB) technique.
➢ The word vestige which means “a part” from which the name is derived.
➢ Vestigial Sideband Modulation or VSB Modulation is the process where a part of
the signal called as vestige is modulated, along with one sideband.
➢ Along with the upper sideband, a part of the lower sideband is also being
transmitted in this technique.
➢ VSB modulation is mostly used in television transmissions.
✓ A guard band is a narrow frequency range that
separates two ranges of wider frequency.
✓ This ensures that simultaneously used
communication channels do not experience
interference,
✓ Which would result in decreased quality for both
transmissions.
101
 Generation / Transmitter of VSB

V0(t)
𝑉𝐷𝑆𝐵−𝑆𝐶

➢ The modulating signal is applied to a product modulator.

➢ The output of the carrier oscillator is also applied to the input of the product modulator.
➢ The output of the product modulator is given by DSB-SC modulated wave.
➢ This DSB-SC signal is then applied to side band shaping filter.
➢ The design of this filter depends on the desire spectrum of the VSB modulated signal.
➢ This filter will pass wanted side band and the vestige of the unwanted sideband.
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑐
𝑉𝐷𝑆𝐵−𝑆𝐶 = cos 𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 − cos 𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
2
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑐
𝑉0 𝑡 = 𝑉𝐷𝑆𝐵−𝑆𝐶 × ℎ 𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 − cos 𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 × ℎ(𝑡)
2

102
SPECTRUM OF VSB BANDWIDTH

❖The bandwidth of SSBSC modulated

wave is fm.
❖ Since the VSBSC modulated wave
contains the frequency components
of one side band along with the
vestige of other sideband
❖ The bandwidth of it will be the
sum of the bandwidth of SSBSC
modulated wave and vestige
frequency fv.
❖ BW of VSBSC Modulated Wave =
SSB BW +fv = fm+fv or
❖ BW = fc+fm-fc+fv = fm+fv

103
 Detection / Demodulator / Receiver of VSB

❖ Here, the same carrier signal (which is used for generating VSBSC wave) is used to
detect the message signal.
❖ Hence, this process of detection is called as coherent or synchronous detection.
❖ The message signal can be extracted from VSBSC wave by multiplying it with a
carrier, which is having the same frequency and the phase of the carrier used in VSBSC
modulation.
❖ The resulting signal is then passed through a Low Pass Filter. The output of this
filter is the desired message signal.

104
 Advantages of VSB Modulation

➢ Highly efficient.
➢ Reduction in bandwidth when compared to AM and DSBSC waves.
➢ Filter design is easy, since high accuracy is not needed.
➢ The transmission of low frequency components is possible, without any
difficulty.
➢ Possesses good phase characteristics.
Disadvantages of VSB Modulation
➢ Bandwidth is more when compared to SSBSC wave.
➢ Demodulation is complex.
Applications of VSB Modulation
➢ Television signals.
➢ Also, this is the most convenient and efficient technique when
bandwidth usage is considered.

105
 Comparison of Various AM Schemes

S.No Parameter DSBFC DSBSC SSB VSB

1 Carrier NA Fully Fully NA

Suppression
2 Sideband NA NA One SB One SB
Suppression completely suppressed
partially
3 Bandwidth 2fm 2fm fm fm < BW
>2fm
4 Transmission Min (33.3%) Moderate Max (83.3%) Moderate
efficiency (66.7%)
5 Total Power Between
DSBSC and
SSB
6 Applications Radio Radio Point to point TV
Broadcasting Broadcasting mobile comm

106
 AM TRANSMITTER

❖ Transmitters that transmit AM signals are known as AM transmitters.

❖ AM transmitters are used in medium wave (MW) and short wave (SW)
frequency bands for AM broadcast.
❖ The MW band has frequencies between 550 KHz and 1650 KHz, and the SW
band has frequencies ranging from 3 MHz to 30 MHz.
❖ The two types of AM transmitters that are used based on their transmitting
powers are:
✓ High Level
✓ Low Level
❖ High level transmitters use high level modulation, and low level transmitters
use low level modulation.
❖ The choice between the two modulation schemes depends on the transmitting
power of the AM transmitter.
❖ In broadcast transmitters, where the transmitting power may be of the order of
kilowatts, high level modulation is employed.
❖ In low power transmitters, where only a few watts of transmitting power are
required , low level modulation is used.

107
 High-Level Transmitters
➢ The basic difference between the two transmitters is the power amplification of the
carrier and modulating signals.
➢ In high-level transmission, the powers of the carrier and modulating signals are
amplified before applying them to the modulator stage, as shown in figure.
➢ In low-level modulation, the powers of the two input signals of the modulator stage
are not amplified.

The various sections of the figure are: Carrier oscillator, Buffer amplifier, Frequency
multiplier, Power amplifier, Audio chain, Modulated class C power amplifier

108
 Carrier Oscillator

✓ The carrier oscillator generates the carrier signal, which lies in the RF range. (3MHz to 30GHz)
✓ The frequency of the carrier is always very high. Because it is very difficult to generate high
frequencies with good frequency stability, the carrier oscillator generates a sub multiple with the
required carrier frequency.
✓ This sub multiple frequency is multiplied by the frequency multiplier stage to get the required
carrier frequency.
✓ Further, a crystal oscillator can be used in this stage to generate a low frequency carrier with
the best frequency stability.
✓ The frequency multiplier stage then increases the frequency of the carrier to its required
value.
Buffer Amplifier
✓ The purpose of the buffer amplifier is two fold. It first matches the high output impedance of
the carrier oscillator with the low input impedance of the frequency multiplier, then isolates
the carrier oscillator and frequency multiplier.
✓ This is required so that the multiplier does not draw a large current from the carrier oscillator.
If this occurs, the frequency of the carrier oscillator will not remain stable.
109
 Frequency Multiplier
✓ The sub-multiple frequency of the carrier signal, generated by the carrier oscillator, is
now applied to the frequency multiplier through the buffer amplifier.
✓ This stage is also known as harmonic generator. The frequency multiplier generates
higher harmonics of carrier oscillator frequency.
✓ The frequency multiplier is a tuned circuit that can be tuned to the requisite carrier
frequency that is to be transmitted.
Power Amplifier
✓ The power of the carrier signal is then amplified in the power amplifier stage.
✓ This is the basic requirement of a high-level transmitter.
✓ A class C power amplifier gives high power current pulses of the carrier signal at its
output.
Audio Chain
✓ The audio signal to be transmitted is obtained from the microphone, as shown in figure.
✓ The audio driver amplifier amplifies the voltage of this signal. This amplification is
necessary to drive the audio power amplifier.
✓ Next, a class A or a class B power amplifier amplifies the power of the audio signal.
Modulated Class C Amplifier
✓ This is the output stage of the transmitter. The modulating audio signal and the carrier
signal, after power amplification, are applied to this modulating stage.
✓ The modulation takes place at this stage.
✓ The class C amplifier also amplifies the power of the AM signal to the reacquired
transmitting power.
✓ This signal is finally passed to the antenna., which radiates the signal into space of
transmission.
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 Low-Level Transmitters

✓ The low-level AM transmitter shown in the figure (b) is similar to a high-level

transmitter, except that the powers of the carrier and audio signals are not amplified.
These two signals are directly applied to the modulated class C power amplifier.
✓ Modulation takes place at the stage, and the power of the modulated signal is
amplified to the required transmitting power level. The transmitting antenna then
transmits the signal.

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 AM Detector / Receiver Types

❖ The process of extracting an original message signal from the modulated

wave is known as detection or demodulation.
❖ The circuit, which demodulates the modulated wave is known as
the demodulator.

➢ Envelope Detector
➢ Square Law Demodulator

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 Envelope Detector / Diode detector
The signal diode detector consists of two main elements to the circuit

Diode / rectifier:
❖ The diode in the detector serves to that enhances one half of the received signal
over the other.
❖ In many instances Schottky diodes are used for this form of detector, because
signal levels may be low, and Schottky diodes have a much lower turn on voltage
(typically around 0.2 V) than standard silicon diodes (typically 0.7 V).

Low pass filter:

❖ The low pass filter is required to remove the high frequency elements that
remain within the signal after detection / demodulation.
❖ The filter usually consists of a very simple RC network but in some cases It can
be provided simply by relying on the limited frequency response of the circuitry
following the rectifier.
❖ As the capacitor in the circuit stores the voltage, the output voltage reflects the
peak of the waveform.
❖ Sometimes these circuits are used as peak detectors.
✓ When selecting the value of the capacitor used in the circuit, it should be large
enough to hold the peak of the RF waveform, but not so large that it attenuates
any modulation on the signal i.e. it should act as a filter for the RF carrier and
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not the audio modulation.
Circuit Operation
❖ Here the input signal is rectified by the series diode D.
❖ The combination of capacitor C and resistor R behaves like a low-pass filter.
❖ The input signal contains both the original message and the carrier wave where the capacitor
helps in filtering out the RF carrier waves.
❖ The capacitor gets charged during the rising edge and discharges through the resistor R in falling
edge.
❖ Thus the capacitor helps in giving an envelope of the input as output
❖ This type of detector or demodulator is called a linear envelope detector because the output is
proportional to the input envelope.
Advantage
❖ This technique is highly used in AM receivers as it is very simple and cheap.
❖ The circuit acts as a linear detector as the output varies as per the voltage of input and the
distortion here is very less.
Disadvantage
❖ The circuit does not have an amplification capability to amplify the rectified signal. Amplification
should be done by separate devices.
❖ Before giving input to the circuit the signal must be band pass filtered otherwise the circuit will
demodulate unnecessary signals.
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 Significance of RC time Constant
❖ If modulation index a is equal to, or less than, unity (ma 1), AM can be demodulated by a
very simple technique called envelope detection.
❖ If ma > 1, envelope detection will not work; the detector output audio will be highly
distorted.
❖ Why → The signal experiences a 180° phase change at each envelope sign change, and
envelope detectors are insensitive to signal phase.
❖ A simple envelope detector will only work if 0  ma 1.
❖ As long as envelope Vo (Output Voltage) is non- negative, message m(t) appears to ride on
top of half wave rectified.
❖ In this case close approximation of Vo can be obtained by smoothing the output of the
diode with an RC circuit.
❖ The time constant of the RC smoothing circuit is not extremely critical. However, as a
general rule of thumb, best results can be obtained if

𝟏 𝟏
≤ 𝐑𝐂 ≤ where fc is the carrier frequency in Hz, and
𝐟𝐜 𝐟𝐦
fm is the message bandwidth, in Hz.

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 Square Law Demodulation

❖ The square law detector is a two-part system which is designed to produce an output
proportional to the power contained in some (usually) complicated input signal.
❖ The first part of the square law detector system is a nonlinear element whose
instantaneous output is proportional to the square of the instantaneous input, and which
is sensibly free of other nonlinear terms
❖ The second part, is some sort of averaging device, often a low pass filter.

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 Working Operation and Analysis
The input output characteristics i.e., the transfer characteristics of a square
law demodulator is non-linear and it is expressed mathematically as :
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 & 𝑉𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡
2
𝑉2 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑉1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑉1 (𝑡)
Where V1(t) = input voltage to square law detector and
V2(t) = Output of square law detector
As we know that
𝑉𝐴𝑀 𝑡 = 𝑉1 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 1 + 𝑚𝑎 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑚 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝑉2 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑉𝑐 1 + 𝑚𝑎 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑚 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑏 𝑉𝑐 2 1 + 𝑚𝑎 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑚 𝑡 2
𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

= 𝒂𝑽𝒄 𝟏 + 𝒎𝒂 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒎 𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒃𝑽𝒄 𝟐 𝟏 + 𝟐𝒎𝒂 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒎 𝒕 + 𝒎𝒂 𝟐 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝝎𝒎 𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝝎𝒄 𝒕

In the above equation the desired term is

𝒃𝑽𝒄 𝟐 𝟐𝒎𝒂 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒎 𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝝎𝒄 𝒕

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The desired term is extracted by using low pass filter after the diode as shown in figure

𝑉𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑏𝑉𝑐 2 2𝑚𝑎 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑚 𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

This means that we have recovered the message signal m(t) at the output of the detector.
The another term which is passing through LPF is
𝑏𝑉𝑐 2 𝑚𝑎 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑐 𝑡
This is an unwanted signal which rise to distortion. The ratio of desired output to
undesired output is given by

𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑏𝑉𝑐 2 2𝑚𝑎 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑚 𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 2

= =
𝑈𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑏𝑉𝑐 2 𝑚𝑎 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 𝑚𝑎 Cos 𝜔𝑚 (𝑡)

This ratio must be maximized in order to minimize the distortion. To achieve this
denominator should be very small for all values of t.

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