MODULE 1

1st Prelim

LESSON’S OBJECTIVE :
1. DEFINE WHAT CRIME IS;
2. DISCUSS THE APPROACHES IN THE STUDY OF CRIMINOLOGY ;
3. DISCUSS WHAT THEORY IS;

THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

CRIME may define as:

1. an action or omission that constitutes an offense that may be prosecuted by the state and is
punishable by law.
2. An anti-social act; an act that is injurious, detrimental or harmful to the norms of society,
they are the unacceptable acts in its social definition.
3. Psychologically, crime is an act, which is considered undesirable due to behavioral
maladjustment of the offender; acts that are caused by maladaptive or abnormal behaviors.

CRIME is also a generic name that refers to offense, felony and delinquency or misdemeanor.

Theory - a supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something, especially one

based on general principles independent of the thing to be explained.

- Is any system of ideas arranged in rational order that produce general principles which
increase our understanding and explanations.
- The general principles in a theory are derived from, and representative, of particular facts,
but those principles are not dependent upon the particular thing to be explained.
- Theory is the foundation of criminology and of criminal justice, and we study theory to know
why we are doing what we do.
- Theory without research is not science.
- The most important task of theory is an explanation called prediction.

There are many approaches in the explanation of crimes in order to come to an answer to
questions. Among them are the following;

APPROACHES IN THE STUDY OF CRIMINOLOGY

Subjective Approach – it deals mainly on the biological explanation of crimes, focused on the forms
of abnormalities that exist in the individual criminal before, during and after the crime (Tradio,
1999). Included under this approach are:

a. Anthropological Approach – the study of the physical characteristics of an individual

offender with non-offenders in the attempt to discover differences covering criminal behavior.
(Hooton)
1
 b. Medical Approach – the application of medical examinations on the individual criminal,
explain the mental and physical condition of the individual prior and after the commission of
the crime. (Positivist)
c. Biological Approach – the evaluation of the genetic influences on the criminal behavior. It is
noted that heredity is one force pushing the criminal to the crime.
d. Physiological Approach – the study of the nature of human beings concerning his physical
needs in order to satisfy his wants. It explains that the deprivation of the physical body on
the basic needs is an important determiner of the commission of the crime.
e. Psychological Approach – it is concerned about the deprivation of the psychological needs of
a man, which constitute that development of deviations of normal behavior resulting to
unpleasant emotions.
f. Psychiatric Approach – the explanation of crime through diagnosis of mental diseases as a
cause of the criminal behavior.
g. Psychoanalytical Approach – the explanation of crimes based on the Freudian Theory,
which traces behavior as the deviation of the repression of the basic drives.

Objective Approach – deal with the study of groups, social processes and institutions as influences
to behavior. They are primarily derived from the social sciences. Under these approaches are:

a. Geographic Approach – this approach considers topography, natural resources,

geographical location, and climate lead an individual to commit crime. (Quetelet)
b. Ecological Approach – it is concerned with the biotic grouping of men resulting migration,
competition, social discrimination, division of labor and social conflict as factors of crime.
(Park)
c. Economic Approach – it deals with the explanation of crime concerning financial security of
inadequacy and other necessities to support life as factors to criminality. (Merton)
d. Socio – Cultural Approach – those that focus on institutions, economic, financial,
education, political, and religious influences to crime. (Cohen)

Contemporary Approach – modern days put emphasis on scientific modes of explaining crime and
criminal behavior. This approach focuses on the psychoanalytical, psychiatric, sociological
explanations of crime in an integrated theory – an explanatory perspective that merges concepts
drawn from different sources.
Activity 1
Name:_______________________________________________________________ Score:__________________

Instruction: read the question first before writing the answer. Every question has a total of ten (10).

1. Discuss narratively the differences of Subjective, Objective and Contemporary

Approach.

2. What is the importance of the different approaches in explaining the causes of

crime

Assessment 2

Name:________________________________________________________________ Score:__________________

Written Exercise

1. It deals mainly on the biological explanation of crimes, focused on the forms of abnormalities
that exist in the individual criminal before, during and after the crime.

2. The study of the physical characteristics of an individual offender with non-offenders in the
attempt to discover differences covering criminal behavior.
3. The evaluation of the genetic influences on the criminal behavior. It is noted that heredity is
one force pushing the criminal to the crime.
4. The application of medical examinations on the individual criminal, explain the mental and
physical condition of the individual prior and after the commission of the crime.
5. The study of the nature of human beings concerning his physical needs in order to satisfy his
wants
6. This approach focuses on the psychoanalytical, psychiatric, sociological explanations of
crime in an integrated theory.

7. The explanation of crime through diagnosis of mental diseases as a cause of the criminal
behavior.
8. The study of the nature of human beings concerning his physical needs in order to satisfy his
wants.

9. A generic name that refers to offense, felony and delinquency or misdemeanor.

10.Deal with the study of groups, social processes and institutions as influences to behavior.

*****
MODULE 2
LESSON’S OBJECTIVE :

1. DISCUSS THE HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF CRIME CAUSATION BY DIFFERENT PHILISOPHY .

2. EXPLAIN THE DEMONOLOGICAL THEORY .
3. IDENTIFY THE ADVOCATES OF THE CLASSICAL THEORY AND;
4. DISCUSS THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE THEORY.

THE EARLY BEGINNINGS

Crime Causation: Its Historical Overview

Antique Philosophy (4th Century BC)

Aristotle offers a philosophical standpoint on crime causation who stated that the crime is
poverty related describing poverty as a mother of all revolutions and crimes.

Medieval Philosophy (17th century)

According to Francis Bacon, criminality will depend on social situations. He described his
standpoint in this sentence: “Opportunity makes a thief”. Bacon pointed out that human behavior
will depend on situations.

French Renaissance Philosophy (18th century)

The famous encyclopedists Voltaire and Rousseau introduce the concept of free will. Crime is
the same as hedonistic behavior and failure the social contract obligations.
 Bringing back the thoughts during the 16th and 17th century, people are thought of being
possessed by demons or evil spirits when they commit crimes and deviant behavior. Their belief
influences the way they treat the wrong doers hence they are into the practice of exorcism and
banishment.

DEMONOLOGICAL THEORY

 Individuals were thought to be possessed by good or evil spirits, which caused good or evil
behavior.
 This theory maintains that criminal behavior was believed to be the result of evil spirits and
and demons that controls his/her behavior.
 Guilt and innocence were established by a variety of procedures that presumably called forth
the supernatural alies of the accused.
 The accused were innocent if they could survive the an ordeal, or if miraculous signs
appeared.
 They were guilty if they died at stake, or if omens wereassociated with them.

THE PRE- TWENTIETH CENTURY (18th Century – 1738 – 1798)

 In the eighteenth century, criminological literature, whether psychological, sociological, or
psychiatric in bent, has traditionally been divided into three broad schools of thoughts
about the crime: the classical, neo- classical, positivist schools of criminology.

THE SCHOOL OF THOUGHT

THE CLASSICAL SCHOOL

 The Classical School of Criminology is a broad label for a group of thinkers of crime and
punishment in the 18th and early 19th centuries.
 Prominent members, Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham, they both shared the idea that
criminal behavior could be understood and controlled as an outcome of a “human nature”
shared by all humans.
 Human beings were believed to be hedonistic, acting in terms of their own self- interest, but
rational, capable of considering which course of action was really in their self- interest.

Major Principles of Classical School

 Human beings are fundamentally rational, and most human behavior is the result of free will
coupled with rational choice.
 Pain and pleasure are the two central determinants of human behavior.
  Punishment, necessary evil, is sometimes required to deter law violators and to serve as an
example to others who would also violates the law.
 The root principles of right and wrong are inherent in the nature of things, and cannot be
denied.
 Society exist to provide benefits to individuals which they would not receive in isolation.
 When men and women band together for the protection offered by society, they forfeit some of
the benefits which may result from living in isolation.
 Certain key rights of individuals are inherent in the nature of things, and governments which
contravene those rights should be disbanded.
 Crime is a result of the quality of bond that exists between individuals and society, and is
therefore an immoral of behavior.

ADVOCATES OF CLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY

1. CESARE, MARQUIS DE BECCARIA- BONESANA

 an Italian philosopher and economist best
known for his treatise On Crimes and
Punishments.
 He was born on March 15, 1738 in Milan Italy.
 His essay On Crimes and Punishments had a
great success and practical impact in many
countries on the principles of penal reforms
and human rights as it discussed issues,
government (crime and human rights), and
had a large and lasting impact on the
American Constitution, the Bill of rights which
subsequently influenced our own criminal
justice system.
 He was considered as the “FATHER of the
Classical Criminal Theory”.

The three main points in which Beccaria’s theory rests. They are:

a. Freewill – Beccaria like other classical theorist, believe that all individuals have freewill
and make choices on that freewill.
b. Rationality - which means that all individuals rationally look out for their own personal
satisfaction. This is a key to the relationship between laws and crime. While individuals will
rationally look for their best interest, and this might entail deviant acts and the laws, which
goal is to preserve the social contract, will try to stop deviant acts.
c. Manipulability – which means that universally shared human motive of rational self-
interest makes human action predictable, generable and controllable.
 According to Beccaria -- and most classical theorists -- free will enables people to make
choices. Beccaria believed that people have a rational manner and apply it toward making
choices that will help them achieve their own personal gratification.
 In Beccaria’s interpretation, law exists to preserve the social contract and benefit society as a
whole. But, because people act out of self-interest and their interest sometimes conflicts with
societal laws, they commit crimes. The principle of manipulability refers to the predictable
ways in which people act out of rational self-interest and might therefore be dissuaded from
committing crimes if the punishment outweighs the benefits of the crime, rendering the
crime an illogical choice.
 In "On Crimes and Punishments," Beccaria identified a pressing need to reform the criminal
justice system, citing the then-present system as barbaric and antiquated. He went on to
discuss how specific laws should be determined, who should make them, what they should
be like and whom they should benefit. He emphasized the need for adequate but just
punishment, and went so far as to explain how the system should define the appropriate
punishment for each type of crime.

2. JEREMY BENTHAM
 Was an English philosopher and lawyer best
known for the theory of Utilitarianism.
 Considered as the “Father of Utilitarianism”.
 One of his projects was in prison design. He
planned the panopticon prison, a design which
allows a watchman to observe (opticon) all (pan)
inmates of an institution without them being able
to tell whether or not they are being watched.

Theory of utilitarianism is a philosophy which states

that a moral act is one which produces the greatest
happiness for the greatest number of people.

 He is primarily known today for his moral philosophy, especially his principle of

utilitarianism, which evaluates actions based upon their consequences. The relevant
consequences, in particular, are the overall happiness created for everyone affected by the
action. Happiness, according to Bentham, is thus a matter of experiencing pleasure and lack
of pain.
ACTIVITY 2

NAME:________________________________________________________________
SCORE:__________________

INSTRUCTION : READ THE QUESTION FIRST BEFORE WRITING THE ANSWER. EVERY QUESTION HAS A TOTAL OF
TEN (10).

1. Explain the theory of utilitarianism.

2. Explain Beccaria’s theory.

3. Explain demonological theory.

Assessment 2

Name:_________________________________________________
Score:______________

Instruction: Identification. Read the question first before writing the answer .

1. Which means that universally shared human motive of rational self- interest makes human
action predictable, generable and controllable.
2. He is primarily known today for his moral philosophy, especially his principle of
utilitarianism.
3. Happiness, according to him, is thus a matter of experiencing pleasure and lack of pain.
4. He believed that people have a rational manner and apply it toward making choices that will
help them achieve their own personal gratification.
5. Which means that all individuals rationally look out for their own personal satisfaction.
6. An Italian philosopher and economist best known for his treatise On Crimes and
Punishments.
7. Was an English philosopher and lawyer best known for the theory of Utilitarianism.
8. He was considered as the “FATHER of the Classical Criminal Theory”.
9. It is a broad label for a group of thinkers of crime and punishment in the 18th and early 19th
centuries.
10. This had a great success and practical impact in many countries on the principles of penal
reforms and human rights as it discussed issues, government (crime and human rights), and
had a large and lasting impact on the American Constitution, the Bill of rights which
subsequently influenced our own criminal justice system.

*****
MODULE 3
LESSON’S OBJECTIVE :
1. DISCUSS THE NEO – CLASSICAL SCHOOL
2. DISCUSS POSITIVIST SCHOOL
3. IDENTIFY THE PROMINENT PERSONALITIES UNDER POSITIVIST THEORY AND ;
4. DISCUSS EACH STUDIES .

THE NEO- CLASSICAL SCHOOL

Proponent: Gabriel Tarde

 The neoclassical school of thought is a continuity of the classical tradition brought about by
philosophers who thought of certain modification of the classical thinking.
 There are situations or circumstances that made it impossible to exercise freewill which are
reasons to exempt the accused from conviction.
 A characteristic of the neoclassical system is the plea bargain, which gives the prosecution
and the defense an opportunity to make a deal in which the accused will plead guilty in
return for certain consideration such as a reduced sentence or charge on a lesser crime.
 Children and lunatics should not be regarded as criminals and free from punishments.

The neoclassical school maintains the following

1. People must be protected from actions that would kill them, take their liberty and violate
their privacy. They must never be arbitrarily arrested and must always be informs of the
reasons for imprisonment.
2. Innocence must be presumed until proven guilty.
3. People have a right to reasonable bail and trial by jury.
4. It accepts mitigating circumstances. It contends that people are allowed conditional
sentences and alternative forms of incapacitations.
5. It holds that people are more deterred from committing a crime he it is more certain that they
will be caught, rather than due to the severity of the punishment.
6. It has less of a punitive tone and seeks to rehabilitate people than to punish them.

THE POSITIVIST OR ITALIAN SCHOOL

(1838 – 1909)
  The positivist school of thought was a social movement that existed during the mid-1800s
and early 1900s.
 The term positivism refers to a method of analysis based on the collection of observable
scientific facts.
 Sometimes it is called the Italian School of thought because of its composition which are
mostly Italians who agreed that in the study of crime the emphasis should be on scientific
treatment of the criminal, not on the penalties to be imposed after conviction.
 Positivism is the search for other multiple factors as the causes of human behavior.

The positivist school of thought maintains the following:

1. That crime as any other act is a natural phenomenon and is comparable to disasters or
calamity.
2. That crime as a social and moral phenomenon which cannot be treated and checked by the
imposition of punishment but rather rehabilitation or the enforcement of individual
measures.
3. That the most serious crimes were committed by individuals who were “primitive” or
“atavistic” that is, who failed to evolve to a fully human and civilized state.
4. That crime resulted not from what criminals have in common with others in society, but from
their distinctive physical or mental defects.

Other than the above ideas, some of the defining features of the positivist school include:

1. The demand for facts, for scientific proof. (determinism)

2. There are body and mind differences between people (of these, the mens rea, or reasons for
committing crime are important)
3. Punishment should fit the individual criminal, not the crime (indeterminate sentencing,
desperate sentencing, parole)
4. The criminal justice system should be guided by scientific experts (rule by scientific elite,
technocracy)
5. Criminals can be treated, rehabilitated, or corrected (if not, then they are incurable and
should be put to death)

Phrenology and Physiognomy

Theories of crime before positivist theory existed

1. Phrenology (doctrine of the mental Phenomena)

Greek words: phren – mind
Logos – knowledge
Phrenology is based on the belief that human behavior originated in the brain.
Johann Spurzheim (1776 – 1832), a German physician and student of Gall’s actually
coined the term phrenology to replace cranioscopy. He also expanded the map of the brain
organs, developed a hierarchical system of the organs, and created a model “phrenology bust”
that depicted the location of the brain organs.

2. Physiognomy
According to Johann Lavater, a physiognomist, states that the shape of the skull and some
facial features had an impact on a human behavior and actions.
 Auguste Comte is known as the founder of sociology and positivism, believed that both
external and internal forces are important for understanding human behavior.

ADVOCATES OF POSITIVIST CRIMINOLOGY/ITALIAN SCHOOL OF THOUGHT

1. CESARE LOMBROSO (1836 -1909)

- An Italian university professor and criminologist.

- Became popular in the field of Characterology, or the
relation between mental and physical characteristics of
a person.
- The founder of the Positivist School of Thought and
commonly considered today as the “Father of Modern
Criminology”.
- Lombroso primary emphasis was on the concept of the
atavistic criminal.
- He believed the atavistic criminal to be a biological
throwback to an earlier stage of evolution, since inborn
delinquency was not natural to contemporary mankind
but peculiar to primitive races.
- One of his major contribution was his essay, CRIME: Its Causes and remedies that
contains his key ideas and influenced criminological thinking principally redirecting
emphasis from a legalistic concern for crimes to a scientific study of the criminals.
- Although Lombroso was aware of the importance of social and psychological factors in
the causation of crime, his primary emphasis was the concept of the atavistic
criminal.
- he believed the atavistic criminal to be a biological throwback to an earlier stage of
evolution, since inborn delinquency was not natural to contemporary mankind but
peculiar to primitive races.
Atavism: Its concept
Atavism (from Latin atavus, ancestor) claimed a return to a primitive or subhuman type of
man, characterized physically by a variety of inferior morphological features reminiscent of apes
and lower primates, occurring in the more simian fossil men and, to some extent, preserved in
modern “savages”.

Classifications of Criminals by Lombroso

1. The Born Criminal – those that have pathological symptoms common with imbecile and the
epileptic.
  He argued that if criminal behavior is inherited then the born criminal could be
distinguished by associated physical characteristics such as:
a. Large jaws, forward projection of jaw
b. Low sloping forehead
c. High cheekbones
d. Flattened or upturned nose
e. Handle-shaped ears
f. Hawk-like noses or fleshy lips
g. Hard shifty eyes
h. Scanty beard or baldness
i. Insensitivity to pain
j. Long arms relative to lower limbs

2. The Insane criminal – those who commit crime due to abnormalities or psychological
disorders. This criminal type includes the alcoholic, kleptomaniac, nymphomaniac, child
molester and hysterical.
3. The criminoloid – one who commits crime due to less physical stamina/self-control.
4. The occasional criminal – one who commits crime due to insignificant reasons that pushed
them to do on a given occasion.
5. The pseudo-criminal – one who kills in self-defense.
6. The criminal by passion – individuals who are easily influenced by great emotions like fit of
anger.

2. ENRICO FERRI (1856 – 1929)

- He was an Italian criminologist and socialist.
- He worked on the social and economic factors to crimes.
- He authored Criminal Sociology.
- He became one of the founder of the positivist school but
more focused on psychological and social positivism as
opposed to the biological positivism of Lombroso.
- Ferri was also an instrument in formulating the concept of
“social defense” as a justification for punishment.
- He asserted that the only reasonable rationale for punishing
offenders is to incapacitate them for as long possible so that
they no longer posed a threat to the peace and security of
society.

Ferri’s Classification of Criminals

1. The born or instinctive criminal – who carries from birth, through unfortunate heredity
from his progenitors, a reduced resistance o criminal stimuli and also an evident and
precocious propensity to crime.
2. The insane criminal – affected by a clinically identified mental disease or by a
neuropsychopathic condition which groups him with the mentally diseased.
3. The passional criminal – who in two varieties, the criminal through passion (a prolonged
and chronic mental state), or through emotion (explosive and unexpected mental state),
represents a type at the opposite pole from the criminal due to congenital tendencies.
4. The occasional criminal – who constitutes the majority of lawbreakers and is the product of
family and social milieu more than that of abnormal personal physio-mental conditions.
 5. The habitual criminal – or the criminal by acquired habit, who is mostly a product of the
social environment in which due to abandonment of his family, lack of education, poverty
and bad companions and already in his childhood begins as an occasional offender.

3. RAFFAELE GAROFALO (1852 – 1934)

 Italian Nobility in Naples in 1852.

 Like Lombroso and
the only way to understand crime was to study it by
scientific methods.
 Influenced by
behavior), he traced the roots of criminal behavior not to
physical features but to their psychological equivalents,
which he called “moral anomalies”.
 He attempted to
which can be repressed by punishment. These constituted
“Natural Crime” – that conduct that would offend the
basic altruistic sentiments common to all people, namely,
Probity (revulsion against the voluntary infliction of
suffering on others) and Pity (respect for property rights of
others).
 He believed that
the true criminal is
abnormal and
“lacks a proper
development of the
altruistic (humane) sensibilities. This lack or deficiency is not
simply the product of circumstance or environmental
conditioning but has an organic basis.”

Types of criminals by Garofalo

1. Murderers – those who are satisfied from vengeance/revenge

2. Violent criminals – those who commit very serious crimes
3. Deficient criminals – those who commit crime against property
4. Lascivious criminals – those who commit crime against chastity
Activity 3
Name: ____________________________________________Score: ___________________

Instruction: read the

question first before writing 1. Explain the contribution of the following
the answer. Every question personalities.
has a total of ten (10). i. Cesare Lombroso
ii. Raffaele Garofalo
iii. Enrico Ferri

2. The difference between Positivist School of

thought and the neo classical school.

Assessment 3

Name:______________________________________________________________ Score:__________________

Written Exercise

1. The born or instinctive a. who carries from birth, through

criminal unfortunate heredity from his
 progenitors, a reduced resistance
o criminal stimuli and also an
evident and precocious propensity
to crime.
2. Murderers b. those that have pathological
symptoms common with imbecile
and the epileptic.
3. The Born Criminal c. or the criminal by acquired habit,
who is mostly a product of the
social environment in which due
to abandonment of his family,
lack of education, poverty and bad
companions and already in his
childhood begins as an occasional
offender.

4. The occasional criminal d. those who commit crime against

chastity.
5. Violent criminals e. those who commit very serious
crimes
6. Probity f. those who are satisfied from
vengeance/revenge
7. Lascivious criminals g. affected by a clinically identified
mental disease or by a
neuropsychopathic condition
which groups him with the
mentally diseased.
8. The insane criminal h. one who commits crime due to
insignificant reasons that pushed
them to do on a given occasion.
9. The criminal by passion i. individuals who are easily
influenced by great emotions like
fit of anger.
10. The habitual criminal j. revulsion against the voluntary
infliction of suffering on others

*****
(2nd Prelim)

MODULE 4
LESSON’S OBJECTIVE :
1. DISCUSS BIOLOGICAL THEORY OF CRIME
2. EXPLAIN THE HEREDITY FACTOR TO CRIME CAUSATION
3. EXPLAIN THE TWIN THEORY TO CRIME CAUSATION .

THEORY OF CRIME CAUSATION: BIOLOGICAL THEORY

Biological explanations of crime assume that some people are “Born criminals” who are
physiologically distinct from non-criminals. According to biological positivists the basic cause of
crime is biological inferiority, which is indicated by physical or genetic characteristics that
distinguish criminals from noncriminal. Biological theorists also advocate brain surgery, chemical
treatment, improved diets and better mother and child care.
Biological theories of criminality basically purport that criminal behavior is the result of some
flaw in the biological makeup of the individual. This physical flaw could be due to:
a. Heredity
b. Neurotransmitter dysfunction
c. Brain abnormalities that were caused by either of the above, improper development or
trauma.

Criminal Anthropology

Anthropological criminology (sometimes referred to as criminal anthropology, literally a combination of

the study of the human species and the study of criminals) is a field of offender profiling, based
on perceived links between the nature of a crime and the personality or physical
appearance of the offender. Although similar to physiognomy and phrenology, the term "criminal
anthropology" is generally reserved for the works of the Italian school of criminology of the late 19th
century (Cesare Lombroso, Enrico Ferri, Raffaele Garofalo and Lorenzo Tenchini).

The theory of anthropological criminology was influenced heavily by the ideas of Charles Darwin
(1809–1882). However, the influences came mainly from philosophy derived from Darwin's theory of
evolution, specifically that some species were morally superior to others. This idea was in fact
spawned by Social Darwinism, but nevertheless formed a critical part of anthropological
criminology.

Heredity Studies
1. Chromosomes

 Human cells normally have 22 pairs of chromosomes, plus a pair of chromosomes that
determines sex, for a total of 46. Sex chromosomes are termed X and Y. Females carry a
combination of XX, and males carry a combination of XY.
 During conception, the male’s sperm carries genetic material to the female’s egg. If the
sperm that fertilizes a female egg is carrying a Y chromosome, the resulting embryo will
develop into a male fetus (XY). If the sperm is carrying an X chromosome, the resulting
embryo will develop into a female fetus (XX).

 During this process, however, things can develop abnormally. For example, during the
process, some men are left with an extra Y chromosome (XYY). Erroneously termed XYY
syndrome, a “supermale” carrying this chromosomal pattern usually has a normal
appearance and will probably never know that he carries an extra Y chromosome, unless
he is genetically tested for some other reason.
 Given the Y chromosomes association with the male sex and with increased production in
testosterone, many claims have been made in the research literature that XYY males are
more aggressive and more violent. This supposition has not been supported with
scientifically valid research.

2. Twin Studies
 Distinctions between fraternal (dizygotic [DZ]) and identical (monozygotic [MZ]) twins have
contributed to the sophistication of this type of research.
 DZ twins develop from two eggs and share about half of their genetic material , whereas MZ
twins develop from a single egg and share all of their genetic material.

Twin studies attempt to control for the impact of the social environment, hypothesizing that these
environments are similar for twins. Twins generally are raised in the same social environment, so
the impact of the social environment is considered to be equal and consistent (and thus controlled).
Therefore, any greater similarity between identical twins than between fraternal twins would provide
evidence for a genetic link.
  One of the earlier and simpler twin studies was conducted in the 1920s by Johannes Lange
(1929). He studied 30 pairs of twins who were of the same sex. Seventeen of these pairs were
DZ twins, and 13 of these pairs were MZ twins. At least one of each twin pair was known to
have committed a crime. However, Lange found that both twins in 10 of the 13 MZ twin pairs
were known criminals, compared with both twins in only 2 of the 17 DZ pairs.

 More sophisticated and extensive studies have followed. In 1974, Karl O. Christiansen
evaluated the criminal behavior of 3,586 twin pairs born in Denmark between 1881 and
1910.
 He found that the chance of one twin engaging in criminal behavior when the other twin was
criminal was 50% among the MZ twin pairs but only 20% among the DZ twin pairs. The
correlation between the genetic closeness of the biological relationship and crime was
especially true for serious violent crime and for lengthier criminal careers.

 These findings were supported by additional work on the self-reported delinquency of twins in
the 1980s and 1990s by David C. Rowe and his colleagues. This research found that MZ
twins were more likely than DZ twins to both be involved in delinquent activity . Moreover, MZ
twins reported more delinquent peers than did DZ twins (Rowe, 1983). The work of Rowe and
his colleagues supported a genetic component to delinquency but also provided evidence of a
social component.

Although twin studies have provided some support for a genetic component to behavior, it is
difficult to separate the influence of genetics from the influence of social factors. There also are
theoretical problems with the assumption that twins raised in the same home are subject to the
same treatment and the same social environment. Even scholars who study the link between
criminal behavior and genetics are cautious with their conclusions, arguing that these types of
studies reveal only that the similarities between twins have some impact on behavior.

3. Adoption Studies
In adoption studies, the behavior of adoptees is compared with the outcomes of their adopted
and biological parents. The aim is to separate out the impact of the environment from the influence
of heredity. This research asks whether a child will exhibit traits of the adopted parents or of the
biological parents.

 Research indicates that an adoptee with a biological parent who is criminal is more likely to
engage in property crime than other adoptees and that this effect is stronger for boys. The
findings, from a study of 14,427 Danish children adopted between 1924 and 1947, provide
evidence that there may be a genetic factor in the predisposition to antisocial behavior
(Mednick, Gabrielli, & Hutchins, 1984). Studies in both Sweden and in the United States
confirm these conclusions.
Activity 4
Name: ______________________________________________ Score: __________________

Essay: read the questions and write your answers legibly and in paragraph form.

1. What have you understand about chromosomes and the reason why a person commits a
crime?
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________

2. Explain in your own word the criminal anthropology.

___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________
MODULE 5
Lesson’s Objective:
1. Discuss the role of neurotransmitter to crime causation.
2. Differentiate the work of William Sheldon to Earnest Kretchmer.
3. Discuss the work of Earnest Hooton

Brain Neurotransmitters

Role of neurotransmitters and hormones

There are many neurotransmitters that have been implicated in emotional and crime related
behavior. Studies conducted on experimental animals and case studies of
individuals have shown that lowering serotonin levels in the brain can trigger aggressive
behavior.
These lower levels can be caused by intake of certain drugs or even destruction
of regions in the brain that is heavily concentrated with serotonin neurons. It is also implicated in
not just acts of external violence but self-inflicted harm such as suicide
(Badaway, 2003; Glick, 2015; Krakowski, 2003).
Serotonin was also found to inhibit both predatory and affective aggression. In the case of
affective aggression, the serotonergic hypo function is also found to have a hereditary basis, wherein
it predisposes an individual towards hostility and impulsive behaviour. A reduction in serotonergic
functioning is observed in the circuit involving emotional regulation, including the anterior
cingulate cortex and the prefrontal cortex, which then leads to affective aggression. This
dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex is also found to become morbid with the affective aggression in
various other conditions, namely, substance abuse and suicidal tendencies (Seo, Patrick, &
Kennealy, 2008).
 One of the hypotheses ascertaining the link between levels of serotonin and aggression is the
‘low serotonin syndrome” implying that people in such a state have an “impulsive personality”, and
the “irritable aggression model” postulate that hypo-functioning of serotonin neurons lead to
increased irritation and increased reactivity to triggers and situations (Badaway, 2003). Low levels
of serotonin in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) are characteristic of a person who is impulsive and
aggressive (Glenn & Raine, 2014).

Fast facts on serotonin:

 Serotonin is an important chemical and neurotransmitter in the human body.

 It is believed to help regulate mood and social behavior, appetite and digestion, sleep,
memory, and sexual desire and function.
 There may be a link between serotonin and depression. If so, it is unclear whether low
serotonin levels contribute to depression, or if depression causes a fall in serotonin levels.
 Drugs that alter serotonin levels are used to treat depression, nausea, and migraine, and
they may have a role in obesity and Parkinson’s disease.
 Other ways to increase body serotonin levels may include mood induction, light, exercise,
and diet.

Modern Bio Criminology

 Modern bio-criminology was theorized by Cesare Lombroso, and Italian Criminologist. He

argued that criminals were born, not made, and that they were evolutionary throwback to a
time when people and particularly men were more aggressive and violent and less able to be
civilized.
 The sub-discipline of criminology that investigates biological and genetic factors and their
relation to criminal behaviors.

SOMATOTYPE THEORY

This somatotype theory relates to the distincteve body types to personality characteristics
and relates criminal behavior to the body type. People are born with an inherited body type based
on skeletal frame and body composition.

Somatotyping is the classification of people into types according to body build.

William H. Sheldon

- He was an American psychologist, born on November

19, 1898.
- He was best known for his theory associating physique,
personality, and crime or delinquency known as
Somatotyping Theory.
- Somatotyping theory, maintains the belief of inheritance
as the primary determinants of behavior and the
physique is a reliable indicator of personality.
Classification of Body Physique by Sheldon

a. The endomorphs – a type with predominance of

soft and rounded throughout the regions of the
body. They have low specific gravity and commonly
persons with typically relaxed and comfortable
disposition.

Body Features
- Soft body, underdeveloped muscles, round shaped,
over-developed digestive system

Associated Personality Traits

(mostly “viscerotonic” types – extrovert) including;
- Love of food, being tolerant, evenness of emotions
- Love of comfort, sociable, good humored, relaxed
- Need for affection

Associated Criminal Behavior

- Proneness to crimes involving deceit and fraud

b. The Mesomorphs – refers to the athletic types, those with a predominance of muscle, bone
and connective tissue, normally heavy, hard and firm, sting and tough. They are the people
who are routinely active and aggressive.

Body Features
- Hard muscular body, overly mature appearance
- Rectangular shaped, thick skin, upright posture

Associated Personality Traits

(mostly “somotonic” types – active/aggressive)
- Adventurous, desire for power and dominance
- Courageous, assertive, bold, zest for physical activity, being competitive, love of risk and
chance

Associated Criminal Behavior

- Routinely active and prone to violent crimes
- Prone to sexual assault

The Ectomorphs – thin physique, flat chest, delicacy through the body, slender, poorly muscled.
They tend to look more fatigue and withdrawn.

Body Features
- Thin/flat chest, delicate build, young appearance
- Tall but lightly muscled, stoop-shouldered, large brain
Associated Personality Traits
(mostly “celebrotonic” types – introvert)
- Self- conscious and preference for privacy, introverted and inhibited, socially anxious
- Artistic and mentally intense, emotionally restrained

Associated Criminal Behavior

- Proneness to crimes against property

 Similar classification of somatotypes was developed by German psychiatrist Ernst

Kretschmer in 1921.

Ernest Kretschmer (1888- 1964) Criminal Physical Inferiority Theory

- Kretschmer became popular in the field of criminology, for his work on body physique and
character in 1925, which advanced the theory that certain mental disorders were more
common among people of specific physical types.
- The idea of somatotyping was originated from his work, who distinguish three principal types
of physique as:
o Asthenic – lean, slightly built, narrow shoulders
o Athletic – medium to tall, strong, muscular, course bones
o Pyknic – medium height, rounded figure, massive neck, broad face
- Kretschmer suggested that the lanky asthenics, and to a lesser degree the athletic types,
were more prone to schizophrenia, while the pyknic types were more likely to develop
manic- depressive disorders.
- According to him, pyknic persons are friendly and interpersonally dependent (Manic
Types). The thin physique is associated with introversion and timidity (withdrawn types).

Earnest A. Hooton (1887- 1954)

Earnest Albert Hooton, was a Physical Anthropologist,

born on November 20, 1887.
Although not a criminologist, he is popularly known in
the field of criminology for his Criminal Physical
Inferiority Theory.
The underpinnings of his ideas concerning the physical
inferiority of criminals are reflected in one of his earlier
works, The Asymmetrical Character of Human Evolution,
in which he argues that human development has not
been uniform, but rather that some traits have
developed differently for different subsets of people.
 It was his anthropological background which led him to the study of criminals and criminal
behavior as linked to physically inherited characteristics.
Hooton felt that he had discovered that the cause of criminal or deviant behavior was the
physical inferiority of the criminal in comparison to the non-criminal. He also re-examined
the work of Charles Goring and found out that “Tall thin men tend to commit forgery and
fraud, undersized men are thieves and burglars, short heavy person commit assault, rape and
other sex crimes; whereas mediocre (average) physique flounder around among other crimes.

Activity 5
Name:______________________________________________
Score:__________________

Essay: read the questions and write your answers legibly and in paragraph form.

1. Give the distinction between the work of Sheldon and Kretschmer.

___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________

2. In positivist theory, what do you aprreciate most? Why?

___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________
Assessment 5

Name:______________________________________________ Score:__________________

Read and analyze the given statements and identify what is being asked? Write the letter only.
Strictly no erasures.

a. ENDOMORPHS f. SOMOTONIC TYPE

b. CELEBROTONIC TYPE g. VISCEROTONIC
c. ECTOMORPHS h.MESOMORPHS
d. ERNST KRETSCHMER i. PYKNIC
e. SOMATOTYPING THEORY j.ECTOMORPHS

1. This theory maintains the belief of inheritance as the primary determinants of behavior and
the physique is a reliable indicator of personality.
2. Proneness to crime against property.
3. A type with predominance of soft and rounded throughout the regions of the body. They have
low specific gravity and commonly persons with typically relaxed and comfortable disposition.
4. Self- conscious and preference for privacy, introverted and inhibited, socially anxious.
Artistic and mentally intense, emotionally restrained
5. He became popular in the field of criminology, for his work on body physique and character
in 1925.
6. Adventurous, desire for power and dominance. Courageous, assertive, bold, zest for physical
activity, being competitive, love of risk and chance
1. refers to the athletic types, those with a predominance of muscle, bone and connective
tissue, normally heavy, hard and firm, sting and tough. They are the people who are
routinely active and aggressive.
2. This type is extrovert, love of food, being tolerant, evenness of emotions.
3. Thin physique, flat chest, delicacy through the body, slender, poorly muscled. They tend to
look more fatigue and withdrawn.
4. Medium height, rounded figure, massive neck, broad face.
MODULE 6
Lesson Objectives:
1. Discuss Sociological Theory
2. Recognize the different personalities under sociological theory

THEORY OF CRIME CAUSATION: SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY

The sociological approach theorize that crime is shaped by factors external to the individual:
their experiences within the neighborhood, the peer group and the family. It means that the society
“construct” criminality. It attempts to connect the issues of individual’s criminality with the broader
social structures and cultural values of society, familial, or peer group.

What are the social conditions responsible for criminality?

a. Broken families
b. Poor parenting
c. Low quality educational experiences
d. Poverty
e. Lack of equal economic opportunity
f. Inadequate socialization

What are the sociological theories?

Ernest Watson Burgess (1886 – 1966)

Was an American Sociologist.

- He collaborated with sociologist Robert Ezra Park and came out with Introduction to the
Science of Sociology, which became one of the most influential sociology book, even
referred as the “Bible of Sociology”.
 - Burgess is an advocate of the Social Disorganization
Theory – which link crime rates to neighborhood
ecological characteristics, youths from disadvantaged
neighborhoods were participants in a subculture in
which delinquency was approved behavior and that
criminality was acquired in social and cultural settings
through a process of interaction – that place
matters.
- Together with Park, Burgess also developed the
Concentric Zone Theory – argued that neighborhood
conditions, be the wealth or poverty, had a much
greater determinant effect on criminal behavior than ethnicity, race, or religion.

The concentric zone model, also known as the Burgess

model or the CCD model, is one of the earliest theoretical
models to explain urban social structures.

Key (from outside to inside)

  Commuter zone (outer ring)
   Residential zone
 Working class zone
  Zone of transition
  Factory zone
  Central business district (center)
  Working from the outer zone inward, Zone V was titled the Commuters Zone.  This zone
was described by Burgess as being inhabited by those that could afford the more expensive
“bungalows” common to this zone as well as transportation to the inner city for
entertainment and work (Burgess, 1928). 

 Zone IV, the Residential Zone, was described to be inhabited by well-educated, middle
class families.
 
 The third zone, the zone of the Workmen’s Homes, is generally inhabited by those that can
afford to move beyond the inner-most city limits, second generations of immigrant families
(Lersch, 2011).  Burgess describes Zone III as being close enough to the inner zones as
workers can reach workplaces by foot (1928). 

 Zone II, the Zone in Transition, is known as “the least desirable area to live in the city”
(Lersch, 2011).  This area can be described as the melting pot of poor, immigrant, destitute,
and criminal (Burgess, 1928).  Ignored by residents and landlords, these areas are distinct in
their dilapidated housing and infrastructure (Lersch, 2011).  Drugs, prostitution, gang
activity, and general economic misery are all prominent within the second zone. 

 The innermost zone, The Loop, is a business and commerce heavy area that is commuted to
by inhabitants of the other four zones. 

Characteristics of communities where crime is more likely to happen:

1. Economically deprived
2. Large in size
3. High in multiunit housing like apartments
4. High in residential mobility (people frequently move into and out of the community)
5. High in family disruption (high rates of divorce, single parent families).

David Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1917)

 He was a French sociologist, born in France in

1858.
 In the field of criminology, he was famous for his
work on the “Anomie Theory “.

Anomie Theory – focused on the sociological point of the

positivist school which explains that the absence of norms in a
society provides a setting conductive to crimes and other anti-
social acts.
  Durkheim used the term anomie to describe the lack of social regulation in modern
societies as one manner that could elevate higher suicide rates.
 This also refers to a psychological state of confusion caused by rapidly changing
industrial evolution and accompanying social dislocation and the effect this change to
people.
 This state is popularly conceptualized as “normlessness” – it is a feeling, an attitude, a
psychological perspective that causes those who experience is to feel confused,
frustrated, annoyed angry, hostile, embarrassed and even resigned or doomed.
 He contended that those who feel this way may attempt to relieve themselves by
committing deviant acts while others may resort to an extreme aggravated resolution
and commit suicide.

Durkheim proposed the following principles:

1. Crime is a natural thing in the society

2. The concept of wrong is necessary to give meaning to right
3. Crime helps society for changes – it means that a society to be flexible to permit positive
deviation must permit negative deviations as well.
Activity 6

Name: _________________________________________________ Score: ____________________

Essay: read the questions and write your answers legibly and in paragraph form.

1. Explain the five concentric zone model of Burgess.

___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________

2. Explain Anomie theory.

___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________

Assessment 6

Name: _________________________________________________ Score: ____________________

Read and analyze the given statements and identify what is being asked? Write the letter only.
Strictly no erasures.

1. He was a French sociologist, born in France in 1858.

2. Park and came out with Introduction to the Science of Sociology.
3. Focused on the sociological point of the positivist school which explains that the absence of
norms in a society provides a setting conductive to crimes and other anti- social acts.
4. The Loop, is a business and commerce heavy area that is commuted to by inhabitants of the
other four zones.
5. This zone was described to be inhabited by well-educated, middle class families.
 6. This zone was described by Burgess as being inhabited by those that could afford the more
expensive “bungalows” common to this zone as well as transportation to the inner city for
entertainment and work.
7. Is known as “the least desirable area to live in the city”.
8. Argued that neighborhood conditions, be the wealth or poverty, had a much greater
determinant effect on criminal behavior than ethnicity, race, or religion.
9. Is generally inhabited by those that can afford to move beyond the inner-most city limits,
second generations of immigrant families.
10.Which link crime rates to neighborhood ecological characteristics, youths from disadvantaged
neighborhoods were participants in a subculture in which delinquency was approved
behavior and that criminality was acquired in social and cultural settings through a process
of interaction.

MODULE 7
1. Discuss the work of Robert Merton
2. Familiarize with the different theories under sociological theory

ROBERT K. MERTON (1910- 2003)

 Was an American Sociologist, born on July 4, 1910

 Robert Merton is considered the premier sociologist of
the modern days, who after Durkheim also related the
crime problem to anomie.
 Merton further stated that crime occurs when there is
a gap between the cultural goals of society (e.g.
material wealth, status) and the structural means to
achieve these (e.g. education, employment).
 To illustrate, those who have access or successfully
compete for social capital (money), are more contented
(have less anomie), where those who do not are less
satisfied and therefore experience ore anomie.
 Merton developed the concept of “anomie” to describe
the imbalance between cultural goals and
institutionalized means. He argued that such
imbalanced society produces anomie – there is a
strain or tension between the goals and means which produce unsatisfied aspirations.

According to Merton anomie can be separated into two specific categories:

a. ) Macroside – caused when society fails to establish clear limits on goals and is unable to
regulate the conduct of members in the society
 b. ) Microside – more commonly refers to as strain, stresses its attention towards the
breakdown of society and the increase in deviance associated with this declining change
that produces a stronger pressure among members of society to commit crimes.
1. From microside of anomie, he advocated the STRAIN THEORY, which maintains that the
failure of man to achieve a higher status of life caused them to commit crimes in order for
that status/goal to be attained.
2. He argued that crime is a means to achieve goals and the social structure is the root of the
crime problem.
3. He also identifies two kinds of Strain:
a. ) Structural strain - is caused by large part by society, and result when society
creates ideals and individuals then struggle to meet these ideals.
b. ) Individual strain – is caused by the person themselves, as they create their own
ideals and then struggle to meet them.

Robert Agnew (1953)

 He advocated the General Strain Theory influenced by the
works of Durkheim and Merton
 The General Strain Theory revised the strain theory and
addressed many of the criticisms of the original strain theory.
 His General Strain Theory is based on the general idea that
“when people are treated badly they may get upset and engage
in crime”

Research Findings:

1. A range of negative events and conditions increase the likelihood of

crime.
2. Crime has been linked to child abuse and neglect, criminal
victimization, physical punishment by the parents, negative
relation with the parents, negative relations with teachers, negative
school experiences, negative relation with peers, neighborhood
problems, and a wide range of stressful events – like the
divorce/separation of a parent, parental unemployment, and changing schools.

Major Types of Strain (Agnew)

1. Others prevent you from achieving your goals, and

2. Others take things you value or present you with negative or noxious stimuli.
Robert Ezra Park (1864 – 1944)

 Was an American sociologist, born on February 14, 1864.

 He was a major contributor in the field of American

sociology, however, he is best known for his Human
Ecology Theory.

Human Ecology Theory - is the study of interrelationship of

people and their environment, a way of looking at the
interactions of humans with their environments and considering
this relationship as a system.

 It maintains that crime is a function of social change that

occurs along environmental change.
 It also maintains that the isolation, segregation, conflict,
social contract, interaction and social hierarchy of people
are the major influences of criminal behavior and crimes.
Edwin H. Sutherland (1883 – 1950)

 Was an American sociologist, born on August 13, 1883

 He is best known for his Differential Association theory (DAT) and
for defining white-collar crimes.
 Sutherland has been referred to as “the most important
criminologist of the twentieth century” because his explanation
about crime and criminal behavior can be seen as a corrected
extension of social perspective. For this reason, he was famous as
the “Dean of Modern Criminology”.

In his book, Principle of Criminology, he presented the nine basic

principles of DAT:

1. Criminal behavior is learned and not inherited.

2. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of
communication.
3. The principal part of learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups.
This means the impersonal communication, such as movies or newspaper play an important
part in committing criminal behavior.
4. The learning includes(a.) techniques in committing the crime (b.) the specific direction of
motives, drives, rationalization, and attitudes.
5. The specific direction of the motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes
as favorable or unfavorable.
6. One becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over
definitions unfavorable to violation of law.
7. Differential association may vary in frequency, duration, priority and intensity.
 8. The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-criminal
patterns involve all the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning.
9. While criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by
those general needs and values since non-criminal behavior is an expression of the same
needs and values.

Lloyd Ohlin

 He advocated the DOT – Differential Opportunity Theory –

this theory explained that society leads the lower class to
want things and society does things to people.
 Ohlin claimed that there is differential opportunity, or access,
to success goas by both legitimate and illegitimate means
depending on the specific location of the individual within the
social structure: Criminal (making a living from crime),
conflict (territorial violence and gang fighting) and retreatist
(drugs and alcohol).
 Thus lower class groups are provided with greater
opportunities for the acquisition of deviant acts.
Activity 7

Name: _________________________________________________ Score: ____________________

Essay: read the questions and write your answers legibly and in paragraph form.

1. Explain the difference between Microside and Macroside.

___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________

2. Explain the difference between the work of Robert Merton and Robert and Agnew.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________

Assessment 7

Name: _________________________________________________ Score: ____________________

Read and analyze the given statements and identify what is being asked? Write the letter only.
Strictly no erasures.
 1. considered the premier sociologist of the modern days, who after Durkheim also related the
crime problem to anomie.
2. this theory explained that society leads the lower class to want things and society does things
to people.
3. Dean of Modern Criminology”.
4. He is best known for his Differential Association theory (DAT) and for defining white-collar
crimes.
5. Is the study of interrelationship of people and their environment, a way of looking at the
interactions of humans with their environments and considering this relationship as a
system?
6. He was a major contributor in the field of American sociology, however, he is best known for
his Human Ecology Theory.
7. He advocated the General Strain Theory influenced by the works of Durkheim and Merton
8. Caused when society fails to establish clear limits on goals and is unable to regulate the
conduct of members in the society
9. This is more commonly refers to as strain, stresses its attention towards the breakdown of
society and the increase in deviance associated with this declining change that produces a
stronger pressure among members of society to commit crimes.
10.Is caused by the person themselves, as they create their own ideals and then struggle to meet
them.

MODULE 8
Lesson Objectives:
1. Explain the work of Albert Cohen
2. Explain the work of Travis Hirschi
3. Discuss the work of Walter Reckless

Albert K. Cohen (1918)

 Albert K. Cohen published Delinquent Boys: The Culture

of the Gangs in 1955.

 He advocated the Sub – Culture Theory of delinquency –

claims that the lower class cannot socialized effectively as
the middle class in what considered appropriate middle
class behavior.

 assumes that crime is a consequence of the union of

young people into so-called subcultures in which deviant
values and moral concepts dominate. Subcultural theory
became the dominant theory of its time.
 
Thus the lower class gathered together to share their common problems, forming a
subculture that rejects middle class values.
Cohen called this process as reaction formation.

 According to Cohen, these delinquent subcultures are characterized above all by their
deviant values and morals, which enable their members to gain prestige and recognition. The
behaviour that is displayed within the subculture is fundamentally different from that
outside the subculture because of these new norms. For society as a whole, they seem
deviant, often criminal. As an alternative status system, however, subculture justifies
hostility and aggression towards non-members, thereby eliminating possible feelings of guilt.

Delinquent subcultures are, according to Cohen (see: Downes & Rock, 2007):

 Non -utilitarian (the deviant actions are not committed on the basis of economic rationality)
 malicious (the purpose of delinquent acts is to annoy or even injure others)
 negativistic (criminal acts are committed precisely because of their prohibition in order to
consciously reject conventional values)
 versatile (in the sense of various delinquent behaviors that occur)
 hedonistic (the focus is on the momentary pleasure)
 resistant (to external pressure of conformity and loyal towards their own group members,
values and norms)

Travis Hirschi (1935)

 He advocated the Social Control Theory. Specifically, in his
Causes of delinquency, published in 1969, he explained the
Social Bond Theory.

o He argued that delinquency can be

explained by the absence of social
bonds such as: attachments how
strong or weak is an individual’s
relationship with others (e.g., to
parents, teachers, and peers),
involvement in conventional
activities, and the more time the
individual spends engaging in law
abiding behavior
acceptance/commitment of social
norms (such as the norms that criminal acts should be avoided),or
the individual commits himself/herself to a particular lifestyle
(being married, being a parent, having a job) and
recognition/belief of the moral validity (relates to upbringing) of
law are most likely to prevent delinquency.
 Walter Reckless
 He was born on January 19, 1899. He is popularly
known for hid Containment Theory of Delinquency in
his Juvenile Delinquency, which was published 1932.
 Containment Theory is a broad analysis of the
relationship between personal and social controls.
 This theory is a form of control, which suggests that
a series of both internal and external factors
contributes to criminal behavior (Schmallager, 1998).
 The theory assumes that for every individual there
exists a containing external structure and a protective
internal structure, both of which provide defense,
protection or insulation against crime or delinquency.

Activity 8

Name: __________________________________________________ Score: __________________

Essay: read the questions and write your answers legibly and in paragraph form.

1. Explain the Subculture theory of Albert Cohen.

___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________

2. Explain Social Bond Theory of Travis Hirschi.

___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________
Assessment 8

Name: __________________________________________________ Score: __________________

Essay: read the questions and write your answers legibly and in paragraph form.
1. Give one scenario each social bond to show how an individual indulge to criminality
because its absence.
a. Attachment
b. Involvement
c. Acceptance/commitment
d. Recognition/beliefs

*****

MODULE 9

(Semi-final)
In SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY, Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviorist learning
theories of classical conditioning ( also known as Pavlovian conditioning) is learning through
association)and operant conditioning (is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and
punishments for behavior ) . However, he adds two important ideas:
1. Mediating processes occur between stimuli & responses.
2. Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning.

Three mechanisms by which individuals learn to engage in crime.

1. Differential reinforcement of crime
Individual may teach others to engage in crime through the reinforcement and punishments
they provide for behavior.
What are the instances wherein crime is more likely occur?
a. Is frequently reinforced and infrequently punished.
b. Results in large amounts of reinforcement (lot of money, social approval, or pleasure) and
little punishment
c. Is more likely to be reinforced than alternative behaviors.
 2. Beliefs favorable to crime
Some individual learn beliefs that are favorable to crime and they are more likely to engage in
crime as a result.

Three categories of beliefs favoring crime.

1. Approve minor forms of crime like consensual sexual behavior, gambling, soft drug use,
alcohol use, truancy, and curfew violation
2. Approve or justify certain forms of crime, including some serious crimes (to justify their
wrong doing).
3. Some people hold certain general values that are conductive to crime. These values do not
explicitly approve of or justify crime, but they make crime appear a more attractive
alternative than would otherwise be the case.

3.The imitation of criminal models - Individuals are more likely to imitate other behavior if they
observe them receive reinforcement for the acts.

PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY

 This theory has a general perspective that looks to the psychological functioning,
development, and adjustment of an individual in explaining criminal or deviant acts.
 Under this approach, the criminal act itself is important only in the highlights an underlying
mental issues.
 It focuses on the association among intelligence, personality, learning and criminal behavior.
 It further explains criminal behavior, in part, as factors affecting individuals such as negative
childhood experiences, or incomplete cognitive development.

What are the probes of the psychological theory?

1. Charles B. Goring (1870 – 1919)

 Goring’s most important achievement was The English Convict: A Statistical Study – one of
the most comprehensive criminological works of its time.
 He analyzed over 3,000 English convicts and ultimately concluded that “the physical and
mental constitution of both criminal and law abiding persons, of the same age, stature, class,
and intelligence, are identical”.
 There is no such thing as an anthropological criminal type. And so he contradicted the
Lombroso’s idea that criminality can be seen through physical features.
 Nevertheless, he accepted that criminals are physically inferior to normal individuals in the
sense that criminals tend to be shorter and have less weight than non-criminals.
 Criminals are more likely to be insane, to be unintelligent, and to exhibit poor social
behavior.

THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY (PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME)

 1. This is the period of psychological criminology and the rise of the sociological perspective on
crimes and criminals. This era was a shift of the blame for crimes on human behavior and
the social and environmental circumstances.
2. When examining psychological theories of crime, one must be cognizant of the three major
theories. The first is psychodynamic theory, which is centered on the notion that an
individual’s early childhood experience influences his or her likelihood for committing future
crimes. 
3. The second is behavioral theory. Behavioral theorists have expanded the work of Gabriel
Tarde through behavior modeling and social learning. 
4. The third is cognitive theory, the major premise of which suggests that an individual’s
perception and how it is manifested (Jacoby, 2004) affect his or her potential to commit
crime.

Sigmund Freud (1856- 1969)

Was an Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist who founded the Psychoanalytic School of
Psychology.
In criminology, he is best known for his Psychoanalytic Theory.

Psychoanalytic criminology – is a method of studying crime and criminal behavior, it examines

the personality and the psyche of a person (particularly the unconscious) for motive in crime.

Under this theory, the mind is divided into two main parts:
 The conscious mind – includes everything that we are aware of. This is the aspect of
our mental processing that we can think and talk about rationally.
 The unconscious mind – a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that
outside of our conscious awareness. Most of the contents of the unconscious are
unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict.

Elements of Personality according to Freud

-three elements of personality that are working together to create a complex human behavior:

1. The Id – is the only component of personality that is present from birth.

This aspect of personality is entirely unconscious and includes of the instinctive and
primitive behavior (biological drives like food, sex and other necessities over the life
span which is concern with instant pleasure).
The Id is driven by pleasure principle, which strives for immediate gratification of all
desires, wants, and needs.
If this needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state of anxiety or tension.
If we will be ruled entirely by pleasure, we might find ourselves grabbing things we
want out of other people’s hand to satisfy our own cravings.
2. The Ego – is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with reality.
 The ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the id can be expressed
in a manner acceptable in the real world.
 The ego functions in both the conscious and preconscious and unconscious mind.
 The operates based on the reality principle, which strives to satisfy the id’s desires in
realistic and socially appropriate ways.
  The reality principle, weighs the cost and benefits of an action before deciding to act
upon or abandon impulses.

3. The Superego - the last component of the personality to develop is the superego.
a. The superego is the aspect of personality that holds all of our internalized moral
standards and ideals that we acquire both parents and society – our sense of right
and wrong.
b. The superego provides guidelines for making judgments.
c. It works to suppress all unacceptable urges of the id and struggles to make the ego act
upon idealistic standards rather than upon realistic principles.
d. The superego is present in the conscious, preconscious and unconscious.
5. Furthermore, he maintains that:
Criminal behavior is a form of neurosis, that criminality may result from an overactive
conscience.
Crime is the result of the compulsive need for punishment to alleviate guilt and anxiety.
Criminal behavior is a means of obtaining gratification of need.
Criminal conducts represent a displaced hostility. Criminality is essentially a representation
of psychological conflict.

ACTIVITY 9

Name:____________________________________________________ Score:___________________________

1. Explain the following on your own words.

a. Elements of human personality; ID, Ego, and Superego.

___________________________________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________.

b. Classical and Operant conditioning.

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2. Give at least 2 scenarios f you under conscious and unconscious mind.

MODULE 10

Behavioral Theory - This theory maintains that human behavior is developed through learning
experiences. The hallmark of behavioral theory is the notion that people alter or change their
behavior according to the reactions this behavior elicits in other people.

Social learning theory, which is a branch of behavior theory, is the most relevant to criminology.
 The most prominent social learning theorist is Albert Bandura (1978).
 Bandura maintains that individuals are not born with an innate ability to act violently. He
suggested that, in contrast, violence and aggression are learned through a process of
behavior modeling (Bandura, 1977).
 In other words, children learn violence through the observation of others. Aggressive acts are
modeled after three primary sources: (1) family interaction, (2) environmental experiences,
and (3) the mass media.
Cognitive Theory
Two subdisciplines of cognitive theory are worthy of discussion. The first subdiscipline is the moral
development branch, the focus of which is understanding how people morally represent and reason
about the world. The second subdiscipline is information processing. Here, researchers focus on
the way people acquire, retain, and retrieve information (Siegal, 2009).

Moral development theory of Lawrence Kohlberg

Kohlberg (1984) believed that individuals pass through stages of moral development. Most
important to his theory is the notion that there are levels, stages, and social orientation. The three
levels are Level I, preconventional; Level II, conventional; and Level III, postconventional. With respect
to the different stages, Stages 1 and 2 fall under Level I. Stages 3 and 4 fall under Level II, and
Stages 5 and 6 fall under Level III.
 Stage 1 is concerned about obedience and punishment. This level is most often found at the
grade levels of kindergarten through fifth grade. During this stage, individuals conduct
themselves in a manner that is consistent with socially acceptable norms (Kohlberg, 1984). 
 Stage 2 is characterized by individualism, instrumentalism, and exchange. Ultimately, the
characterization suggests that individuals seek to fulfill their own interests and recognize
that others should do the same. This stage maintains that the right behavior means acting in
one’s own best interests (Kohlberg, 1984).
 Stage 3, the individual recognizes that he or she is now a member of society. Coinciding with
this is the understanding of the roles that one plays. An important concept within this stage
is the idea that individuals are interested in whether or not other people approve or
disapprove of them (Kohlberg, 1984).
 Stage 4, the premise is based on law and order. In this stage, individuals recognize the
importance of laws, rules, and customs. This is important because in order to properly
function in society, one must obey and recognize the social pillars of society. Ultimately,
individuals must recognize the significance of right and wrong. Obviously, a society without
laws and punishments leads to chaos. In contrast, if an individual who breaks the law is
punished, others would recognize that and exhibit obedience. Kohlberg (1984) suggested that
the majority of individuals in our society remain at this stage, in which morality is driven by
outside forces.
 Stage 5 is referred to as the social contract. Here, individuals are concerned with the moral
worth of societal rules and values, but only insofar as they are related to or consistent with
the basic values of liberty, the welfare of humanity, and human rights. Fundamental terms
associated with this stage are majority decision and compromise.
 Stage 6 is often termed principled conscience. This stage is characterized by universal
principles of justice and respect for human autonomy. Most important to criminal justice and
criminology is the notion that laws are valid only if they are based on or grounded in justice.
It is important to recognize that justice is subjective. Thus, Kohlberg argued that the quest
for justice would ultimately call for disobeying unjust laws. He suggested that individuals
could progress through the six stages in a chronological fashion. Important for criminology is
that Kohlberg suggested that criminals are significantly lower in their moral judgment
development.

The next sub discipline is the information-processing branch. This area is predicated on the
notion that people use information to understand their environment.
  When an individual makes a decision, he or she engages in a sequence of cognitive thought
processes. To illustrate, individuals experience an event and encode or store the relevant
information so it can be retrieved and interpreted at a later date (Conklin, 2007).
 Second, these individuals search for the appropriate response, and then they determine the
appropriate action.
 Last, they must act on their decision.
There are some vital findings regarding this process.
 First, individuals who use information properly are more likely to avoid delinquent or criminal
behavior (Shelden, 2006).
 Second, those who are conditioned to make reasoned judgments when faced with emotional
events are more likely to avoid antisocial behavioral decisions (Siegal, 2008).
 Interestingly, an explanation for flawed reasoning is that the individual may be relying on a
faulty cognitive process; specifically, he or she may be following a mental script that was
learned in childhood (Jacoby, 2004).
 A second reason that may account for flawed reasoning is prolonged exposure
to violence.
 A third possibility of faulty reasoning is oversensitivity or rejection by parents
or peers. Contemplating the consequences of long-lasting rejection or dismissal is
likely to produce damage to an individual’s self-esteem. Research has demonstrated
that individuals who use violence as a coping mechanism are substantially more likely
to exhibit other problems, such as alcohol and drug dependency (Piquero & Mazarolle,
2001).

ACTIVITY 10

Name:______________________________________________ Score:__________________

Instruction: Read the question first before writing the answer. 10 pts. Each.

1. Two subdisciplines of cognitive theory. Expalin each.

2. Explain the social learning theory of Albert Bandura.

 3. Explain behavioral theory.

Assessment 10

Name: ______________________________________________ Score: __________________

Written Exercise

1. On what stage where an individual is concerned with the moral worth of societal rules and
values.
2. This stage is characterized by universal principles of justice and respect for human
autonomy.
3. Is a method of studying crime and criminal behavior, it examines the personality and the
psyche of a person (particularly the unconscious) for motive in crime.
4. This stage is characterized by universal principles of justice and respect for human
autonomy.
5. This level is most often found at the grade levels of kindergarten through fifth grade.
6. Is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with reality.
7. the focus of which is understanding how people morally represent and reason about the
world.
8. Is the only component of personality that is present from birth.
9. This theory maintains that human behavior is developed through learning experiences.
10.Is a method of studying crime and criminal behavior, it examines the personality and the
psyche of a person (particularly the unconscious) for motive in crime.

MODULE 11

OTHER THEORIES

Gresham Sykes
He advocated the Neutralization Theory – maintains that individual will obey or disobey societal
rules depending upon his or her ability to rationalize whether he is protected from hurt or
destruction.
People become law abiding if they feel they are benefited by it and they violate it if these laws are
not favorable to them.
Earl Richard Quinney (1934)
 He advocated the Instrumentalist Theory, a Marxist capitalist rule idea.
 He argued that the state exists as a device for controlling the exploited class – the class that
labors for the benefit of the ruling class.
 He claims that upper classes create laws that protect their interest and the same time the
unwanted behavior of all other members of society.

Howard S. Becker (1928)

 He advocated the Labelling Theory also known as Social Reaction Theory, which is based
on the idea that a social deviant is not inherently deviant individual, rather they become
deviant because they are labelled as such.
 Social groups create deviance by making rules whose infraction create deviance, and by
applying those rules to particular people and labelling them as outsiders.
 From this point of view, deviance is not a quality of the act the person commits, but rather a
consequence of the application by another of rues and sanctions to an offender.
 In other words, an act becomes deviant only when others (society) label them as deviant.

Karl H. Marx (1818 – 1940)

 He was a German philosopher, economist, socialist and historian.

 In the context of criminological thoughts, together with Friedrich Engels, they advocated the
Social Class Conflict and capitalism Theory.
 They claimed that the ruling class in a capitalist society is responsible for the creation of
criminal law and their ideological basis in the interpretation and enforcement of the laws.
 All are reflected in the ruling class, thus crime and delinquency are reflected on the
demoralized surplus of population, which is made up the underprivileged usually the
unemployed and underemployed.

What are the characteristics of the capitalist?

1. Act to increase their profits
- They resist improvements in working conditions
- They attempt to hold down wages of workers
2. Acknowledge that disputes sometimes arise within the capitalist class and that the
government sometimes makes concessions to workers in an effort to protect the long term
interest of capitalist.

Charles R. Darwin (1809 – 1882)

  Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution, laid the foundation of anthropological
criminology.
 he claimed that humans, like other animals, are parasite.an organism having an animalistic
behavior and is dependent on other animals for survival.
 Thus man kills and steal to live, and this social Darwinism idea was influential to Lombroso’s
anthropological work on the “born criminal”

Adolphe J. Quetelet (1796 – 1874)

 Was a Belgian Statistician who pioneered Cartography and the Cartographical School of
Criminology that placed emphasis on social statistics.
 Through statistical analysis, he gained insight about the relationships between crime and
other social factors.
 Among his findings were strong relationships between age and crime, as well as gender and
crime.
 He also discovered that crimes against persons tends to increase during summer while
crimes against property tends to increase during winter (may be considered seasonal crimes).

ACTIVITY 11

Name:______________________________________________ Score:__________________

Instruction: Read the question first before writing the answer. 10 pts. Each.

1. Explain Labelling theory

 _____________________________________________________________________________.

2. Explain the capitalist theory.

___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________.

3. Explain the characteristics of the capitalist.

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___________________________________________________.

Module 12

Lesson’s Objective:
1. Discuss cognitive theory
2. Explain the stages in the development of reasoning ability
3. Discuss the six different stages of moral development
Cognitive theory
- This theory signifies that an individual perception and how it is manifested affect his or her
potential to commit crime.it focuses on how people perceive their social environment and
learn to solve their problems. The moral and intellectual development perspective is the
branch of cognitive theory that is most associated with the study of crime and violence.

Development of Reasoning Abilities (Piaget, 1932)

1. The sensorimotor stage (Ages: Birth to 2 years)
Major characteristics and developmental changes
- The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations.
- Children learn about the world through basic actions as sucking, grasping, looking, and
listening.
- Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object
permanence).
- They are separate beings from the people and objects around them.
- They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them.

2. The preoperational stage (Ages 2 to 7 years)

Major characteristics and developmental changes
- Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures t represent objects.
- Children at this stage tends to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective f
others.
- While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things
in very concrete terms.

3. The concrete operational stage (Ages 7 to 11 years)

Major characteristics and developmental changes
- During this stage, children begin to think logically about concrete events.
- They begin to understand the concept of conversation;
- Their thinking becomes more logical and organize, but still very concrete.
- Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general
principle.

4. The formal operational stage (Ages 12 and up)

Major characteristics and developmental changes
- At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about
hypothetical problems.
- Abstract through emerges.
- Teens begins to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social and political issues
that require theoretical and abstract reasoning.
- Begin to use deductive logic, reasoning from a general principle to specific information

Six different Stages of Moral development (Kohlberg, 1969)

Level I: Pre-conventional Morality

Age range: preschool children, elementary students, some junior high school students and a
few high school students.
Stage 1: Punishment-avoidance and obedience
 Nature of moral reasoning: people make decisions based on what is best for themselves,
without regard for others need and feelings. They obey rules only if established by more
powerful individuals; they may disobey if they aren’t likely to get caught. “Wrong” behaviors
are those that will be punished.
Stage 2: exchange of favors
Nature of Moral reasoning: people recognize that others also have needs. They may try to
satisfy others’ needs if their own needs are also met (“you scratch my back, I’ll scratch
yours”). They continue to define right and wrong primarily in terms of consequences to
themselves.

Level II: Conventional Morality

Age Range: seen in a few older elementary school students, some junior high school
students, and many high school students.
Stage 3: good boy/girl
Nature of Moral reasoning: people make decisions based on what actions will pleased others,
especially authority figures and other individuals with high status. They are concerned about
maintaining relationships through sharing, trust, and loyalty, and they take other people’s
perspectives and intentions into account when making decisions.

Stage 4: law and order

Nature of Moral reasoning: people look to society as a whole for guidelines about right and
wrong. They know the rules are necessary for keeping society running smoothly and they
believe it is their duty to obey them. However, they perceive rules to be inflexible; they don’t
necessarily recognize that as society’s need change, rules should change as well.

Level III: Post-conventional morality

Age range: rarely seen before college
Stage 5: Social Contract
Nature of Reasoning: people recognize that rules represent agreements among many
individuals about appropriate behavior. Rules are seen as potentially useful mechanisms
that can maintain the general social order and protect individual rights, rather than as
absolute dictates that must be obeyed simply because they are the law. People also
recognized the flexibility of rules; rules that no longer serve society’s best interest can and
should be changed.

Stage 6: Universal ethical principle

Nature of reasoning: Stage 6 is a hypothetical, ideal stage that few people ever reach. People
in this stage adhere to a few abstract, universal principles that transcend specific norms and
rules. They answer to a strong inner conscience and willingly disobey laws and violate their
own ethical principles.

Research findings of Kohlberg:

1. Violent youths were significantly lower in their moral development than non-violent youth –
even after controlling for social background.
2. People who obey the law simply to avoid punishment are more likely to commit acts of
violence than people who recognize and sympathize with the fundamental rights of others.
Higher levels of moral reasoning, generosity and non-violence. People with lower levels of
moral reasoning will engage in crime and violence when they think they can get away with it.
High levels of moral reasoning will refrain from criminal behaviour because they think it is
wrong.
Activity 12
1. Explain the stages of the development of reasoning abilities by Piaget.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________________.
 2. Differentiate the stages of Moral Development of Kohlberg.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________________.

3. Explain the research findings of Kohlberg.

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__________________________________________________________________________.

Module 13
Lesson’s Objective:
1. Discuss personality theory.
2. Explain humanistic psychological theory and its relevance.
3. Discuss conflict theory
4. Explain right realism theory and its connection to crime.
Personality theory
- This theory believes that criminal activity is the result of a defective, deviant, or inadequate
personality. In short criminal behaviour is associated with defective personality traits.
Examples of deviant personality traits include hostility, impulsiveness, aggression, and
sensation-seeking. The criminal does not have the ability to feel empathy, remorse, or guilt
for his or her actions, and has not developed a sense of right and wrong.

Humanistic Psychological Theory

- This theory explains crime and criminal behavior in terms of human needs. People tend to
adopt behavior because they do not have other options available for sustenance.
- Crime for such people can be a way of adapting. People have physiological needs, safety
needs, belongingness needs as well self-esteem needs but remain unfulfilled most of the time
and people feel helpless because of suppression.

Its relevance:
- This theory was found to be more relevant than the others because it explains crime in real
terms by providing explanations as to how criminal behavior is born of people’s needs. With
this theory it assumed that people are basically good but tend to adopt criminal behavior to
fulfill their unfulfilled needs.

Conflict theory
- The view that society is divided into two or more groups with competing ideas and values.
The groups with the most power makes the laws and controls society. Groups lacking the
formal power to make the rules still maintain their own group norms, and continue in their
behavior, which is now viewed as criminal by the larger society.
- This perspective explains both law and criminal justice (why some acts are legally defined as
criminal) as well as criminal and deviant behavior (why some individuals commit acts defined
as criminal).

Rational Choice Theory (Right Realism)

Proponents: Derek Cornish and Ronald Clarke

- The theorists under the Rational Choice Theory posits that a criminal rationally chooses the
crime to commit and the target of crime. Criminals evaluate available information to decide
whether a crime is attractive and worthwhile.
- Criminal behaviour is centered on the situational aspects because society can achieve a high
degree of crime prevention by focusing on the situational aspects that influence particular
types of criminal behavior.
- It emphasized that individuals as rational actors wherein they are capable of making their
own choices, which includes choosing to commit crime.
- Rational choice theory states that people freely choose their behavior and are motivated by
the avoidance of pain and the pursuit of pleasure.
- The central premise of this theory is that people are rational beings whose behaviour can be
controlled or modified by a fear of punishment.
- This theory is one of the integrated classical theories that have merged the classical and
positivist perspectives to crime and crime prevention based on a person’s rationality and
freedom of choice.
Activity 13
1. Explain the connection of right realism to crime.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________________.
 2. Discuss conflict theory and its relation to the development of deviant behavior?
___________________________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________.

Module 14
Integrated theory: one in which two or more of the major criminological theories are used together
in a new theoretical perspective.

a. Economic Model of Crime

It assumes that an individual will choose the same course of action when confronted
with the same alternatives regarding costs, rewards, and risks. It is also based on the
assumption that a person chooses to commit crime. It means that criminal behavior
 follows a calculation whereby criminals explore the perceived cost, rewards and risks
of alternative actions.

b. Justice Model
It stresses the idea that offenders are responsible people and therefore deserve to be
punished if they violate the law.

c. Just Deserts
It is a justice perspective according to which those who violate other’s rights deserve to
be punished.

Self- Control Theory (General Theory of Crime)

This theory constituted a reassertion of the classical school’s initial contention that
individuals seek personal pleasure while avoiding pain which simply means that people are
motivated by self-interest. Low self-control was the general antecedent cause of
forceful/fraudulent acts undertaken in pursuit of self-interest.

Theory of Frustration aggressiveness

This theory claims that frustration always leads to aggression and every aggression is the
result of frustration which is one of the possible causes of crime.

Proponent: John Dollard and his colleagues from Yale University (1939)

What is frustration?
It is a psychological state of discomfort due to the inability to achieve certain goals or find
solutions for problems.

Feminist theory

- This theory focus on gender differences in power as a source of crime. It addresses two
issues: why are males more involved in most forms of crime than females, and why do
females engage in crime.
- Abused females frequently run away, but they have difficulty surviving on the street. They
are labelled as delinquents, making it difficult for them to obtain legitimate work.
- Theorists have pointed to still other types of strain to explain female crime, like financial and
other difficulties experienced by women trying to raise families without financial support
from fathers.
- The rapid increase in female headed families in recent decades, in fact, has been used to
explain the increase in rates of female property crime.

Activity 14
Reaction Paper. Write your answer in paragraph form. (Minimum words of 150)

Read a research study related to Self – Control Theory. Highlights the findings and give your
reactions. Indicate your reference.
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