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The Sumerians made important advances in areas such as farming and writing that laid the foundation for future civilizations.

The First Civilizations in Mesopotamia

Why did people settle in Mesopotamia?

Civilizations first developed about 3000 B.C. in the river valleys of Mesopotamia (MEH • suh • puh • TAY • mee • uh), Egypt, India, and
China. Throughout history, the need to have water for drinking and growing crops influenced where people settled. Although there were
differences among the early civilizations, they were alike in many ways. As these early civilizations developed, people formed social
classes. The social class people belonged to partly depended on their occupations. They did specialized types of work. Using improved
technology, they made more and better goods. They set up governments to pass laws, defend their land, and carry out large building
projects. The people of these civilizations also developed systems of values and beliefs that gave meaning to their lives.
The Two Rivers
Mesopotamia, the earliest known civilization, developed in what is now southern Iraq (ih • RAHK). Mesopotamia means "the land
between the rivers" in Greek. The civilization began on the plain between the Tigris (TY • gruhs) and the Euphrates (yu • FRAY • teez)
rivers.
These rivers run about parallel to each other and flow more than 1,000 miles (1,600 km). They run southeast from the mountains of
southeastern Asia to the Persian (PUR • zhuhn) Gulf.
Mesopotamia itself was located in the eastern part of the larger Fertile Crescent. This curving strip of good farmland extends from the
Mediterranean (mehd • uh • tuh • RAY • nee • uhn) Sea to the Persian Gulf. The Fertile Crescent includes parts of the modern countries
of Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan.
Early Valley Dwellers
For thousands of years, clues to Mesopotamia's history lay buried among its ruins and piles of rubble. In the 1800s, archaeologists
began to dig up many buildings and artifacts. These finds revealed much about early Mesopotamia.
Historians believe that people first settled Mesopotamia about 7000 B.C. The first settlers were hunters and herders. By about 4000 B.C.,
some of these groups had moved to the plain of the Tigris- Euphrates valley. They built farming villages along the two rivers.
Taming the Rivers
Early Mesopotamian farmers used water from the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers to water their fields. However, the farmers could not
always rely on the rivers for their needs. Little or no rain fell in the summer. As a result, the rivers were often low. The farmers did not
have enough water to plant crops in the fall.
During the spring harvest, rains and melting snow from the northern mountains caused rivers to overflow their banks. This flooded the
plains. Sometimes, unexpected and violent floods swept away crops, homes, and livestock.
Yet farmers in Mesopotamia knew that the floods were also helpful. Flooded rivers were filled with silt, or small particles of soil. When
the floods ended, silt was left on the banks and plains. The silt proved to be a very good soil for farming.
Over time, people in Mesopotamia learned to build dams to control the seasonal floods. They dug canals that let water flow from a
water source to their fields. This method of watering crops is called irrigation (IHR • uh • GAY • shuhn). Irrigation let these early farmers
grow surpluses (SUHR • plus • ehz)—or extra amounts—of food. Farmers stored the surpluses for later use.
When food was plentiful, not all people needed to farm. Some became artisans, or skilled workers. They specialized in weaving cloth
and making pottery, tools, and weapons.
As artisans made more goods, people's lives changed. People began to live together in places that favored trade. Small farming
villages grew into cities. By 3000 B.C., several cities developed in Sumer (SOO • mer), a region in southern Mesopotamia.

Explaining How did floods sometimes help farmers?

Sumer's Civilization
What was life like in Sumer?

Sumer's people were known as Sumerians. They built the first cities in Southwest Asia, including Ur (uhr), Uruk (OO • rook), and Eridu
(ER • i • doo). These cities became centers of civilization that controlled the lower part of the Tigris and Euphrates valleys.
City-States Arise

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Sumer's cities were surrounded by mudflats and patches of scorching desert. The harsh landscape made it hard to travel by land and
communicate with other groups. This meant that each city was largely cut off from its neighbors.
As a result, Sumerian cities became independent. The people of each city raised their own crops and made their own goods. As the
cities grew, they gained political and economic control over the lands around them. By doing this, they formed city-states. Each city-
state had its own government and was not part of any larger governing state. The population of the city-states ranged from about 5,000
to 20,000 people.
Historians think that each Sumerian city-state was protected by a large city wall. Ruins and artifacts have been found by archaeologists
that support this theory. Because stone and wood were in short supply, the Sumerians used mud from the rivers as their main building
material. They mixed mud with crushed reeds, formed bricks, and left them in the sun to dry. The gates of the wall stayed open during
the day but were closed at night for protection. The ruler's palace, a large temple, and other public buildings were located in the center
of the city.
Often, these city-states went to war with one another over resources and political borders. Sometimes, they fought to win glory or to
gain more territory. During times of peace, citystates traded with each other. They also agreed to help each other by forming alliances
(uh • LY • uhns • uhs) to protect their common interests.
Gods, Priests, and Kings
The Sumerian people worshipped many gods, a type of belief known as polytheism (PAH • lee • thee • ih • zuhm). These multiple gods
played different roles in Sumerian life. The Sumerians thought that some gods had power over parts of nature, such as the rain or the
wind. They also believed that some gods guided the things that people did, such as plowing or brick-making. They honored whatever
god would help their activity.
Although Sumerians honored all the gods, each city-state claimed one as its own. To honor its god, a city-state often included a large
temple called a ziggurat (ZIG • oo • rat). The word ziggurat means "to rise high" in the ancient Akkadian (uh • KAY • dee • uhn)
language. The very top of the ziggurat was a holy place. It was the god's home, and only special priests were allowed to go there. In the
early days, priests of the ziggurat ruled the city-states. Groups of important men helped them govern. Later, Sumerian citystates
became monarchies.
Sumerian kings claimed they received their power to rule from the city's god. The first kings were most likely war heroes. Over time,
their rule became hereditary. This meant that after a king died, his son took over. In most cases, the wives of kings did not have political
power. However, some controlled their own lands.
Social Groups
People in Sumer were divided into social classes. Generally, people remained in the social class into which they were born. Kings,
priests, warriors, and government officials belonged to the upper class. The middle class consisted of merchants, farmers, fishers, and
artisans. The middle class was Sumer's largest social group. Enslaved people made up Sumer's lowest class. Most of these workers
had been captured in war. Also, criminals and people who could not pay their debts often were enslaved. Enslaved men and women
worked for the upper class.
Women and men had different roles in Sumerian society. The basic unit of society was the family. Men were the head of the home.
Boys went to school and were trained for a specific job. Sumerian women ran the home, taught their daughters to do the same, and
cared for the children. Women had a few civil rights. Some owned businesses. Sumerian law required parents to care for their children.
The law also required adult children to care for their parents if their parents needed help.
Farmers and Traders
If you lived in Sumer, you were most likely a farmer. Each farmer had a plot of land located in the area around a city-state. Dams and
waterways ran through this farmland. Wheat, barley, and dates were the major crops. Farmers also raised sheep, goats, and pigs.
Trade was another key part of Sumer's economy. The Sumerians did not have some of the goods that they needed. For example, even
though many Sumerians were skilled metalworkers, they had to trade with other peoples to obtain most of their metals. Trade routes
linked Sumer to places as far away as India and Egypt.
Sumerian merchants went to other lands. They traded wheat, barley, and tools for timber, minerals, and metals. The minerals and
metals were then used to make jewelry or tools. For jewelry making, Sumerians valued a red stone called carnelian from India's Indus
Valley. They also searched for a blue stone known as lapis lazuli from what is now Afghanistan. Traders returned with iron and silver
from present-day Turkey.

Analyzing Why do you think the Sumerians built cities with walls around them?

Sumerian Contributions
What ideas and inventions did Sumerians pass on to other civilizations?

The Sumerians created the first civilization that had a great influence on history. Later civilizations copied and improved many of the
ideas and inventions that began in Sumer. As a result, Mesopotamia has been called the "cradle of civilization." It was the beginning of
organized human society.

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Writing
Of all the contributions made by Sumerians to the world, writing is perhaps the most important. The writing system they developed was
the earliest known system in the world. Writing was a way for Sumerians to keep records of their lives and their history. Writing was also
a way to share information. They could pass on their ideas to later generations.
Sumerians created a way of writing called cuneiform (kyoo • NEE • uh • FAWRM). The cuneiform writing system was made up of about
1,200 different characters. Characters represented such things as names, physical objects, and numbers. Cuneiform was written by
cutting wedge-shaped marks into damp clay with a sharp reed. The name cuneiform comes from a Latin word meaning "wedge."
Sumerians wrote on clay because they did not have paper. Archaeologists have found cuneiform tablets that have provided important
information about Mesopotamian history.
Only a few people—mostly boys from wealthy families— learned how to read and write cuneiform. After years of training, some
students became scribes (SKRYBS), or official record keepers. Scribes wrote documents that recorded much of the everyday life in
Mesopotamia, including court records, marriage contracts, business dealings, and important events. Some scribes were judges and
government officials.
Sumerians told stories orally for centuries. After developing writing, they were able to record these stories. Their tales praised the gods
and warriors for doing great deeds. The world's oldest known story is from Sumer. Written more than 4,000 years ago and still studied
today, this story is called the Epic of Gilgamesh (GIHL • guh • MEHSH). An epic is a long poem that tells the story of a hero.
Technology and Mathematics
The people of Mesopotamia also made many useful inventions. For example, the Sumerians were the first people to use the wheel. The
earliest wheels were solid wood circles made from carved boards that were clamped together. A Sumerian illustration from about 3500
B.C. shows a wheeled vehicle. They built the first carts, which were pulled by donkeys. They also introduced vehicles into military use
with the development of the chariot.
For river travel, Sumerians developed the sailboat. They invented a wooden plow to help them in the fields. Artisans made the potter's
wheel, which helped to shape clay into bowls and jars. Sumerians were also the first to make bronze out of copper and tin. They used
bronze to craft stronger tools, weapons, and jewelry.
The Sumerians also studied mathematics and astronomy. They used geometry to measure the size of fields and to plan buildings. They
created a place-value system of numbers based on 60. They also devised tables for calculating division and multiplication. The 60-
minute hour, 60-second minute, and 360-degree circle we use today are ideas that came from the Sumerians. Sumerians watched the
positions of the stars. It showed them the best times to plant crops and to hold religious ceremonies. They also made a 12-month
calendar based on the cycles of the moon.

Explaining Why did the Sumerians invent a writing system?

Thinking Like a HISTORIAN

Classifying and Categorizing Information
The Sumerians invented or improved many items and methods. To classify these, look for topics with broad characteristics, such as
farming or communication. Under each broad classification, you can divide the topic into narrower categories. Under farming, for example,
include the category irrigation. Create a chart to organize broad topics and categories for the Sumerians' inventions and present your
information to the class. For more about classifying and categorizing, read the chapter What Does a Historian Do?

LESSON 1 REVIEW
Review Vocabulary
1. How were polytheism and ziggurats related in Sumerian civilization?

Answer the Guiding Questions

2. Describing Where is the Fertile Crescent located? Where is Mesopotamia located?

3. Comparing How were the social classes of Sumer organized?

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4. Identifying What was the most common role for women in Sumerian society?

5. Describing Why were scribes important in Sumerian society?

6. ARGUMENT Sumerians developed many inventions. Choose the invention that you think is the most significant and explain why you
made this choice.

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