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Weekly Assignment

Chapter 02

Bushra Khan

Department of social and Behavioral Sciences, Mercy College

PSYN-101-DFG

Dr. Mary Knopp Kelly

Date: 13/10/2022
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Question no 01

Explain how neurons function

Neurons or nerve cells are the basic building blocks or units of the nervous system. Nearly 86
billion neurons work coordinately within the nervous system to keep the body organized.
They are highly specialized cells that act as information processing and transmitting units of
the brain. A group of neurons forms a nerve.

All neurons have three main parts: 

1) Dendrites

2) Cell body or soma

3) Axons

Besides the three major parts, there is presence of axon terminal and synapse at the end of the
neuron.

Dendrites

They are specialized extensions that resemble the branch of a tree. Dendrites help to increase
the surface area available for connections with the adjacent neurons and thus in receiving
incoming signals from them.

Functions
 Acquiring chemical impulse from other cells and neurons.
 Converting the chemical signals into electrical impulses.
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Soma or Cell Body

It is the core of the neuron, similar to a cell that contains the nucleus and all other cellular
organelles. The cell body is also the largest part of a neuron enclosed by a cell membrane that
protects the cell from its immediate surroundings and allows its interaction with the outside
environment. They attach to all the dendrites and thus integrate all the signals.
Functions
 Supporting and organizing the functions of the whole neuron.
 Joining the signals received by the dendrites and passing them to the axons, the next part of
the neuron.
Axons
They are fine, elongated fiber-like extensions of the nerve cell membrane. Axons run from
the cell body of one neuron until the terminal of the next neuron. Sometimes, a single axon is
highly branched to allow better communication with multiple target neurons at the same time.

Parts of an Axon

a) Axon hillock – The part of the axon which remains attached to the cell body or soma.
b) Myelin sheath – The layer of fatty acid produced from specialized cells called Schwann
cells that are wrapped around the axon.
c) Nodes of Ranvier – The gaps between the discontinuous myelin sheath that is running
along the axon.
Functions
 Axons help to receive signals from other neurons and transmit the outflow of the message to
the adjacent connected neurons and also to other muscles and glands by changing the
electrical potential of the cell membrane called the action potential.
 Myelin sheath insulates the axon and thus prevents shock similar to an insulated electric wire
 Myelin sheath also increases the speed of the flow of signals through the axon
 Nodes of Ranvier allows diffusion of ions in and out of the neuron and thus maintains the
electrical potential of the neuron
Axon terminal and synapse
Axon terminal also called synaptic button or terminal button is the terminal branches of the
axon located at the very end of the neuron. They are farthest from the soma and contain
chemical messengers called neurotransmitters in specialized structures called synaptic
vesicles.
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Synapse or synaptic cleft is the small space or gap between two adjacent neurons. It is
formed between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neurons.
Functions
 Releasing of neurotransmitters through specific transport vesicles, called synaptic vesicles
from one neuron to the adjacent connected neurons called exocytosis.
 Synaptic vesicles of one neuron for conducting nerve impulse to the adjacent connected
neuron through exocytosis.
 Sending neuronal information from one nerve cell to another and also to other cells of the
muscle or gland with the help of neurotransmitters.
 Re-up taking of excessive neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft.

Question no 2

Describe the parts of the Peripheral Nervous system and how they are different.

Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves that branch off from the spinal
cord and extend to all parts of the body. The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is one of the
two major subdivision of nervous system, containing all the nerves that lie outside of
the central nervous system (CNS). The primary role of the PNS is to connect the CNS to the
organs, limbs, and skin.

Division of PNS:

 Somatic nervous system

 Autonomic nervous system

Somatic Nervous System

It is associated with the voluntary control of body movements via skeletal muscles. It
connects the CNS with organs and striated muscle to perform our daily functions.
The SNS consists of sensory nerves, and motor nerves which control facial expression, arms,
legs and back movements and other body exercises.

Autonomic Nervous System

It is involuntary control of smooth muscles. The ANS is responsible for maintenance

functions like metabolism, cardiovascular activities, temperature regulations, digestions that
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have a reputation for being outside of conscious control. It consists of nerves in cardiac
muscle, smooth muscle and exocrine and endocrine glands

Question no 03

Describe the Difference between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The sympathetic nervous system directs the body's rapid involuntary response to
dangerous or stressful situations. The response takes the form of “Fight or Flight”. A flash
flood of hormones boosts the body's alertness and heart rate, increase blood pressure,
pupillary dilation and perspiration (sweating).

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for the body's rest and digestion
response when the body is relaxed, resting, or feeding. It basically undoes the work of
sympathetic division after a stressful situation. The parasympathetic nervous
system decreases respiration and heart rate and increases digestion.

Question no 04

Describe the parts of the brain and their functions.

In the human brain billions of nerve cells are woven together. Each of these cells sends
messages to other distinct cells by means of complex interconnections. The brain has three
major parts:

 Forebrain
 Midbrain
 Hindbrain (Brainstem)

Forebrain

It is the largest and most complex part of brain. It not only influences many of basic
life support functions controlled by the midbrain and hindbrain but is also responsible for
such uniquely human higher level behavior as thinking and speaking. Its function includes the
reception and processing of sensory information for perception, thought, memory, speech,
motivated behavior and fine control of motor movements. Here we look at its regions:
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a. Thalamus – It act as a relay center (receive and transfer). Transfer sensory

information from eyes (visual pathway), ear (auditory) and skin to limbic system.
b. Cerebrum (largest part of brain) – It is divided into two halves right cerebral
hemisphere and left hemisphere, control opposite body parts.
 It receives sensory information from eyes, ear and
change into impression (sight, sound)
 It involves in judgement, reasoning and intelligence.
 It involves in thinking and speech.
 It controls voluntary movements.

Carpus caliosum - two halves communicate by bands of

axon.

Cerebral cortex - It is the outer region of cerebrum have folds called convolutions that
increase surface area.

c. Limbic system – It transfer information to cerebrum and also it acts as arc between
thalamus and cerebrum. Limbic system is further divided:
o Hypothalamus - It is a coordinating center and control sleep wake cycle, hunger,
water balance, menstrual balance, maintain body temperature.
o Amygdala – It produces sensations, pleasure, punishment, fear, rage sexual
arousals.
o Hippocampus - It forms long term memory for learning.

Midbrain

It does reticular formation (screening). It acts as auditory relay center and also reflex
center of eyes.

Hindbrain

It extends from spinal cord to forebrain. Division of hindbrain:

1. Medulla oblongata – The medulla oblongata plays a critical role in transmitting

signals between the spinal cord and the higher parts of the brain and in controlling
autonomic activities, such as heartbeat and respiration.
2. Pons - It is located above medulla, works in transition in sleep wake cycle.
3. Cerebellum – It coordinate body movement (Maintenance of balance and posture).
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