Alive to Language

Perspectives on language awareness

for English language teachers

Valerie Arndt, Paul Harvey

and John Nuttall
PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

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© Cambridge University Press 2000

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective
licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of
Cambridge University Press.

First published 2000

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

Typeset in Sabon 10.5/12.5pt

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data applied for

ISBN 0 521 56015 2 hardback

ISBN 0 521 56882 X paperback
Contents

Acknowledgements viii

Key terms and transcription conventions x

Introduction 11

1 Language-in-use 18
1.1 Overview 18
1.2 A basic framework for awareness of language-in-use 19
1.3 Features of language-in-use 21
1.3.1 Knowledge of the world 21
1.3.2 Context 27
1.3.3 Variety 33
1.3.4 Medium 37
1.3.5 Attitude 41
1.3.6 Effectiveness 43
1.3.7 Structure 47
1.3.8 Flexibility 50

2 Discourse 54
2.1 Overview 54
2.2 Some definitions and key concepts 54
2.3 Aspects of discourse 58
2.3.1 Relevance and choice 59
2.3.2 Structures of spoken interaction 66
2.3.3 Meanings 74
2.3.4 Shared knowledge 78
2.3.5 Organisation 84
2.3.6 Purposes 91
2.4 Discourse studies and their relevance to ELT 94

3 Grammar 98
3.1 Overview 98
3.2 What is grammar? 98
3.2.1 Some different interpretations 99
3.2.2 Some different viewpoints 101
3.3 Grammar in action 103
3.3.1 Children 104

v
 Contents

3.3.2 Adult EL1 users 108

3.3.3 Learner (EL2) English 111
3.4 Factors in teaching grammar 113
3.4.1 Decisions and judgements 113
3.4.2 Explanations and terminology 115
3.5 Pedagogic approaches to grammar 117
3.5.1 Traditional grammar 117
3.5.2 ELT approaches 118
3.5.3 A ‘reduced model’ of grammar 125
3.6 Some alternative approaches 125

4 Variety 131
4.1 Overview 131
4.2 Terminology 131
4.2.1 Some common confusions over definitions 132
4.2.2 Code-switching 135
4.3 Attitudes towards varieties of English 136
4.3.1 Evaluating varieties 136
4.3.2 Evaluating quality of language use 138
4.3.3 ‘New’ Englishes 140
4.4 The notion of appropriacy 142
4.4.1 Appropriacy in ELT materials 144
4.4.2 Teaching appropriacy 149

5 Change 152
5.1 Overview 152
5.2 Some background to language change 152
5.3 Reasons for change 154
5.3.1 History 155
5.3.2 Borrowings 159
5.3.3 Creativity 160
5.3.4 The media 162
5.3.5 Technology 164
5.4 Language systems and examples of change 167
5.4.1 Vocabulary 168
5.4.2 Grammar 169
5.4.3 Pronunciation 174
5.5 Socio-cultural influences on language change 177
5.5.1 Gender 178
5.5.2 Taboo language 179
5.5.3 Politically correct language 180
5.5.4 Attitudes and acceptability 181

6 Power 183
6.1 Overview 183
6.2 Approaches to language and power 183
6.3 Some language and power issues 184

vi
 Contents

6.3.1 Language choice: manipulation and accessibility 185

6.3.2 Knowledge about language 193
6.3.3 The power of standard varieties 195
6.3.4 English as a ‘sexist’ language 198
6.4 Asymmetrical discourses 200
6.4.1 Some settings and contexts 201
6.4.2 Gender-based discourse 209
6.5 English as an international language (EIL) 211
6.5.1 The spread of English 212
6.5.2 Attitudes towards EIL 214
6.5.3 Ownership of the language 216
6.6 Empowerment of learners 217

Commentaries 222

References 275

Index 285

vii
 1 Language-in-use

1.1 Overview

The main aim of this opening chapter is to suggest a general framework for
considering language from the socio-cultural perspective of language-in-use
outlined below:
• Language is dynamic and powerful: it reflects and is reflected by the changing
ways human societies order themselves; it influences and is influenced by
people’s relationships, activities and communications. Structured, but flexible,
it is a vital human tool for getting things done in the world and the ways in
which people actually use language to accomplish their various ends are subtle
and complex.
• Language is rarely either straightforward or value-free: it always springs from
the linguistic choices made by participants in any ‘language event’. In order for
any instance of ‘real world’ language to be fully understood, its context –
including what has gone before it and what is likely to come after – has to be
taken into account. This context is the key to decoding the meanings carried in
the choices people make. These choices depend partly on the fact that language
is flexible, and partly on what people consider to be the most effective way of
using language to convey their message. The effectiveness of any
communication depends, in turn, upon a whole range of extra-linguistic
factors, including the response, interpretation and attitude of the receiver of
the message.
The perspective on language outlined above may not necessarily be one which
is familiar to language teachers, whose day-to-day work may have much more to
do with the linguistic systems that make up a language: grammar, vocabulary,
phonology and possibly discourse. In our framework for awareness of language-
in-use, therefore, we will introduce eight features of language in general which we
hope will, first, support the broader perspective, and second, provide a basis for
understanding the discussion in subsequent chapters of the book. A brief
summary of these features and their basic characteristics is provided first, and
then we look at each feature in greater detail, with examples to illustrate it from
a variety of sources.

18
 A basic framework

1.2 A basic framework for awareness of language-in-use

Just as language is both complex and complicated, so is its study. It would be

very difficult to decide upon a definitive list of language features comprehensive
enough to include everything and please everyone. The basic features we list
below, each with a short gloss, are among those we consider to be useful starting
points for enhancing our awareness of language-in-use. Figure 1 shows how these
features can be seen to relate to each other: working out from the centre, we can
say that the language people use – the ‘what’ – depends on their choices of words
and structures, which in turn are allowed by the flexibility of the language; ‘how’
they put across their message will depend on their choice of form from the huge
variety available to them, and their choice of medium, which will in turn be
dictated by the attitude and effect they wish their message to convey. The
recipients of these messages will, consciously or unconsciously, likewise have an
attitude towards, and judge the effectiveness of, the chosen words and structures.
Finally, at the outer edge of the Figure, all choices and reactions to choices are
governed by the specific context within which the language is used, and by the
‘knowledge of the world’ brought to bear upon the interaction by the initiator(s)
and recipient(s).

ex t of la nguage
nt us
e
co effec
e ti v
ud e
le x i bili ty
t

ne
ti

f
at

ss
ch o e of

c tur es

language-
ic

in-use
ru

w
st

o rd a nd
ar s
v

ie u
ty di
kn me
ow r ld
le dg wo
e of t h e
Figure 1

The basic language awareness features in the framework above, and briefly
described below, are all important: it would be hard to say that some are more
important than others. Also, we can see that the categories are not mutually
exclusive (i.e. things in one category can also quite easily be in another) and that
there is often considerable overlap between them.

19
 1 Language-in-use

knowledge of the world: the way our use and understanding of language is
affected by our specific cultural backgrounds, our learning experience, and the
way we view the world
If we did not have this knowledge it would be difficult for us to understand each
other; things like railway timetables and phone books would be unintelligible.
Knowledge of the world helps us in one type of context to interpret correctly
what someone is saying to us, or in another, to identify a specific newspaper
from its format and typeface.
context: the importance of the situation and environment – including the relationship
between initiator and recipient – in which people use language, and their
purpose in using it
A lecture on thermo-nuclear physics has an identifiable context, as does a family
argument or a newspaper sports report. Thus, the language used in each context
is likely to be very different.
variety: the different forms in which language may appear
One major set of factors here relates to the obvious differences between spoken
and written language but there are other equally powerful factors contributing to
variety, such as style, source, situation, dialect and accent.
medium: the modes or channels through which language is manifested
This not only extends the spoken/written distinction, but is also concerned with
the form and style in which meanings and messages are transmitted. For
example, the language used in a teenage comic, or in a conversation between
friends is very different from the language of a legal document, or that of a
telephone enquiry. E-mail is an example of a relatively new medium which is
evolving a distinctive form and style of its own.
attitude: the fact that people use language to convey different attitudes as well as
the fact that they have different attitudes towards the language they encounter
Letters to newspapers and radio phone-ins are two examples of contexts where
the former dimension of attitude can be seen, i.e. people convey opinions
through the linguistic choices they make when they write or speak, as the case
may be. The judgements we make about other people’s use of language illustrates
the latter dimension.
effectiveness: the degree to which users of language successfully achieve their
purpose
Warnings, prohibitions, advertising and advice are examples of areas where
effectiveness can be relatively easily judged. In other areas, such as political
propaganda or literary criticism, judgement is much less straightforward, and
possibly controversial.
structure: the basic ways in which language is organised and structured
This feature enables us to understand how a language works and how the
various components interact with each other. The systems and rules of grammar,

20
 Features of language-in-use

vocabulary and pronunciation are all important aspects of structure, as are other
less obvious ones such as regional variations, or discourse (interwoven stretches
of language or sequences of utterances beyond discrete sentence level).
flexibility: the way language is dynamic and able to adapt to changing circumstances
In English, technology contexts provide a wide range of instances where new
words have appeared (interface, internet) and existing words have taken on new
meanings (mouse, web). Changes in social attitudes and mores influence usage,
e.g. in Britain, the increasing acceptance of the word partner in preference to
wife/husband, spouse or girl/boyfriend in the context of a personal relationship.

1.3 Features of language-in-use

We now look in closer detail at the eight features in the framework, starting with
the broadest constraints on language use – knowledge of the world and context
of communication.

1.3.1 Knowledge of the world

The way each of us views the world is dictated by our socio-cultural
background(s) and our learning experiences. The more similar our backgrounds
and experience, the more likely it is that we will have similar interpretations of
what is going on when we encounter any instance of language-in-use. These
interpretations will be both linguistic (such that we understand the language)
and socio-cultural (such that we recognise the significance of the language
behaviours which are part of the society and culture we inhabit). This
interrelation in interpretation is inevitable, and as language teachers, we are
constantly aware of it.
When a language is an international property, as in a sense English is, the
interface between linguistic and cultural interpretations becomes an extremely
sensitive issue. This is perhaps why ELT coursebooks often attempt to go for the
culturally ‘lowest common denominator’ approach by producing materials that
hopefully will offend nobody and appeal to a wide (world-wide) audience. The
truth is, though, that nothing is value-free. Even something as apparently
straightforward as greetings and leavings (which often appear in the introductory
units of coursebooks), may be more complicated – and even treacherous – than
they seem. Is it possible, for example, to learn from an English language
textbook when or whether you should shake someone by the hand as you greet
or leave them? What is the assumed cultural context in which this greeting or
leaving takes place and are there in fact any norms which govern this particular
behaviour? If there are, do they depend more upon the cultural context within
which the language is being used than upon the language itself? What right has
the original cultural context of the language to impose its norms (if indeed they
exist) upon anyone else using the language in a different cultural context?

21
 1 Language-in-use

It is, of course, certainly possible for learners of a second language to produce

the forms of the language accurately without ever having had any first-hand
contact with the culture(s) or societies in which it is spoken as a first language. At
the same time, though, any claim to be able to operate effectively in a language
involves much more than just manipulating the forms successfully. An important
pedagogical question, therefore, is: How and to what extent should language
teachers attempt to include the socio-cultural dimension and teach the
‘knowledge of the world’ associated with the target language? We could expand
upon this basic question with others such as:
• Whose version of this ‘knowledge’ might be taught?
• Why should it be taught?
• What use do learners wish to make of the target language, and thus what
knowledge do they need?
• What cultural context is the language being taught in?
• Can we expect coursebooks to cater for the huge diversity of student
backgrounds, needs and expectations?
Another important question is: To what extent do people wish to participate in
the culture of the language they are learning? This in turn raises yet more
questions:
• What are the goals of people learning the language? (commercial? scientific?
academic? political? diplomatic? educational? personal?)
• Are there reasons – political, social or religious – why association with the
culture of the language may not be attractive or appropriate?
• To what extent can the learner’s own culture mesh with the L2 culture without
a conflict developing?
• Might it be easier for certain learners (e.g. children, who are generally less
inhibited than adults about cultural niceties) to integrate cultural knowledge
than others?
Our first four examples illustrate the extent to which all texts (including spoken
‘texts’) are grounded in the culture which produced them. These particular
examples happen to have originated in the culture of late 20th century Britain,
and understanding of these texts, both linguistic and cultural, is based to a large
degree on shared experience of that culture.

Activity 1 C

䊳 Look at Examples 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4 on pages 23–26. What ‘knowledge of the
world’ do you need to bring to bear on these texts in order to be able to
understand them? Does your ‘knowledge of the world’ allow you to identify or
place these texts easily in their cultural context?
䊳 Would you say there are aspects of this ‘knowledge’ which are reasonably
‘teachable’? How far do ‘textual’ features (i.e. layout, typeface, graphics and so on)
of the texts in Examples 1.1, 1.3 and 1.4 help in this respect?

22
 Features of language-in-use

Example 1.1

SMACK
DEE Comic Jack …
street brawl

Raging comic flattens TV

critic over ‘Cockney’ taunt
EXCLUSIVE bruised face after one of the comic’s
blows missed and landed on him. Two
By ANDY COULSON and JANE ATKINSON passing policemen intervened in the 1am
punch-up outside a London club.
FURIOUS comic Jack Dee flat-
tened a TV critic in an amazing Teetotal Jack, and Lewis-Smith – who
is five inches taller at 5ft 11in – were
street brawl yesterday. both spoken to but no action was taken.
The star – famous for his dead-
Sulky loudmouth Lewis-Smith is con-
pan expression – was getting into sulting lawyers over the incident – but
a taxi when university-educated defiant Jack has vowed to fight any
Victor Lewis-Smith yelled: “You action. He fumed last night: “Victor is a
Cockney commoner.” very poor heckler.”
Jack, 34, LEAPT from the cab, THREW Before the bust-up the pair were spot-
several punches at the dreadlocked critic ted angrily shouting at each other in the
– and had to be PULLED AWAY by his bar of the trendy Groucho Club in Soho.
own manager. Lewis-Smith, who has often savaged
The manager was left nursing a Continued on Page Seven

23
 1 Language-in-use

Example 1.2

D is a senior house officer in a hospital; P is a patient. Turns in the interaction

are numbered.
1 D Hello, Mr X?
2 P Yes, that’s right.
3 D I’m Dr Y. Now I’d like to check a few of the details of your problem.
4 P Right, doctor.
5 D This is Mr N from the University. He’s looking at doing some of the things we get up to in
hospitals.
6 P Oh yes.
7 D Now, what’s the main thing that’s been worrying you lately?
8 P Well, I’ve had a bit of shortness of breath.
9 D Does this happen at any particular time?
10 P Well, after walking a fair way I get a bit …
11 D How about at night?
12 P Well yes I wake up feeling a bit …
13 D Yeah any other problems?
14 P No, I’ve been fine in myself.
15 D No headaches?
16 P No.
17 D Now when you wake up is it because of shortness of breath, or is there something to
bring up?
18 P Well it’s the shortness of breath mainly I think.
19 D D’you feel very short of breath?
20 P It’s difficult to say really, sometimes it’s quite severe.
21 D How many pillows do you use? D’you feel uncomfortable if you lie flat?
22 P Well not really, if I wake up feeling this … I usually get up then and …
23 D Yeah OK, now you were being treated by Dr A for blood pressure, weren’t you? What
happened? Did it clear up?
24 P Well, he as good as told me to stop taking the tablets.
25 D I see. D’you look after yourself at home? Do you do your own cooking?
26 P Oh yes, that’s fine.
27 D Appetite OK?
28 P Well, you know …
29 D Well, we’re just going to take some blood off you. Just sit back and the Sister’ll be along
to see you in a minute OK?
30 P Yes, thank you doctor.
31 D Right.

(Authors’ data)

24
 Features of language-in-use

Example 1.3

Mondays to Fridays B Notes for this and opposite page:

MX WW SO TT A Service continues to
Taunton.
London Paddington d 2245 2335 2345 0045 0045
B Does not run 17 January to
Slough d 2229 2329 2329 0052 0052
21 February.
Heathrow Terminal d 2145 2215 2215 2315 2315 C Service continues to
Gatwick Airport d 2124 ____ 2224 2317 2317 Carmarthen. Table 4
Reading d 2309 0008 0017 0123 0124 D Refreshments are not
Didcot Parkway d 2323 0024 0032 0141 0140 available.
Swindon d 2341 0046 0055 0208 0202 b Change at Redhill and
____ ____ ____ Reading.
Chippenham d 2354 0058
____ ____ ____ c Change at Maidenhead and
Bath Spa d 0009 0111
Reading.
Bristol Parkway d 0037v ____ 0122 ____ ____
e Arrival time. Change at
Bristol Temple Meads a 0022 0125 ____ ____ ____ Bath Spa.
Weston-super-Mare a ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ f Service travels via Bristol
Newport d ____ ____ 0142s 0313 ____ Temple Meads before
Hereford a ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Bristol Parkway.
____ ____ ____ g Arrives 0830.
Cardiff Central a 0203 0332
____ ____ ____ ____ ____ k Change at Oxford.
Bridgend a
v Arrival time. Via Bristol
Port Talbot Parkway a ____ ____ ____ ____ ____
Temple Meads.
Neath a ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ MX Monday mornings excepted.
Swansea a ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ SO Saturday mornings only.

For standard notes see inside back cover.

Light printed timings indicate a connecting service. See page 5
18

(Great Western timetable)

25
 1 Language-in-use

Example 1.4

STARS
By Marjorie Orr Britain’s top astrologer
IF IT’S YOUR BIRTHDAY TODAY: Then your year ahead will be very focussed with a strong
sense of mission, hard working, extravagant and rather romantic. You will feel you have
turned a corner. Keeping fit is a priority in a fast moving, rather challenging year. DOES
YOUR BIRTHDAY FALL UNDER THE CURRENT STAR SIGN? PHONE 0894 707 319 TO HEAR MARJORIE’S
SPECIAL FORECAST.

Sagittarius (November 23–December 22) Aries (March 21–April 20)

The New Moon in your sign only comes round Whatever you want to do in terms of travelling
once a year and this is definitely your day to make further afield, or maybe just painting your life on a
resolutions for the next 12 months. What kind of broader canvas, now is the time to get cracking.
image do you want to project? Does this mean Being fiery and highly imaginative, you are never
clearing out the wardrobe? Or will you be mixing short of grand visions of what you would like.
and matching the old with the new. Whether it is Make sure that at least one of them gets pushed
clothes or a deeper aspect of your personality you slightly further down the road to reality now. Do
are determined on a makeover. not hold back. Fortune favours the brave.
More details: ☎0894 707 342 More details: ☎0894 707 334
Capricorn (December 23–January 20) Taurus (April 21–May 20)
Shining light on hidden places is not always easy By next Tuesday you will be out of this rather
for a practical rather ambitious sign like yourself. intense, slightly confrontational phase but do not
You much prefer flying ahead producing solid think that all your pushing has been in vain. Your
results and ambitiously scaling the heights. But try perseverance of the past weeks will pay off over the
to find the time when you can. After Tuesday, next few months in ways you cannot imagine. But
when the Sun moves into your own sign, there will one more building block needs to be put in place
no chance for calm reflection since a busy schedule now to get new financial ventures or agreements
lies ahead. off on a good footing.
More details: ☎0894 707 343 More details: ☎0894 707 335
Aquarius (January 21–February 19) Gemini (May 21–June 21)
Keep an eye around for any encounters with new You can decide to wipe the slate clean in long
acquaintances. They could become firm friends in running relationships and see whether you can get
the days ahead if you make the effort to pull them off to a new start. Or maybe you just want to start
into your circle. You are sifting and sorting afresh altogether by making new connections that
through different options at the moment and may you feel can bring you much fulfilment. Whichever
need different company to travel with. What is way you lean, you know you need to take the
important, for whatever begins now, is that you are initiative and be clear about what your renewed
committed, no ifs and buts. commitment means.
More details: ☎0894 707 344 More details: ☎0894 707 336
Pisces (February 20–March 20) Cancer (June 22–July 23)
The seed of a project, plan, idea or new venture is Never was there a better day to start a new health
planting itself firmly in your head now at work. It regime. Get out the diet sheets and choose
will take time to flourish, but it is good to have a whichever suits your mood. This is about feeling
dream which you can follow over the next year. more energised, not getting slimmer. You need to
Now you can begin to see where you can rally the start treating your body like a racing machine, that
support behind you. The more hands on deck and needs good fuel, sensible maintenance and pit
shoulders to the wheel the less effort it will take to stops every so often. If you keep running without
get it all rolling. recharging your batteries you will feel flat.
More details: ☎0894 707 345 More details: ☎0894 707 337

(The Express 18.12.98)

26
 Features of language-in-use

1.3.2 Context
In the ‘real world’, as distinct from the often controlled and constricted world of
many language teaching materials, language always occurs in specific contexts,
involving people (their personalities, relationships, socio-economic status) and
situations (the purpose(s) and importance of the communication, social and
cultural expectations about it, what came before it and what is likely to come
after). These contextual factors, especially when several participants are involved,
give rise to language which is often much more complex than controlled teaching
materials would suggest, not only because of its unpredictability, but also its
inevitable link with situational and personal circumstances. Our notion of
context is represented graphically in Figure 2.

happe ned bef

at o re
wh ia l e xp e c t at ion ?
s o c s
who?
when? why?

about context of where?

what? communication

in what to
way? whom?
cu
w lt u r ns
ha a l ex p ec ta ti o er
?
t is f t
like l na
y t o h ap p e

Figure 2 Contextual factors (constraints on context)

People speaking a language as their first or mother-tongue language do not

always need to think consciously about the contexts of their language use,
unless these contexts demand a particular effort for successful or effective
communication (preparing for an important interview, for instance, or writing
a book). However, for second language learners, context may present a number
of difficulties:
• different conventions govern use of language in different cultural contexts

27
 1 Language-in-use

• contexts may be misinterpreted by learners, and thus communication may

break down
• conventions associated with a context may be deliberately flouted (e.g. for
humour) or manipulated (e.g. for asserting or maintaining power) – learners
may not easily recognise this
• many language coursebooks pay lip service to context, but in fact find it
difficult, if not impossible, to present language in truly meaningful contexts –
except of course the context of language learning itself
• the natural language of many real-world contexts is too difficult for a
language learning context
Nonetheless, learning about contexts is an essential part of any language
learning process, be it first or second language, and part of this learning involves
developing a sense of what we need to do, socially and linguistically, in a variety
of situations. This is often what linguists mean when they talk about language
being appropriate rather than language being right or wrong.
Although it is hard to see how learners can learn what they need to know
about a language without developing a sense of context, actually providing a real
sense of context in most teaching situations is very difficult. Thus, learners who
have not had much – or indeed any – opportunity to experience language in
contexts other than the language learning classroom, and who have perhaps
spent a lot of time studying ‘decontextualised’ language, will find the ‘real thing’
very daunting. It is not surprising that learners often find informal conversation
between groups of L1 speakers hard to understand. We shall take this point up
in more detail in Chapter 2 when we examine some discourse features which
relate closely to the question of context, and their implications for teaching and
learning.

Activity 2 C

䊳 Look at the two spoken texts transcribed in Examples 1.5 and 1.6 on pages 29–30
and the two written texts reproduced in Examples 1.7 and 1.8 on pages 31–32.
䊳 Describe and compare the different contexts in which you think the language used
in these four examples might have occurred. Can you specify any language features
(e.g. degree of formality, degree of explicitness, topic, layout, format, etc.) which
help you to identify the contexts? (You could make a grid, along the lines indicated
below, to help you do this).

Example # Context Language Features

e.g. who? to whom? where? e.g. formality? explicitness?
when? why? how? about what? topic? layout?

䊳 Do you think these four examples could be used for language teaching purposes?
If so, what kinds of purpose might they serve? If not, why not?

Follow-up: Think of some ways in which language teachers can provide their
students with opportunities for experiencing language in ‘real-world’ contexts.

28
 Features of language-in-use

Example 1.5

Characters as follows: A is mother; B is father; C is houseguest; D is small

daughter of A and B (For transcription conventions, see page x.)

A: -isn’t her _CHOP done yet

B: well I don’t _KNOW have a _LOOK at it +
C: _you know we + _you know how we + discovered

we had the same caSETTE player we’ve got that one TOO +
5 (phone rings) [THAT’s the one that nearly set us on _FIRE
B: [oh GOD that’s the TELe + -can you _GET it
D: yes
C: OURS had a PROBlem + the wire went RIGHT THROUGH
HERE and it started _SMOKing
10 B: oh god
C: so I’ve got to buy a new _WIRE -but it’s -STILL GOing
B: hang on _who’s that on the PHONE
D: can you tell _DAD it’s JACKie
A: oh it’s _JACKie
15 C: did you _KNOW your tape was reCORDing
B: _yeh

C: oh that’s ok then++
B: -erm ++++

A: Liz + when did you put this -CHOP ON

20 B: oh god I don’t know + erm it _SHOULD be done what
_TIME is it

C: quite a long [_TIME ago

B: [have a _LOOK at it
C: _WOH + _CRUNCHing [aWAY + it’s a BIG one though

25 [mum dad + it’s _COLin

B: oh god + look it’s COLin -can you go and TALK to him
_

C: it’s _VEry _BIG though + it might [take a bit more to cook

_THROUGH I think

B: [YEH + hang ON a
30 MINute
A: erm
B: you’d better go Carolyn
C: [this might be
A: [can you + -can you put HER + it’s _REAdy I think + -can
35 you put the _SWEETcorn on
B: _YEH can you send her _IN here + -can I put the _WHAT

C: do you think it _IS ready + I wonder if [it’s a very _THICK

chop if it _WAS ready
A: [sweetcorn on
40 B: what did she -SAY
C: can [you put the _SWEETcorn on she said
A: [helLO + how are -YOU

(Authors’ data)

29
 1 Language-in-use

Example 1.6

(For transcription conventions, see page x.)

…what we’re going to DO is to try and - LOOK at _++ what do we mean by this idea of myth-
OLogy what is myth-OLogy ++ um is it any -DIFferent + to + some of the things that we see
going on in the media these -DAYS or is it_ in -FACT + the very -BASis on which + er the media
-WORKS ++ _I’m going to _START by looking at some kind of er theoRETical ideas a-BOUT +
myth-OLogy + what do we actually -MEAN by this -TERM what -COULD it mean + um _+ IN
this lecture I’m -NOT trying to put across to you the ideas that you’ll go a-WAY from here and
think to yourself well + I -NOW know ex-ACTly what mythology -IS I know how it works in
the MEDia_+ um + I have - LEARNT all this + I’m not trying to -DO that ++ _what I’m trying
to -DO is to_ sugGEST some i-DEAS to you a-BOUT how you might start to think -DIFferently
+ about the -MEDia + and the way that it interacts in -YOUR -LIFE + um because we’re for all
of us the media is an important + ASpect + um of our LIVES ++ OK _so let’s START with some
of the more theor-ETical stuff +++ um_ the first thing about mythOLogy is is that is A
-STRUCTured -SYSTem ++ _you can look at -MYTHS ++ and UM +++ find that in -ALL of
them there is a kind of -STRUCture going on ++ now what do we mean by -MYTH + let me
give you an ex-AMple + um_+ in -BUDDHism there’s a story of um + a um a teacher who ++
finds + a + an + en-LIGHTenment ++ if you like ++ and _spends + and deCIDES to spend the
next THREE months + um + in the -LOTus position looking at a -WALL + FINDS
enlightenment and decides to look at a -WALL for three months now st_+ a number of students
-COME to him + and -ASK him + all kinds of -QUESTions about + en-LIGHTenment + and
er_+ the TEACHer + says + -NOthing +++ er_ and then -FINally ONE student comes to him
who is - DESperate to um + find+an answer to his -QUESTion + and ASKS the TEACHer who
is still looking at the WALL_ ++ um the question ++ um + how do I find my -SOUL +++ and
the teacher doesn’t -ANSwer so he _asked him the question aGAIN_ and again the teacher
doesn’t -ANSwer ++and then -FINally + in + fru-STRAtion the student_ + CUTS +OFF + his
+LEFT+ARM ++ and pre-SENTS it to the -TEACHer in order + for him to try and get some
kind of re-SPONSE Im not suggesting that’s something -YOU might like to do (laughter) ++++
and the teacher _THEN says + um + what is your - QUESTion ++ and he says um + the student
says ++ the question IS_ um + how do I_ ++ REConcile my -SOUL I am in _TOR I am in
_TURmoil trying to -FIND my -SOUL + um + the teacher says_ +++ if you -SHOW me your
soul_ + I will reconcile it -FOR you ++++ -now + er that’s a kind of + er + straightforward
STOry_ and if you -LISTen to the STORy_ you -MIGHT think that that what the story is about
is ++ teacher looking at a _WALL and + student cutting off his _ARM and + trying to find an
answer to the - QUESTion but of course +++ the under-LYing MEANing of the -STORy ++ is
that as far as the -TEACHer is concerned_ ++ the -SOUL +++ may not e-XIST ++++ this this this
iDEA of preSENTing the -SOUL to the teacher to be reconCILED in some way ++ can’t
HAPpen because the soul can’t be i-DENTified so_ with-IN the story there is a kind of_ MORal
-TALE if you like there’s something under-LYing the story which is _MUCH MORE im-
PORTant ++ than the PEOPle in it + or the actual STRUCTure of the story it-SELF +++ um_ +
so -MYTHS all MYTHS have this kind of structured SYSTem -IN them they work on TWO
-LEVels one level is ++ the very sim-PLISTic level of let’s see who’s IN it_ + let’s see what
-HAPPens to them ++ and then the - OTHer level is_ what is this -ACTually a-BOUT + what’s
the + um + what is the - MESSage that is in ++ enCAPsulated in -MYTH ++++ so_ + firstly it’s a
STRUCTured SYSTem and -SECondly ++ it has an ef-FECT + on its -AUDience ++…

(Authors’ data)

30
 Features of language-in-use

Example 1.7
Are Judges beyond Criticism under Article 10 of the European
Convention on Human Rights?

I. Introduction
On the premise that democratic government is founded inter alia on the
accountability of public bodies and their officials, as well as on the popular
participation and collective decision-making by the governed at all levels of
government, there is merit in the proposition that it is improper to curb open debate,
especially in matters which are of public interest. The European Court of Human Rights
(the Court)1 has endorsed the importance of this principle of open debate and the
unrestrained exchange of views on matters of public interest2 in its decisions relating to
Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights (the Convention)3 which
guarantees freedom of expression. The Court has been particularly unyielding in
upholding this freedom when it rejects requests to support restrictions on critical
comment about public affairs4 other than judges, about whom there is evidence to
suggest that the Court is unwilling to apply its rigorous standard of supervision.

This article assesses the standard of supervision relating to the criticism of public
officials generally and of judges in particular. It is argued that the differences in the
Court’s case-law relating to judges are not inconsistent with the policy of upholding
democratic ideals which underlies the interpretation of Article 10.

1 The supervision of Contracting States’ compliance with the Convention is presently undertaken by
the European Commission of Human Rights (Articles 19–37 of the Convention), the European Court of
Human Rights (Articles 38–56 of the Convention) and the Committee of Ministers (Articles 31, 32 and
54 of the Convention), although in practice the Court’s responsibilities are the most important (see
Article 45 of the Convention). In any case, with the recent adoption of Protocol No. 11 to the
Convention (text reprinted in Vol. 15 (1994) Human Rights Law Journal, p. 86) the Court and the
Commission are expected to be merged into a single Court with the coming into force of the
Protocol. On Protocol No. 11 see, A. Drzemczweski and J. Meyer-Ladewig,“Principal characteristics of
the new ECHR control mechanism as established by Protocol 11, signed on 11 May 1994”, vol, 15
(1994) Human Rights Law Journal, p. 81; H.G. Schermers,“The Eleventh Protocol to the European
Convention on Human Rights”, Vol. 19 (1994) E.L. Rev. p. 367; A.R. Mowbray,“A new European Court of
Human Rights”, 1994 P.L., p. 540.
2 Handyside v. United Kingdom, Eur. Ct. H.R., Series A.24 (1976), 1 E.H.R.R. p. 737; Sunday Times v. United

Kingdom No. 1, Eur. Ct. H.R. Series A.30 (1979), 2 E.H.R.R. p. 245; Lingens v. Austria, Eur. Ct. H.R. Series A.103
(1986), 8 (1986) E.H.R.R. p. 103; Oberschlick v. Austria, Eur. Ct. H.R., Series A.204 (1991), 19 E.H.R.R., p. 389
3 Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (Rome 1950), text

reprinted in Brownlie, Basic Documents on Human Rights, (Oxford. 1992) p. 326

4 See Lingens v. Austria, loc. cit., Scwabe v Austria, Eur. Ct. H.R. Series A.242-B (1993), (politicians);

Thorgeir Thorgeison v. Iceland. Eur. Ct. H.R., Series A.239 (1992), 18 (1994) E.H.R.R. p. 843 (police); Castels
v. Spain, Eur. Ct. H.R. Series A.236 (1992), 14 (1992) E.H.R.R. p. 445 (government policy)

31
 1 Language-in-use

Example 1.8

32
 Features of language-in-use

1.3.3 Variety

Two major questions for language teachers and writers of language teaching
materials are:
• Which language items from the huge diversity available should be selected for
learners to learn?
• How can one reduce the endless options to a manageable and accessible
framework?
These questions stem from the enormous variety any language is capable of
generating. Within the space of any given timeframe (a day, an afternoon, an
hour, or an even shorter unit) we may call upon many different sorts of
language, depending on who we are talking to, the subject we are dealing with
and a whole host of other contextual factors. Among the kaleidoscope of
influences on this range and richness, some of the most conspicuous and
fundamental are the following:
• form (e.g. written/spoken)
• style (e.g. formal/informal, assertive/tentative)
• source (e.g. newspaper, novel, TV chatshow, telephone conversation)
• purpose (e.g. to advise, inform, warn, amuse)
• context (e.g. courtroom, classroom, home, company boardroom, factory floor)
• speaker/writer origin (e.g. speaker using Scots dialect or Liverpool accent;
19th-century American novelist)
• social factors (e.g. age, gender, social group)
• personal usage (e.g. the varieties we use at different times to different people)
One problem in describing these parameters is that some of them are hard to
define. If we take style, for example, what some people might regard as merely
informal might be considered rude by others. Another problem is that we can
identify different levels of variety: broad differences, as for example between
spoken and written language categories; or more specific differences within
categories, such as those between the pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary of
someone from Glasgow and someone from New York, or, at an even finer level
of distinction, people from different parts of a large metropolitan area.
In some senses, dealing with the variety of language-in-use is becoming ever
more complex because boundaries between categories are becoming increasingly
fluid, partly as a result of the changing nature of some communication channels
and the widespread influence of the media. For instance, we can see that some
(though not all) features often associated with the form distinction are not as
straightforward as might first appear and each is inevitably affected by the
context of use:

Spoken language Written language

• less formal than written language (though not • often used for formal purposes (but what
always – what about public lectures?) about a scribbled telephone message?)
• not permanent (but what about when it’s • relatively permanent (but only if preserved –
recorded spoken language?) what about e-mail messages?)

33
 1 Language-in-use

Spoken language Written language

• often less clearly structured, with hesitations, • often more structured with clear segmentation
false starts, etc. (but what about the TV news?) conventions (but what about a ‘stream-of-
consciousness’ novel?)
• spoken interactions often conducted face to face • written interactions usually conducted at a
(though not if via the telephone) distance (but how ‘distant’ is e-mail?)
• speakers have identifiable accents (but they can • writers have no accents (but often clearly
change them, if they want) recognisable styles)
• spoken interactions are usually synchronous, • written interactions are usually asynchronous,
where speaker and listener interact within the where writer and reader interact over a period
same immediate timeframe (e.g. telephone of different, non-immediate timeframes
conversations) (e.g. a correspondence by letter)

Activity 3 C

Look at Examples 1.9–1.12 on pages 34–36.

䊳 Use the list of contextual and formal factors at the beginning of this section to help
you characterise each of these examples as a variety of language. What features of
the examples enable you to guess their source and identify them as a variety of
language-in-use? (The actual sources of the four examples are noted in the
commentary.)

Follow-up: Try keeping a record of the various kinds of language you come into
contact with within the course of a specified period – say a working day, or a
weekend. Note the diversity, and try to account for it, using the categories in the
contextual and formal factors list at the beginning of this section.
If you are a teacher, think of the varieties of language-in-use you consider to be
useful for your students, and justify your decisions.

Example 1.9

34
 Features of language-in-use

Example 1.10

Mrs. Todgers laughed immensely at the dear love’s humour, and

declared she was quite afraid of her, that she was. She was so very
severe.
‘Who is severe?’ cried a voice at the door. ‘There is no such thing
5 as severity in our family, I hope!’ And then Mr. Pecksniff peeped
smilingly into the room, and said, ‘May I come in, Mrs. Todgers?’
Mrs. Todgers almost screamed, for the little door of communica-
tion between that room and the inner one being wide open, there
was a full disclosure of the sofa bedstead in all its monstrous impro-
10 priety. But she had the presence of mind to close this portal in the
twinkling of an eye; and having done so, said, though not without
confusion, ‘Oh yes, Mr. Pecksniff, you can come in, if you please.’
‘How are we to-day,’ said Mr. Pecksniff, jocosely, ‘and what are our
plans? Are we ready to go and see Tom Pinch’s sister? Ha, ha,
15 ha! Poor Thomas Pinch!’
‘Are we ready,’ returned Mrs. Todgers, nodding her head with
mysterious intelligence, ‘to send a favourable reply to Mr. Jinkins’s
round-robin? That’s the first question, Mr. Pecksniff.’
‘Why Mr. Jinkins’s robin, my dear madam?’ asked Mr. Pecksniff,
20 putting one arm round Mercy, and the other round Mrs. Todgers:
whom he seemed, in the abstraction of the moment, to mistake for
Charity. ‘Why Mr. Jinkins’s?’
‘Because he began to get it up, and indeed always takes the lead in
the house,’ said Mrs. Todgers, playfully. ‘That’s why, sir.’
25 ‘Jinkins is a man of superior talents,’ observed Mr. Pecksniff. ‘I
have conceived a great regard for Jinkins. I take Jinkins’s desire to
pay polite attention to my daughters, as an additional proof of the
friendly feeling of Jinkins, Mrs. Todgers.’
‘Well now,’ returned that lady, ‘having said so much, you must
30 say the rest, Mr. Pecksniff: so tell the dear young ladies all about it.’

35
 1 Language-in-use

Example 1.11
(For transcription conventions, see page x.)

Martin: (referring to previous report from India) -no sub-continental weather

HERE -Isobel Lang can tell us what’s going to happen + - good MORNing
Isobel
Isobel: -good morning to YOU + _well NO not really because things ARE
looking a bit -COOLer over the coming weekend although it will end
on a rather WARM note today + in southern parts + _of course in EURope’s
+ -REALly unsettled weather through the Mediterranean heavy showers
there + in fact if we take a look at the EURopean summary for THIS
weekend + -well some really HEAVy showers through IBERia and the
WESTern Mediterranean + some rather HAZy conditions for the -eastern
MED as well as the WINDS strengthen up ++_for the British Isles well a
rather -CLOUDy start to the day + _even here in WEST London a good
deal of rather MISTy HIGH cloud but + SOME -SUNshine nonetheless and
I think MANy southern parts of Britain will actually have quite a NICE and
warm DAY + _some rain to the northeast once again that’ll gradually weaken
as it slips SOUTH + a little bit of rain around _eastern parts of ENGland
TOO but that’ll WEAKen + _so I think the -PROspects really are for a
somewhat -BRIGHTer week end to the DAY for the far northWEST of
Scotland SHOWERS there but still -QUITE a lot of rain for these WESTern
areas + _but down to the SOUTH + it should remain -DRY and BRIGHT +
-that’s IT ++
Martin: -thank you very MUCH Isobel

Example 1.12

A hi it’s -ME again

B -mm
A forgot to ask you take the dogs’ -MEAT out of the freezer
B -OK _anything ELSE -THREE EGGS today
A -GOOD++ _OK
B -what time’ll you be HOME?
A don’t -KNOW+ -USual probably
B -OK
A -OK+ -CIAO
B -CIAO

36
 Features of language-in-use

1.3.4 Medium
Using language always entails making choices of structure, vocabulary,
pronunciation (in spoken language) and format, and these choices are, to a large
extent, dictated by the medium we use to convey the message. Hymes (cited in
Coulthard 1985:50) argued that ‘how something is said is part of what is said’,
an observation which extends to written language too. Thus, the language we
might choose for the following two sample pairs of spoken and written mediums
is likely to be different in each case:
• face-to-face communication/communication via the telephone
• e-mail/a hand-written letter
And choices dictated by medium are, of course, further constrained by the
specific type of text and context – whether we are writing an important business
letter or a shopping list, whether we are being interviewed on television or
chatting to an old acquaintance at a party.
For any given medium context we have conventional ideas about how
language is used and organised. But some medium contexts present us with
interesting challenges. One such challenge is the difficulty we encounter when we
examine spoken forms of language. Not only is it very hard to represent spoken
language in a written form (evidence of the basic differences between the two
mediums) but the closer we get to the phonetics (i.e. the aural details in
transcribed symbolic form) of what is actually said, the harder it becomes for
unskilled users without specialised training to understand the message (see the
3rd version of the utterance in Example 1.14).
Another challenge is that technological developments may require us to
question and adjust our ideas about conventions associated with certain
mediums. E-mail for example, while it is obviously a written medium, looks as
though it may have some of the typical features of spoken language. Because
e-mail could be said to straddle the spoken/written divide, we might at first find
ourselves confused over which linguistic choices we should make when we use
this medium. However, e-mail has rapidly become widely accepted as a new
medium of communication, with its own distinctive style and format, largely on
account of the convenience, speed and efficacy with which it conveys messages
and facilitates a written dialogue or discussion.

Activity 4 C

䊳 Which types of medium are represented in Examples 1.13, 1.14 and 1.15 on pages
38–40?
䊳 Look at the list of mediums at the beginning of this section and add any more you
can think of. What kinds of effects might these mediums have on the kind of
language people use when they communicate through them?

37