MODULE 1

Introduction to Ethics

This module will give you an overview of ethics by exploring the concepts that are relevant to
the understanding of human morality. Discussions of the following topics: the meaning of
philosophy, the meaning of ethics, the different branches of philosophy and ethics, and the
connection and relevance of ethics to different scientific endeavors and disciplines of human
knowledge shall form the foundation of your understanding of the need for this course.

At the end of Module 1, you should be able to:

1. Develop a comprehensive knowledge of the general scope of ethics, its relation to other
branches of philosophy, and its relation to various disciplines of the human sciences;

2. Demonstrate the capability to figure out a moral dilemma and realize the significance of
ethical thinking amidst social and political crisis and cultural change; and

3. Interpret the ethical theories in its quest to strengthen the moral fiber and character of a
person.
 Lesson 1
Background of Ethics

In this lesson, you shall venture into the sacred world of human reality by exploring the
concepts that are relevant to the understanding of Ethics, or Moral Philosophy. First, you shall
explore the definitions of the important concepts, and then, their scope and limitations. In so
doing, you shall be introduced into the amazing world of philosophical imagination and
reflections with respect to the study of ethical principles.

Reflect on the following:

Think of a moral situation (either based from your experience or that of others) in which you
took a step back and wondered if the choice or action taken is the right one? Have you ever
wondered if the consequence would have been better if another choice or action was taken?
The study of Ethics is not merely an academic and an intellectual exercise alone as it will also
have some significant real-life implications to human relationships and to the social and
communal co-existence of human beings. It is hard to imagine living in a world filled with
people who have unethical and unruly behaviors. The social co-existence of peoples will be
jeopardized when someone suddenly decides to disrupt the peaceful and harmonious nature
of relationships of individuals, institutions, and nations. In this contemporary age of human
civilization, there had been so many gruesome occurrences of things previously unimaginable
in the past. The scientific and technological advances had brought our human race and
civilization to critical paradigms uncharted before. Technological, chemical, and political wars
have continued to surface on this planet. Moreover, cunning practices exist side by side among
the political, economic and religious sphere, and even among academic institutions. These
could be enough reasons for you to recognize that ethical behaviors are of absolute necessity
for the propagation and the continuation of the human species. As students, it is important that
you learn to imbibe a sense of moral duty and social responsibility of your actions that comes
with full maturity and legal age. You will inevitably become the future of our fatherland that our
forefathers have envisioned. The sense of ethical responsibility and care towards our planet
and the succeeding generation is likely to become an absolute moral imperative.

Origins of Philosophy

The term Philosophy was first put into use by the Greek pre-Socratic philosopher and
mathematician Pythagoras. But this does not mean, however, that Pythagoras is the first
philosopher as there were already quite a good number of noted philosophers before him. In
the Western world, it is Thales who lived in Miletus, Greece from 624-546 BC who is
recognized as the first ancient Greek philosopher.

The term ‘Philosophy’ is a combination of the two Greek words “philo” or “philia” and “sophia.”
“Philo” means “love,” while “philia” means “attraction” or “friendship.” The word “philo” and
“philia” therefore implies a deep affection, attraction, fascination, or love. “Sophia” means
“wisdom.” Philosophy, therefore, can be translated as “love of wisdom,” or an endless craving
or desire for the Truth. Philosophy is said to have originated from man’s innate sense of
wonder. For it is but natural for human beings to inquire and ask questions about the common
experiences of reality and of everyday life.

It is not only in the West that Philosophy thrives. In the East, philosophy was also the
preoccupation of the ancient sages of “the Orient.”
For the Chinese, philosophy means “che shueh.” Che (zhe) means “wisdom,” and shueh (xue)
means “study.” Philosophy, therefore, is a “study of wisdom”.
For the Hindu, there are two terms which can relate to philosophy. The term “anviksisi”
,Sanskrit pertains to the “examination of things through one’s true cognition.” The term
“darsana,” also Sanskrit, pertains to a “mode of seeing,” or a holistic and comprehensive way
of looking at the world. Darsana refers to the unbiased perception of reality, a worldview which
is free from personal and cultural prejudices of the perceiver. Hence, the Hindu’s treatment of
philosophy connotes a careful assessment and examination of things, it is an inquiry that is
objective and is never careless or impartial.

Branches of Philosophy

There are four major branches of Philosophy from which emerged the four major
classifications or divisions of Philosophy. These are:

1. Speculative or descriptive philosophy. This classification of philosophy pertains to

the general descriptions of the nature, essence, or substance of reality. The
corresponding discipline of philosophy that belongs to Speculative philosophy is the
 branch known as Metaphysics.
2. Practical philosophy. This division of Philosophy pertains to the quest to attain the
truth in relation to action or practice. Its corresponding discipline is Logic.
3. Critical philosophy. This division of philosophy refers to the quest for truth independent
from action or practice. The discipline of philosophy that corresponds to this
classification is the branch known as Epistemology.
4. Normative philosophy. This classification of philosophy pertains to the badness or the
goodness, or the rightness and wrongness of actions and human conduct. The branch
or discipline of Philosophy that belongs to this category is Ethics.
Definition and Scope of Ethics

Ethics is a branch of philosophy which specifically deals with the morality of human actions
and conduct. Ethics is scientific and systematic as it “investigates the methods and principles
used to evaluate human actions in terms of their goodness, badness, rightness, and
wrongness”
Morality, on the other hand. pertains to rightness or wrongness of actions and conduct.
How is ethics different from morality? To be able to answer this question, you need to trace the
etymology of the words.
Ethics is of Greek origin. The words ethos and ethicos in Greek can be translated in English as
“habit,” “character” or “custom.”
On the other hand, the word “morality” has Latin origin. The word mos and moris in Latin
means “custom” or “norms” in English.
So, how are ethics and morality related?
Ethics is generally perceived as the set of theories that served as a guide to specific individual
actions. While morality pertains to the specific application of such general theories to the
individual actions. Morality implies the “oughtness” of actions; it asks, “what is ‘ought’ to be
done?” in a specific situation. In short, ethics served as the theory of the practice, while
morality is the praxis of the theory. Morality, in short, is the application or the actual practice of
ethics. It is also known as applied ethics

The distinction between ethics and morality is so important as to emphasize that mere
knowledge of such theories does not automatically translate into the actual doing of these
theories. A student, for instance, may have understood all the ethical theories and have
perfected all the quizzes and exams in her Ethics class, but it does not follow that such a
student had carried out in actions the ethical principles she had learned in the class.
Philosophy demands that it is a moral imperative to live-out or reflect into actions the theories
that are learned in the discussion.

Moreover, ethics is divided into three subfields, namely:

Normative ethics pertains to the search for criteria of what are morally permissible and
impermissible actions and behavior. The normative ethical philosophies of Aristotle, John
Stuart Mill, and Immanuel Kant are examples of this division.
 
Metaethics pertains to the “study of moral reasoning itself” Metaethics digs to the bottom of
moral reasoning and investigates its very “foundation,” whether moral values are learned,
discovered, or invented, and whether it is subjective or objective.  

Applied ethics pertains to the “application of normative theories to specific moral problems
within specific disciplines”
Subdisciplines of Ethics

Ethics also extends to other fields and disciplines of sciences, particularly, the fields of
biomedical sciences, the legal profession, and the business endeavor, to mention a few. This is
considered as applied ethics. The following are the subdisciplines that have placed Ethics in
conjunction with other independent scientific fields and disciplines of knowledge:

Bioethics. It is a branch of ethics that deals broadly with the ethical implications of the
life sciences, the biological and biomedical sciences, and biomedical technology.
Healthcare Ethics. It is a branch of bioethics that deals with the issues in the medical
practice of healthcare professionals.
Legal Ethics. It is a branch of ethics that deals with the moral principles which concerns
the actions of legal practitioners in the conduct of their legal profession.
Business Ethics. It is a branch of ethics that deals with moral principles which
concerns moral issues and dilemmas that emerged from the endeavor of business and
entrepreneurship.
Professional Ethics. It is a branch of ethics that deals specifically on the moral
 standards of professionalism
Environmental Ethics. It is a branch of ethics that deals with the moral obligation of
human beings towards the ecology, nature, and the future of humanity.
Social Ethics. It is a branch of ethics that deals with the moral obligation of both
corporate and government institutions towards the general welfare of the people.
Moral Theology. It is a branch of ethics that deals with the moral principles as the
revelations of the Supreme Infinite Being.

Question for Reflection:

1. Why do you think it is important to know the origins of a specific course of study?

Lesson 2
The Elements of Moral Experience

In our study, ethos would refer to the characteristics belonging to man as a thinking and
rational animal, gifted with intellect and freewill. The ethos of man as a rational being may be
characterized by the following:
Nature endowed us with a moral sense. This means that we have the capacity to be self-aware
of our dignity and adhere to the duty of doing good and avoiding what is evil. As human
beings, we know and understand why we should conduct ourselves according to the dictates
of morality.

It is, therefore, important that we must acquire theoretical knowledge and develop skills that
would form the foundation for practicing right actions and developing moral character.

There seems to be a moral call for every human being to do virtuous deeds or acts. It is an
imperative for each and everybody, that every human being endowed with reason must
become a moral person. There is, in short, a moral oughtness. The right question to ask is,
“Why should I be moral?” or “Why ought I be moral?”

The German philosopher, Immanuel Kant, provided an explanation to this moral imperative. He
formulated the three moral postulates as explanation to the question, “Why should one be
moral?” Also, in explanation to these postulates, he stated that there are things in this world
that are beyond the human capacity to know. He calls this realm the unknowable “noumenon.”
Thus, for him, it would be better to simply presume that these things exist.
The three moral postulates are:

The Existence of Free Will and Intellect. This first postulate puts emphasis on the fact
that every human being is endowed with the intellect that gives them the capability to
know and decide their actions.
The Immortality of the Human Soul. Kant presumes that every human being is
endowed with an immortal soul. The idea of immortality of the soul gives hope that there
is eternal salvation. And that an eternal reward awaits those who are deserving.
The Existence of a Supreme Being, or God. An eternal reward can only be possible
in the presence of an eternal God who sees and knows all.

The Moral Act

Aside from Kant’s moral postulates, it is good also to tackle the moral prerequisites of an
action. There are also three moral prerequisites that served as a general parameter in
evaluating an ethical act. The three moral prerequisites are: will, freedom, and knowledge.

Will
Will, or also known as volition, refers to a person’s intention to do or perform a certain act. Will
implies that a person performed a certain action voluntarily and acted such with a certain
willingness and gusto.

Freedom
Along with will and volition, it is good also to consider the status of the doer or performer of an
action whether there is something else from the outside which compelled you to perform a
certain action. Such as, the doer of a certain action may be compelled to act by an external
force, threat or coercion by someone else. Freedom entails that the person doing such actions
must not be coerced by someone else forcing you to do a certain action against your own will
and volition. The absence of freedom may lessen your moral liability considering the untoward
circumstance, such as, threats, especially of your own life, or the life of a beloved. However,
the doer of a coerced action may still claim responsibility for such action considering its
undesired effects unto others.

Knowledge
Another equally important consideration is the knowledge of the doer of an act. Every human
being is assumed full rational capacity, so that in the performance of an act it is assumed that
the doer is aware and conscious and has full knowledge and control concerning the nature of
your action. There are exemptions, however, in this respect. Such as age, mental capacity and
other mitigating conditions. The doer of such action may be held less liable, morally speaking,
but she can be held liable in the judgment of a legal authority. Negligence is also subject to
legal punishment.

At this juncture, it is good also to discuss the classic distinction between the human acts and
the acts of man. The three prerequisites of morality, namely: will, freedom, and knowledge,
which are discussed above are also the primary determinants of a human act. Only human
acts can qualify as moral acts because of the presence of these three moral determinants.
Human acts must be voluntary, done freely without coercion, and must be consciously acted.
When any of these three moral determinants is lacking, it ceases to be a moral act. Acts of
man are the exact opposite of human acts. They are involuntary, and do not fulfill the
prerequisites of morality.

The Moral Agent

Human beings are the sole agents of morality. We are the only ones endowed with intellect
and capable of rationality. Animals unlike man cannot be held responsible for their actions
since they are not capable of reason, but are rather guided by their instincts.
A poisonous snake, for example, cannot be held morally liable for the death of a child it has
bitten. Nor is the tree that fell on the house during a typhoon. Human beings, as moral
agents, are capable of shaping the world.

There is a high demand for human beings to take the responsibility as the sole moral agents of
this world. With this great and powerful capability of human rationality comes the great
responsibility for humankind concerning the future of this world. In the religious and biblical
sense, God has entrusted to human beings the responsibility to take care of the environment
and the welfare of the planet. In a moral sense, only human beings are capable of
distinguishing what is right from wrong. With this great power and responsibility, there is a
greater demand for human beings to take actions to ensure and determine the future of the
planet, and the future of humanity.
Overview of Theoretical Frameworks

Ethical theories play a huge role in the process of making a moral decision. They served as
guides to help moral agents reach a sound decision and a morally justifiable action. Hence, the
knowledge and awareness of the different ethical theories is important in guiding the moral
agent in pursuit of a moral action.
Unfortunately, moral theories are not perfect. Each has its own strengths and weaknesses.
Nonetheless, they serve as useful guides in making the most morally appropriate decision,
judgment and action.

Teleological Ethics is the theory of ethics that puts emphasis on the result, outcome, or
consequence of an action. The word “teleological” is a combination of two Greek terms,
“telos” and “logos.” Telos means “end,” “aim,” or “purpose,” while logos means “science”
or “the study of.”

In this theory, the moral agent has ideas as to what the outcome or consequence of his
actions will be. This means that prior to the doing of a certain action, the doer already
knows the possible results of his action. The utilitarian ethics of John Stuart Mill and
Jeremy Bentham belong to this category.

Contractarian Ethics is theoretically based on the political concept known as the social
contract theory.
A social contract is an imaginary or presumed agreement between the government as
represented by a ruler or leader and his subjects/citizens. Contractarian ethics is
considered as social ethics since it places the welfare of the society or a community as
its top priority, rather than individual welfare. The theory of justice as fairness based
from the “original position” of John Rawls belongs to this category.

Deontological Ethics is ethics that puts emphasis on the concept of duty or obligation.
The word “deontological” is a combination of two Greek terms, “deon” and “logos.” Deon
means “duty” or “obligation,” while logos means “science,” or “the study of.” With the
emphasis placed on duty and obligation, deontological ethics puts weight on the action
itself regardless of its outcome or result.

It is one’s duty and obligation to be morally upright at all times, without consideration for
the consequence of such an act. “White lies” .For instance, does not qualify as a moral
act under this theory, lying will always be wrong at any time and for whatever reason.
Kantian morality falls under this category.
 Virtue Ethics is ethics that puts emphasis on the moral character of the moral agent.
The word “virtue” is derived from the Roman term “ver,” which means “an act which is
fitting to man.” A virtuous individual is one whose character is always inclined to do what
is good. It is therefore a matter of habit that a virtuous man will always choose to do
what is good and right. Aristotle’s idea of “virtue of the mean” would fall under this
category.

Challenges to Moral Theories

Ethical Egoism. It is the view which claims that the sole basis of moral judgment
should be the moral agent’s self-interest. An ethical egoist will consider the welfare of
others only if it is also to the best of his personal interest. In short, an ethical egoist is
selfish and self-centered. An ethical egoist is not concerned with or interested about the
outcome or the consequence of his action, nor is he concerned about his duty and
obligation toward God and others. His ultimate concern is his own welfare.

Ethical Absolutism. It is the view which claims that the sole criteria of moral judgment
should be the standard norms of morality which are universal and absolute, regardless
of the underlying circumstantial justifications of an individual action. A person with this
line of thought has only one perspective.

An ethical absolutist will strongly adhere to the standard norms without consideration of
the surrounding circumstances. In short, he will strictly and rigidly follow the standard
norms which he thinks are absolute and applicable to all situations all the time.

Moral Relativism is the view which claims that moral standards are relative or
dependent upon one’s own culture, society, tradition, upbringing, practices, historical
periods, and personal preferences. A moral relativist claims that good or bad is relative.
And hence, since moral standards are relative, it is also subjectively dependent on the
person who is speaking. Under moral relativism, moral judgments may vary from one
person to another person in varying circumstances.
 1. What is the role that Ethics play in the total formation of the human person?
2. How important is the study of Philosophy to the total development of the Filipino nation?

Case Analysis

At exactly 2pm of January 26, 2018, on a Friday afternoon, a 29-year-old Dutch woman in the
name of Aurelia Brouwers died of assisted suicide or euthanasia by drinking a poison supplied
by her doctor. Brouwers had depression issues and for that reason her doctor assisted her to
meet her fatal death. In Netherlands, euthanasia is legal.

Questions:

1. Was Aurelia Brouwers’ decision to die through euthanasia morally acceptable considering
her depression issues? Why or why not?

2. Was the action of the doctor to help Brouwers meet her fateful death morally acceptable
considering that it is legal to do so? Why or why not?
3. If you were Aurelia Brouwers’ doctor, would you do the same and recommend euthanasia
for depressive patients like Aurelia Bouwer, and why or why not?
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ured-into-legal Accessed on July 1, 2019.

Schadenberg, Alex. “Psychiatrists comment on euthanasia for psychiatric reasons in the

Netherlands,” Euthanasia Prevention Coalition, January 27, 2018. Retrieved from
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on July 1, 2019.

Tahir, Tariq. “I’M READY TO GO’: Haunting pics of ‘healthy’ woman, 29, clutching a toy
dinosaur days before she killed herself at home after suffering a ‘torturous year’,” The Sun,
August 1, 2018. Retrieved from
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