BUILDING MAINTENANCE & ASSET ENHANCEMENT

Chapter 4: Defects of walls and cladding

4 DEFECTS OF WALLS AND CLADDING

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this topic you should be able to:

 Show an understanding of the mechanism of rain penetration.

 Discuss the construction of solid infill walls and cavity walls and
faults in construction that allow rain penetration.
 Discuss the main causes of falling tiles from walls and available
solutions to the problem.
 Show an understanding of wall cladding systems and their
problems, especially their exposure to fire risk.
 Discuss various defects of plaster, including the main concern of
loss of adhesion.
 Discuss the defects associated with the storage and application
of paints as well as defects occurring during their service life.

TOPICAL SECTIONS

This chapter contains the following sections:

4.1 Mechanism of rain penetration

4.2 Design principles to control rain penetration
4.3 Infill masonry walls
4.4 Cavity walls
4.5 Tiled external walls
4.6 Wall cladding
4.7 Wall finishes

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4.1 Mechanisms of rain penetration

Rain penetration results from a combination of water on a wall, openings to permit its passage
and forces to drive or draw it inwards. It can be prevented by eliminating any one of these three
conditions.

Water blown against a windward wall and thrown by air turbulence onto side walls produces an
accumulation of water on the building exterior. There is little likelihood that a building can be
designed so that walls will never be wet.

Depending upon the absorptivity and moisture storage capacity of surface materials and upon
the rate of rainfall, a substantial film of water can form and flow on a wall surface. Surfaces of
low absorptivity and low moisture storage capacity readily become covered with a film of water
that increases in thickness or volume flow toward the lower levels of multi-storey buildings. The
flow of this film is influenced by surface texture, gravity and air movements along the wall face.
Normally, the net result is a lateral migration of water, with downward flow concentrated at
vertical irregularities in the wall surface.

Openings that permit the passage of water are quite numerous on the face of a building in the
form of pores, cracks, poorly bonded interfaces and joints between elements or materials. Some
of these openings can be sealed with a wide range of materials. However, at locations where
there is wetting by rain, the seal must be perfect, and this is difficult to achieve because of
fabrication and job site inaccuracies. Even more difficult is the maintenance of a perfect joint
over a reasonable period of time, because of aging of the sealant, and because differential
movements between the elements constantly flex and stress the joint material.

Even when water is available and an opening exists, leakage will not occur unless a force or
combination of forces is available to move the water through the opening. The forces
contributing to rain penetration are kinetic energy of the rain drop, capillary suction, gravity and
air pressure differences (see Figure 4.1).

 Wind velocity – Under the influence of wind rain drops may approach the wall of a building
with considerably velocity so that their momentum or kinetic energy carries them through
large openings. If an opening is small, the rain drop will be shattered upon impact, but small
droplets will continue inwards. If there is no through path, however, water cannot pass
deeply into the wall by this means alone.
 Capillary action – It is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance
of, or even in opposition to, external forces like gravity. The effect can be seen in the drawing
up of liquids between the hairs of a paint-brush, in a straw, in porous materials such as brick
and plaster. It occurs because of intermolecular forces between the liquid and surrounding
solid surfaces. If the exterior and interior faces of a wall are connected by capillary passages,
severe wetting at the interior finish may occur because of capillarity alone, but only after the
moisture storage capacity of the materials of the wall has been filled.
 Gravity – Gravity acting on water on the wall surface or in large capillaries will pull it through
any passages that lead downwards and inwards. Water running down the sides of vertical
cracks or joints can also be diverted inwards by surface irregularities. Rain penetration as a
result of gravity alone seldom happens.

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 Pressure difference – A pressure drop through a wall is produced by wind pressure on the
face of a building. At a point where a high rate of inward air flow occurs as a result of an
opening and an air pressure drop, water can be dragged along the walls of the opening and
cause rain penetration. When the air pressures both outside and inside a wetted plane are
equal, there is no air pressure difference to move the water inward.

Wind

Capillary suction Gravity Pressure difference

Figure 4.1 – Illustrating the modes of water transmission through walls

Air pressure
difference

Picture 4.1
Signs of water presence are obvious: water marks, brown stains and blemishes on decorations
and finishes. If the rain penetration is not serious, moisture on the external side of the wall will
dry out during dry weather (left-hand side picture).
However, if the internal surfaces are affected, further investigations and rectifications are
necessary (right-hand side picture).

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4.2 Design principles to control rain penetration

Every approach to water exclusion is an effort to remove differential pressure and, hence, water
movement through the wall. Different methods are used to control differential pressure, and
hence keep out rain (see Figure 4.2).

(a) Very thick walls (infill walls)

 Thick wall acts as a sponge to soak up
the water on the external side
 Wet surface can dry up by
evaporation
 Inner side remains dry
 Not usually used for high-rise because
of increased loading

(b) Double walls (cavity walls)

 Two walls are constructed with a gap
between them
 Water can travel through external
wall but will not be able penetrate the
inner wall because of cavity
 Water in the cavity can be removed
through weep holes
 Can also reduce heat penetration and
noise transmission

(c) Impermeable layer (cladding)

 An impermeable material is applied
on the outer side to act as a barrier
 Water will find it difficult to penetrate
because there is no continuous path
 Water tightness depends on many
factors
 Suitable for high-rise buildings
 Many materials are available

Figure 4.2 – Methods to exclude water penetration

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4.3 Infill masonry walls

A masonry wall is one that is built from individual units of bricks or blocks and bonded together
with mortar, a mix of cement and sand. Masonry is generally a highly durable form of
construction. However, the materials used, the quality of the mortar and workmanship, the
bonding pattern and the service environment can substantially affect the durability of the overall
masonry construction. Bricks, in particular, are non-combustible and fire resistant.

Picture 4.2
The concrete columns and beams are
first constructed in a framed building.
The external walls are constructed as
non-load bearing infill walls between
the beams and columns of each
storey.
Bricks are used as the infill masonry
units. Hollow blocks are seldom used
because of the higher risk of water
penetration.

External walls used today in high-rise buildings are much less massive; about 100 mm. in
thickness. In many cases, they have no overhang at the top, allowing sheeting of the rain water
from the roof or parapet down to the ground. As a result, rain water is allowed to be in contact
with the masonry in larger quantities and for longer periods of time, thus leading to more
opportunity for water penetration problems.

4.3.1 Rain penetration

Water generally penetrates brick walls through openings such as cracks, delamination and
minute separations between the brick units and the mortar joints, as well as faults around
building openings and various types of joints. The other necessary factor for water penetration is
the presence of forces to either push or draw the water through.

Under normal conditions, it is virtually impossible for any significant amounts of water to pass
directly through the brick units or through the complete mortar joints (unless the joints are
incompletely filled). While most bricks and mortar are absorbent, the amount of water each will
absorb is relatively small, so it is unlikely to contribute to an outright flow of water through a
wall.

The successful performance of a masonry wall depends on limiting the amount of water
penetration and controlling any water that enters the wall system. This means at the very least
controlling the amount, size, widths, and location of building envelope cracks, as well as
diverting rain water rapidly effectively. If water penetration can be limited, and effectively
drained once penetration occurred, for all practical purposes the wall will remain dry.

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4.3.2 Effects of damp walls

Damp walls are responsible for most of the problems encountered in external walls today. Once
a wall is saturated with water the following defects are likely to manifest themselves.

 Sulphate attack – This is a chemical reaction between soluble sulphates present in bricks and
cement in the mortar. The crystalline compound that is formed leads to cracking in the
mortar joints, followed by deterioration and loss of bond as the mortar crumbles. The
reaction invariably causes expansion which leads to leaning and bulging too.

Picture 4.3
Brickwork in highly polluted
environments is likely to be
attacked by soluble sulphate
water.
The reaction with the cement in
the mortar causes expansive
forces to be set up, resulting in
cracking of the mortar joints
(circled).

 Efflorescence – Water, if it finds access to brick work, moves along its pores by capillary
action and carries with it dissolved salts. As the solution evaporates from the exposed surface
of the brick work, the salts are left as a whitish deposit on the surface or on layers just below
it. Disintegration or flaking of the brick surface is caused by the mechanical force exerted by
salts as these crystallize just below the exposed surface. Magnesium sulphate, in particular,
disintegrates bricks and pushes out plaster.

 Biological growths – Porous bricks hold dampness and moisture, which can lead to moss and
mold growth. During cool, damp weather, these fungi grow on the bricks, but hot, dry
weather kills them while still leaving behind an unattractive discoloration. Moss holds in
dampness, which can weaken mortar joints and damage the bricks. Both moss and mold can
also stain bricks, leaving behind large, discolored stains on just the bricks or on both brick
and mortar. Removing the moss and mold and combating the stains will instantly improve
the appearance and longevity of the brick, while preventative measures can keep them from
growing back.

4.3.3 Movements
Masonry has a unique and less understood property which is the irreversible nature of thermal
expansion overtime. When a masonry system consisting of masonry units and mortar in
between undergoes contraction, the individual masonry units contract as well, creating minute
separations between the masonry units and the mortar binder. Fine debris collects in these
separations, preventing the units from fully re-engaging with the mortar during an expansion
cycle, wedging the materials apart. These small displacements accumulate over the length of the
masonry section, resulting in net expansion of the masonry system over time.

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As the brick masonry units are exposed to the normal in-service environment, they absorb
atmospheric moisture and expand in volume. Once the masonry unit’s moisture content reaches
equilibrium with the environment, the unit volume stabilizes, with only minor increases over
time and some cyclic changes in volume due to seasonal fluctuations in environmental moisture.
The main effects of moisture and thermal movements on brickwork are as follows.

 Cracking, spalling and erosion – Spalling is when brick masonry begins to deteriorate to the
point chunks of brick are falling from the structure. Spalling starts off as small cracks that
grow into bigger cracks until the entire surface deteriorates. If left untreated this condition
will worsen until it interferes with the overall stability and safety of a wall. Water can erode
surfaces and weaken masonry. When too much water becomes trapped inside of masonry
structures it causes expansion, leading to cracking and spalling.

Picture 4.4
Water can cause dimensional changes
in the size of bricks. Expansion gives
rise to cracking, leading to spalling
eventually.
Leaking water from pipes and roofs
landing on the same spots on the wall
can erode away brick surfaces.

 Bulging and buckling of walls – The irreversible expansion of the whole wall due to
temperature rises can result in bulging and buckling, especially with slender walls. This defect
is invariably accompanied by serious cracking of mortar joints. If left unattended, the
problem could lead to a collapse of the masonry.

4.4 Cavity walls

A special type of masonry wall construction, called "cavity wall", has been used extensively in
public housing. Cavity walls serve a dual purpose of providing insulation against the hot weather
and also to keep out rain penetration. A typical cavity wall consists of two masonry walls which
are separated by a continuous vertical air space, but which are bonded together by metal ties
introduced at the bedding joints of both walls as the walls are constructed.

The principle of a cavity wall is that in a storm rain may penetrate the outer part of the wall but
it will then flow down its inside face without being able to cross the cavity to reach the inner wall.
The trapped air in the cavity provides a useful insulating layer to reduce heat penetration into
the flats too. In Singapore, the outer wall is usually of facing bricks. The inner walls could be of
bricks, hollow blocks or even concrete. No additional insulating materials are introduced.

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The metal ties are usually designed with a "V" crimp in the middle so that water cannot pass
along them to the interior. Water which flows down the cavity strikes the base which is
waterproofed and is directed out of the wall through weep holes. Weep holes are created by
purposely leaving several vertical joints open about two meters apart at the base of in every
storey.

In cavity wall construction, therefore, the brickwork of the outer "skin" of the wall is not relied
upon to prevent moisture penetration. The rain which is expected to penetrate the wall is
controlled in its movement and is directed out of the wall at the base.

Picture 4.5
A typical cavity wall
construction comprising an
outer wall of facing bricks and
an inner wall of concrete
blocks.
The two walls are held
together for stability with
galvanized iron wall ties.

4.4.1 Rain penetration

While cavity walls in Singapore are effective in reducing heat penetration to the living areas in
HDB flats, many of these walls fail to prevent out rainwater penetration. The reasons for this
problem are as follows.

 The brick joints in old walls could have deteriorated due to wear and tear. The bedding
material, for example, could be cracked or removed by weathering. In addition, thermal
movements could have cracked some bricks or parts of the wall. The risk of water leaking
through the walls via these defects will be high.

 The cavity may have pieces of stone or debris big enough to get stuck in it during
construction. This bridging effect defeats the principle of the cavity wall by providing
a continuous flow of moisture (if any) from the outer leaf to the inner wall. Careful
construction of a cavity wall to avoid "bridging" of the cavity by mortar or other material
which can transmit moisture, obviously is necessary for it to perform satisfactorily.

 Wall ties should be galvanized. Corrosion causes expansion between courses of brickwork,
especially in the outer leaf, and leads to horizontal cracking of the mortar joints. Misaligned
ties sloping towards the inner leaf will encourage the flow of water in that direction.

 Mortar droppings at the bottom of the cavity may block the weep holes. If blockage of the
weep holes occurs, water can build up to a level above the waterproofing layer to cause
water penetration through the inner leaf. Blockage of weep holes is mainly due to poor
workmanship or it could be caused by workers depositing debris just behind the weep holes.

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Picture 4.6
Weep holes are found at the lowest
course of brickwork at each storey.
By not filling the vertical joints with
mortar, any trapped water in the
cavity will drain out via the weep
holes.

Outer wall
Inner wall
Trapped air in
cavity (50 mm) Big stone stuck in cavity
creates bridging effect
Metal wall tie

Waterproofing at
base of cavity Brick + plaster + paint

Mortar joint
Weep holes blocked by
debris

R C Beam

Figure 4.3 – Two faults in a cavity wall

4.4.2 Repairing leaking walls with waterproof plaster

The traditional method of repairing cavity walls is very costly. Today HDB uses a cheaper
alternative. The rectification work usually involves applying a new coat of waterproof plaster
over the external wall. The rectification work is carried out from the exterior, thus minimizing
inconvenience to residents. This method consists of the following steps.
 The brick joints are raked out using a pneumatic hand chisel to a depth of about 10 to 15 mm.
 Loose mortar, sand particles and other debris are removed by brushing. Stains are also
removed by scrubbing.

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 Brick surface is wetted prior to plastering.

 Joints, between brickwork and RC frame, are filled with polyurethane sealant.
 The first coat of 1:3 cement/sand (10 mm thick) is applied with a wooden trowel and forced
into the grooves. The coat is finished rough to receive the second coat. The coat is left to dry.
 The surface is dampened. A second coat of approved cement/sand-based waterproofing
material (5 mm thick) is finished to a true vertical plane.
 A 4-hour water test on the repaired surface is conducted after the plaster has cured and set.
 Finally, the whole surface is painted over with approved and fungi- and algae-resistant paint.

Picture 4.7
Leaking cavity walls are rectified by
applying a waterproofing and
decorative coating such as ‘FLEXCRYL’
over them (circled). This coating is
able to cover up hairline cracks and is
easy to maintain.
Note that the wall below the block
number was left in its original state
because it did not give any problems.

This method of repair has two main disadvantages. Firstly, as the plaster sets, shrinkage cracks
are inevitably formed on the repaired surfaces. Rainwater will still be able to enter via these
cracks and could continue to present problems associated with water penetration. Secondly, the
ad-hoc repairs mar the original appearance of the facing bricks. When repairs are carried out to
different walls at different times by different contractors, the overall appearance of the walls is
compromised.

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4.5 Tiled external walls

Pieces of stone and tile can be used as facing materials on external walls of buildings. They are
usually decorative, durable and hard wearing. When bonded properly to the substrate wall, they
can also reduce water penetration into external walls because of their high density and
impermeability.
Facing materials require a continuous flat and level surface to receive them because they come
in relatively small pieces. This fact is often the main reason for many of the defects associated
with facing materials. Tile and stone are obsolete in high-rise construction in Singapore but are
still popular in low-rise buildings, particularly residential houses.
The usual practice on external walls is to apply one or two coats of rendering to get a flat and
level surface. The final coat of rendering is “scratched” to give a key. Finally, the tile or stone
facings are fixed, using a cement sand mix or an appropriate adhesive.

4.5.1 Loss of bond

A loss of bonding or adhesion could happen at three different points of the whole system: at the
interface between the walling material and rendering; between the rendering and the bedding
material; and at the interface between bedding material and tile. This defect is due to poor
workmanship and subsequent differential movements experienced by the tile system.

Picture 4.8
Signs of falling wall tiles usually
include staining, cracking and bulging
of tiles.
Tiles falling off a high-rise structure
pose safety hazards to passers-by.
Periodic inspections of the external
walls must be done to check and
rectify any defects. Doing inspection
and repairs are costly.

A loss of bonding ultimately leads to a detachment of tiles from the wall and are usually due to
the following reasons.

 Aging effects of joints – Mortar and sealant tend to craze or crack as they age. Some mortar
could have fallen off, leaving empty gaps behind. Water penetrating through the crevices
may loosen the bond, thus causing the tiles to become detached from the substrate.

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 Differential movements – The tiles and the substrate material (concrete or brick) have
different movement behavior. The tiles tend to expand more than the substrate behind
because the tiled surfaces are exposed directly to extreme weather conditions whereas the
substrate is protected in some way. When the tiles absorb rainwater or heat they expand
substantially. The substrate may or may not expand. This behavior also happens when there
is a drop of temperature. The differential movements that are set up are serious enough to
cause areas of tiles to “pop up” and eventually drop off dangerously from the substrate.
Movement joints must be properly detailed and incorporated strategically to take into
consideration the degree of exposure of the whole tiled system to mitigate the effects of
movements.

 Workmanship factors – Workmanship plays an important part for stability of the tiles. For
example, the background surface must be absolutely clean (free of contaminated materials)
and roughened adequately to receive the tiles. Subsequent coats of render must be thinner
than the first coat. Finally, the tiles must be solidly bedded with mortar or adhesive, making
sure that there are no “hollow” areas. Hollow tiling will suffer when differential movements
are experienced by the system.

In repair work, defective tiles should be removed. New tiles can then be fixed with an approved
proprietary adhesive or mortar. The sealant in vertical and horizontal movement joints should be
renewed. The main problem with this method is that other tiles may suffer the same fate with
the passing of time and repairs will then have to be carried out.
For hollow areas inject a polymer resin into the interface between the tiles and substrate. But
this technique must be carefully carried out; otherwise pressure from injection may cause more
tiles to pop out.
If the defective areas are in a dangerous state it is better to consider re-cladding the walls with
other materials, for example, metal panels. The advantage is that it gives a better finish and
there is no need to remove the existing tiling from the walls. In the long term this is a good
approach and is taken in many buildings, for example, Triple-One Somerset and Environment
Building @ Scotts.

4.5.2 Other defects in wall tiling system

Besides loss of bond, wall tiles also suffer from other defects, including the following ones.
 Uneven surfaces – Tiles have dimensional differences in their lengths, widths and thicknesses.
These differences could give rise to uneven surfaces between tiles. The problem may also be
due to inconsistent amount of bedding material used.

 Cracks – A number of factors is responsible for cracks either on individual tiles or over the
whole tiled surface. For example, tiles laid over an expansion joint or cracks in the substrate
are likely to crack along the joint. External vibration or corrosion of reinforcement bars in the
substrate also results in crack lines.

 Sealant failure – The sealant material (polycarbonate or polysulphide) can be affected by

sunlight over time and may start to soften or craze. The elasticity of the sealant may be
reduced and the material starts to fall off. Even the presence of dirt particles or dirt can
affect its flexibility and compressibility.

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 Stains – Stains take many forms. Some can be removed quite easily but some are very
stubborn. For example, staining caused by other trades (painting, plastering) can be
prevented by taking precautions to protect the tiled surfaces after installation. Chemical
stains (efflorescence) are permanent and may mar the appearance of the tiles.

4.6 Wall cladding

Cladding is the application of one material over
another to provide a skin or layer. In buildings, cladding
is used to provide a degree of thermal
insulation and weather resistance, and to improve the
appearance of buildings.

Cladding can be made of any of a wide range of

materials including metal, plastic and composite
materials. Rain screen cladding is a form of weather
cladding designed to protect against the elements, but
also offers thermal insulation.

The cladding does not itself need to be waterproof,

merely a control element: it may serve only to direct
water or wind safely away in order to control run-off
and prevent its infiltration into the building structure.
The ventilated space behind the panels are designed to
eliminate any moisture by evaporation and drainage
(see Figure 5.4).

Cladding may also be a control element for noise,

either entering or escaping. Cladding can become a fire
risk by design or material.

Figure 4.4 – A typical wall cladding system

4.6.1 Fire risk

Between the cladding and the wall there is a cavity where rain can run down. In the event of a
fire this draws hot air up like a chimney, intensifies the fire, and spreads it to the top of the clad
area. The fire can then get inside the building through open windows, for example to curtains
blowing through windows. In addition to the chimney effect, the cladding material itself can
contribute to a fire. Composite cladding panels are the worst performers under fire conditions
compared with other materials.

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Composite cladding typically consists of panels 3 to 5 mm. thick made of a core material
sandwiched between two aluminium faces. The core material may be polyethylene (which
is combustible), a mineral-based material, or a combination of both. Panels of the same
appearance may have different core materials; those with a higher proportion of mineral core
withstand fire better, but can still be considered combustible. Fire will be spread by the cladding
if the core is combustible.
All cladding systems have to be fire-rated and certified for use in high-rise structures. Regular
checks must be conducted to make sure that they comply with requirements.

4.6.2 Movements
All building cladding materials expand and contract as a result of environmental variations and
material properties. Cladding systems are a complex assemblage of various components,
systems and materials which are all subjected to various movements resulting from material
properties, thermal cycles and structural behavior. These factors result in a complex multi-
dimensional interaction, which if not properly accommodated can cause significant distress and
deterioration in exterior cladding systems. The types of movement experienced by a cladding
system are as follows.

 Movement of structural frame – Structural systems, particularly reinforced concrete, shrink

and shorten over time because of sustained loading. For example, beams and floors tend to
deflect and columns tend to shorten. These movements are usually addressed through design
details and with the incorporation of expansion joints. However, the materials used and the
details themselves often lacked adequate movement capabilities and had limited long term
effectiveness.

 Thermal expansion – All materials increase in volume when heated, and decrease in volume
when cooled; in hot months a typical wall will be greater in length and height than in cold
months. All materials are susceptible to seasonal changes as well as daily changes in
temperature from night to day. The amount of volume change that occurs is a function of the
temperature change, and the material’s coefficient of thermal expansion.

 Lateral loads – All wall systems are exposed to lateral loads from wind. These loads can
either affect the wall system directly, or cause deflections of the back-up structure supporting
the materials that is then translated to the cladding material through the connections or
supports securing it to the structure. The extent of deflection depends on wind force.

If materials in contact expand or contract at different rates, then stresses can develop between
the two as the material with a smaller volume change restrains the one with a larger volume
change. If these distinctly different materials were rigidly connected the expanding material
develops compression forces because it is restrained by the shrinking material. Conversely, the
shrinking material tends to crack or pull apart due to tensile stresses that result as it is “dragged”
by the expanding material. Fixings must be designed to take care of various movements
encountered by the cladding system. In addition, expansion joints can be incorporated into
building systems to accommodate differential and anticipated and unanticipated movements.

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Picture 4.9
A cladding system experiences
many types of movement
which can result in expansion
and contraction of cladding
components.
Adjustable fixings must be
used to accommodate the
various movements.

4.7 Wall finishes

For internal walls the application of a final finishing material on the backing wall is mainly for
aesthetic or cosmetic appearance. Wall finishes used for the interiors are quite delicate and
need maintenance. The contemporary trend has brought about a great increase in the use of
various new materials. However, traditional plaster and paint are still predominantly used in
most buildings.

4.7.1 Plaster
Plaster is a mixture of lime or gypsum, sand and water. It provides a continuous smooth and
level surface to walls and ceilings. It also provides a suitable background for final decorative
coating such as a paint or wallpaper. Porosity or suction, roughness and shrinkage of the
background are the main factors that influence the performance of plaster finishes. The main
defects include the following.

 Crazing or cracking are often caused by the shrinkage of the undercoat or substrate when
the water content in the plaster vaporizes. Sometimes movement of the background may
also give rise to this problem. Fine crazing can also occur as a result of high suction of
background, too rapid drying or late toweling. Crazes leave behind a cobweb pattern of fine
cracks that are difficult to camouflage. Eventually pieces of hardened plaster may start to fall
off from the wall. This defect usually occurs within a year after plastering.
It is essential that sufficient drying out time be given in between finishing coats to avoid
shrinkage cracking of plaster subsequently. The newly plastered wall should be covered by a
protective sheet on hot or windy conditions. It is also good practice to plaster a wall in small
areas.

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Chapter 4: Defects of walls and cladding

Picture 4.10
Plaster will shrink when the
water content starts to
evaporate. If the rate of
shrinkage is not properly
controlled, cracks will appear.
These cracks mar the
appearance of the wall and are
difficult to hide even with a
good quality paint.
May have to use a dry wall over
the defective wall.

 Loss of adhesion or bond failure is caused by differential movement between the plaster and
the background wall. The failure usually takes place in areas where the surfaces are dirty. It
is important also that the substrate should be adequately roughened for keying otherwise
the bond will be reduced. The problem starts with bulging of large areas of plaster, usually
with associated cracking. The affected areas sound hollow. Figure 4.5 illustrates this problem.

Figure 4.5 – Adhesion or bond failure of plaster

(Reproduced from ‘Building Maintenance Technology’
By Lee How Son and George Yuen)

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 Blowing or popping starts as a small blister appearing on the surface and subsequently fall
away. In the final stage, a small conical hole is left behind. Blowing is caused by the presence
and subsequent hydration of lime nodules in the plaster materials.

 Efflorescence is caused by the migration of soluble sulphates and carbonates to the surface.
The chemical reaction at the surface with atmospheric pollutants results in deposits of white
salts that may not be obvious to the naked eyes until the surface is touched.

 Chalkiness can result from several different causes. The final coat is subjected to excessive
heat, draughts during setting, suction of the undercoat or undue thinness of the final coat.

 Rust staining from the corrosion of concealed metal pipes, conduits and other components
can lead to the appearance of brown staining on the plaster surface. This problem happens
with old installations that have corroded over time.

 Mould growth – Usually occurs on new plaster when the spores develop in the presence of
water. When the plaster has dried out the growth usually stops and moulds can be removed.

There is an increasing use of plasterboards which are manufactured from gypsum plaster
encased in a double paper liner and are used internally for walls and ceilings. Plasterboards
eliminate most of the defects since they are factory-produced. Better finish can be obtained too.
This technique is dealt with in a later chapter.

4.7.2 Paints
Generally, paint is produced from 4 main constituents. The pigment gives it the color and
opacity. The binder is the resinous material that forms the film, giving protection to the
substrate and keeping the pigment in place and evenly dispersed. Latex, acrylic and vinyl are
typical binders for water-based emulsion paints. Alkyd is the binder for oil-based paints.
The solvent is used to facilitate the application of the coating. Additives are used, in small
amounts, to modify the film or paint. Paints are widely used today as a surface coating to
protect, preserve and decorate other materials such as timber, metals and plaster.
Defects found in the use of paint for walls are classified under the following.

 Defects due to storage of paints – Each can of paint has an expiry date. A can of paint could
be on the shelf for many years. The quality of paints may have deteriorated over time,
including the following problems.
o Settling of the denser content (pigment) and failure to disperse, leaving a layer of liquid
on the top; usually caused by long period of storage, especially under warm conditions.
o Skinning is the formation of a layer on the container; happens with paints that are not
properly formulated or when the container is not air-tight.
o Rust residue seen when the container is opened; caused by corrosion of the container.

 Application and drying defects – Poor painting techniques or the failure to take care during
painting can result in faults appearing shortly after painting. These defects include the
following.

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o ‘Holidays’ or misses in painting due to working under poor lighting conditions or painting
over similar colors. Sometimes the emulsion paint may be too diluted with water,
especially when the job is near completion.

o Wrinkling occurs as fine corrugations in the paint shortly after paint application; takes
place in oil paints when the paint is applied too thickly to a horizontal surface.

o ‘Grinning’ is caused when the new paint is unable to hide the old paint due to over
thinning of paint, applying paint too thinly or a drastic change in color with too few coats
applied.

o Bittiness occurs when dirt particles (cobwebs) are collect together by the paint brush and
remain stuck on the painted surface. Sometimes the defect may be due to the use of dirty
tools.

o Running or sagging or curtaining occurs when there is flowing or dripping of paint from
upper vertical surface to the lower part. The causes are uneven application, too thick
application or second application over a still wet first application.

o Crating – Formation of small bowl-shaped depressions when painting over surfaces that
are not well prepared, for example, over sand, dirt and dust particles.

o Dull surfaces occur when painting is carried out under unfavorable conditions, for
example, during cold weather or in an air-conditioned room. For this reason it is
important that there should be ample ventilation during painting.

 Defects during service life – Defects can occur on paintwork due to varying conditions of its
service environment. Examples include the following.

o Chalking – It is a natural aging effect of the paint coat with white coating on the paint
due to photochemical breakdown of binder at the surface which then releases the white
pigment. Happens with old painted surfaces.

o Yellowing – Using certain pigments or resins which are unstable under light, heat or
environmental contaminants.

o Stains – Brown stains can be due to corrosion of metallic surfaces that are attached to,
adjacent to or embedded in the component. Black or green stains are caused by algae
and moulds.

o Efflorescence is caused by salts from the substrate being carried to the surface by water
and deposited on drying. The salts may push off the paint film or appear over it. Avoid
water-thinned paints if possible or use them over an alkali-resistant primer.

o Saponification - The alkalinity of plaster and concrete can react with the oil in oil-based
paints causing a chemical reaction known as saponification. The paint becomes soapy,
soft and sticky initially. Under severe attack, a brownish liquid may run down the paint
surface.

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o Blistering – Blisters are the result of trapped moisture, air or other gases between the
paint layers. Subsequent vaporization of the moisture will lift the paint film to form
bubbles or blisters. This is an example of poor workmanship in painting.

o Flaking and peeling – Flaking is a loss of adhesion between the paint layer and substrate
due to presence of moisture, producing a breaking away of small particles. Peeling is a
large-scale form of flaking. Causes include painting over an unstable surface; lack of
priming coat; absorption of moisture after painting; differential movement across the
grain in timber; and by residual mill on metals.

Picture 4.11
Flaking or peeling paintwork is a
sign of bond failure. This defect
may be caused by painting over an
unstable substrate which
subsequently affects adhesion;
may also be due to presence of
moisture and movements.
Scrape off the defective paint
coats; clean off; and repaint
surfaces.

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REFLECTIVE SUMMARY

 Rainwater can also get into external walls in buildings when a

differential pressure situation exists. Water also enters by
gravity pull and capillary suction into materials.
 Infill masonry walls are commonly used for external wall
construction of framed structures. These walls may suffer
from rain penetration, movements and chemical attack.
 HDB uses a double wall or cavity wall system to reduce
thermal heating. Poor workmanship in the construction of
cavity walls, however, has resulted in the penetration of
rainwater to the interior in many cases.
 The usual method used by HDB to rectify leaking walls is to
apply a coat of waterproof plaster over the defective wall. This
method has proven to be cost-effective.
 Designers of high-rise buildings like to use an impervious
material, for example, tiles on the exterior face of an external
wall.
 The danger with using tiles on external walls is the defect of
loss of bond which results in tiles falling off. This defect is
attributed to poor workmanship in tiling and differential
movements experienced by the system over time.
 Cladding panels are very popular for high-rise buildings too
because of many advantages. However, the performance of
some cladding systems under fire conditions is questionable.
 Cladding systems are also vulnerable to movements after they
are installed on high-rise buildings. These movements can
cause distortion and deformation of the cladding; as well as
breaking of fixings.
 Plaster is the traditional finishing material for internal walls.
The main defects include shrinkage cracks, loss of bond and
chemical attack.
 Paint is used over a plastered surface for decorative purpose.
Avoid using old paints. Quality of workmanship in painting has
a direct bearing on defects. Furthermore, a paint coat will
have defects arising from its exposure over time to the service
environment.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the main mechanisms by which rainwater is able to enter the external walls of a
high-rise building.

2. (a) With the aid of simple diagrams discuss two design principles to reduce risk of rain
penetration through external walls of high-rise buildings.
(b) Comment on the merits and limitations of each method.

3. (a) Explain the term “masonry wall”.

(b) Discuss TWO problems with external walls of masonry construction and their effects.

4. (a) Explain the principle and purpose of cavity wall construction.

(b) Identify two common problems of cavity wall construction. Explain the effects of
these problems.

5. Over sixty percent of the owners of several blocks in Hougang have complained about
dampness on the gable ends of their flats. Subsequent investigations carried out by HDB
Area Office show that the affected walls are cavity walls comprising of an external leaf of
facing bricks and an inner leaf of hollow concrete blocks.
(a) With the aid of an annotated sketch, explain the possible causes responsible for the
problem.
(b) Describe a cost-effective method to rectify leaking cavity walls in HDB blocks.
(c) Explain TWO limitations in using this method of repair.

6. With the aid of an annotated sketch, discuss three defects in a cavity wall construction
that may result in rain penetration to the interior.

7. Falling tiles from the façade of high-rise buildings are the result of loss of adhesion at the
interfaces of different parts of the tiling system.
Discuss the main causes of loss of adhesion of external wall tiles. Suggest preventive
measures to reduce the risk of falling tiles.

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8. A very old building is covered with tiles on its façade. Some of these tiles have fallen off,
leaving the external wall surfaces exposed. Tiles on other parts of the walls are showing
signs of dislodgement. The consultant has suggested that the tiles be replaced
immediately.
(a) Produce an annotated sketch to show the problem of falling tiles from the building
façade.
(b) Discuss the TWO main causes responsible for the falling tiles.
(c) Suggest a suitable material to replace the tiles. Discuss three merits of using this
material.

9. An old hotel building is cladded with old-fashioned tiling on its external walls. Some tiling
fell off from the west-facing reinforced concrete wall recently, exposing the steel bars.
The building surveyor has concluded that the problem of falling tiles is a serious one and
requires urgent attention. She has recommended using metal cladding panels on the
walls.
(a) Produce an annotated sketch to illustrate the problem of falling tiles on the external
walls of the hotel building.
(b) Discuss TWO reasons for the falling tiles and the main cause of exposed steel bars on
the affected walls.
(c) Give TWO advantages and TWO limitations in using metal cladding panels on the
external walls.

10. (a) Explain the term “wall cladding”.

(b) Discuss TWO major problems with using wall cladding in high-rise buildings.
(c) Suggest measures to mitigate the effects of the two problems.

11. Discuss the causes of the following defects found in wall finishes and decorations.
(a) De-bonding of plaster
(b) Crazing of plaster
(c) Blistering of paint
(d) Flaking of paint

12. Good workmanship is an essential criterion for the durability of finishing and decorative
materials for internal walls.
Using TWO examples of wall finishes, justify that the above statement is true.

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13. According to a survey carried out by some students of Ngee Ann Polytechnic, more than
80% of finishing materials applied onto walls in Singapore are affected by the problem of
“loss of adhesion”.
(a) Explain the meaning of “loss of adhesion” and its symptoms.
(b) Describe the common causes responsible for this problem, using any wall finishing
material as an example.
(c) Suggest some preventive measures to control this problem.
(d) State the conditions of having good adhesion between the finishing material and the
wall behind.

14. The use of paint is by far the most common way to treat the walls of buildings. But the
effectiveness of paint depends on many factors, including workmanship in application
and its resistance to weathering conditions.
Describe THREE defects associated with paint application and THREE defects arising from
atmospheric conditions.

15. (a) With the aid of an annotated diagram, explain the causes of bonding failure of
plaster coatings applied on walls.
(b) Suggest TWO measures to control this problem.

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