UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

Identification of Potential Fishing Zones Using Remote

Sensing and GIS Techniques Along the Kilifi Coastline

Teddy Gregory Lenga

F56/34013/2019

A project report submitted to the Department of Geospatial and Space Technology in

partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of:
Master of Science in Geographic Information Systems

AUGUST, 2021
ABSTRACT

Marine fishing is a major economic activity along the Kenyan coast which supports the
livelihoods of vulnerable and marginalized communities and provides a source of food.
Increased fishing pressure in the near shore waters has led to reduced fish catches and a
decrease in the average size of fish. The fishers lack accurate information on identification of
fishing grounds and rely on traditional methods, resulting in increased operational costs, time
and effort.

This study seeks to identify Potential Fishing Zones (PFZs) in Kilifi Territorial and EEZ
Waters using Remote Sensing (RS) and GIS techniques. The objective is attained through
identification, acquisition and analysis of satellite derived parameters that influence the
distribution of marine fisheries e.g. Sea Surface Temperature (SST) and Chlorophyll-a (Chl-
a) Concentration, from the MODIS-Aqua satellite. Total fish catch data is also incorporated
in the study. PFZs were identified through detection of oceanic frontal features from the
satellite imagery using the Single Image Edge Detection (SIED) algorithm and validated
using Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE) values from georeferenced longline fishing data.

Maximum CPUE values of 0.1726 in April, 0.1815 in May, 0.1518 in June, 0.1667 in July
and 0.2560 in August were observed in the identified PFZs and surrounding areas. These
values were above average against mean CPUE values of 0.1142, 0.1153, 0.1349, 0.1390 and
0.1234 for the respective months. More PFZ areas were identified in the EEZ waters
compared to near shore waters. Favourable oceanographic conditions were also extracted
from the high CPUE value areas for future research.

The study has demonstrated a cost-effective alternative method for the identification of
potential fishing grounds / zones that can assist fishers reduce fishing search times, cost and
effort while increasing catch quantities. This approach can be applied on near real time
satellite derived data for distribution of PFZs to fishermen for informed decision making.
Exploration of the rich EEZ waters needs consideration to ease fishing pressure on near shore
waters.

Keywords: Remote Sensing, GIS, SST, Chl-a, PFZ, SIED, CPUE

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Collins Mwange, my project supervisor, for his
guidance and unceasing support during the project period. I would also like to appreciate my
lecturers from the Department of Geospatial and Space Technology for their role in building
my capacity as a GIS professional given I did not have a background in the Geospatial
Sciences.

I would like to thank my classmates for the unwavering support and vibrant network that has
kept us going as a unit and assisting one another. I hope we maintain the networks for future
projects.

I would like to thank the people at NASA’s Ocean Biology Processing Group (OBPG)
responsible for distribution of processed ocean-related products through the MODIS-Aqua
satellite at no cost. Without the availability of the SST and Chlorophyll Concentration
imagery, the project could have stalled.

I am grateful to the KMFRI team especially Dr. Renison Ruwa (retired) and Dr. Emmanuel
Mbaru for their guidance on how to approach the project and provision of the validation data.
I would also like to thank Dr. Melckzedeck Osore and Mr. Noah Ngisiange, also from
KMFRI for guiding me on the appropriate methodology to achieve my project objective.

I would like to say a big thank you to Dr. Robinson Mugo of RCMRD for pointing me in the
right direction in terms of satellite oceanography and oceanography in general. I would also
like to thank Mr. Paul Lukhwenda from KeFS for provision of comprehensive fish catch
statistics for the study area.

I would like to appreciate Mr. Jason Roberts and the entire team from Duke University
responsible for the Marine Geospatial Ecology Tools (MGET) open-source geoprocessing
toolbox. Thank you for the support provided to enable me utilize the tool optimally.

Ultimately, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my family. To my lovely wife,

thank you for the non-stop support, motivation and understanding throughout this period. I
can honestly say, without your encouragement, I would not have achieved this amazing feat.

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To my beautiful daughters, thank you for your understanding and giving Daddy time to finish
his ‘homework’. Thanks for cheering me on and encouraging me. To my mum, thank you for
the support you have given me throughout the years, thank you for your prayers and for
getting me to where I am. To my siblings, thanks for your constant motivation and prayers.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ..................................................................................................................................... i

ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................................ ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..................................................................................................................... iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................................ v

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................................ vii

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................. viii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................................ xi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background ............................................................................................................................. 1

1.2 Problem Statement .................................................................................................................. 3

1.3 Overall Objective .................................................................................................................... 5

1.4 Specific Objectives ................................................................................................................. 5

1.5 Justification for the Study ....................................................................................................... 5

1.6 Scope of work ......................................................................................................................... 6

1.7 Report Structure ...................................................................................................................... 8

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................... 9

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 9

2.2 Remote Sensing and GIS Applications in Fisheries ............................................................... 9

2.3 Potential Fishing Zones (PFZ) .............................................................................................. 12

2.4 Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................................... 18

2.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 19

CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS .............................................................................. 20

3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 20

3.2 Selection of Study Area ........................................................................................................ 21

3.3 Data Acquisition ................................................................................................................... 21

3.3.1 Satellite Data Acquisition ............................................................................................. 21

3.3.2 MODIS-Aqua Sea Surface Temperature Imagery Acquisition ..................................... 23

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 3.3.3 MODIS-Aqua Chlorophyll Concentration Imagery Acquisition .................................. 24

3.4 Data Extraction ..................................................................................................................... 25

3.5 Data Processing and Analysis ............................................................................................... 28

3.6 Data Validation ..................................................................................................................... 36

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................... 42

4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 42

4.2 Sea Surface Temperature ...................................................................................................... 42

4.3 Chlorophyll Concentration.................................................................................................... 45

4.4 Kilifi Fish Catch Data ........................................................................................................... 49

4.5 Oceanic Fronts ...................................................................................................................... 51

4.5.1 SST Fronts .................................................................................................................... 52

4.5.2 Colour Fronts ................................................................................................................ 53

4.6 Potential Fishing Zones......................................................................................................... 54

4.7 Potential Fishing Zone Validation ........................................................................................ 56

4.8 Oceanographic Ranges.......................................................................................................... 59

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS...................................................... 62

5.1 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 62

5.2 Recommendations ................................................................................................................. 63

5.3 Areas for Further Research ................................................................................................... 63

CHAPTER 6: REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 65

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3. 1 MODIS-Aqua Satellite Specifications ......................................................................... 21

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. 1 Location of the study area .......................................................................................7

Figure 2. 1 Conceptual Framework Illustration ....................................................................... 18

Figure 3. 1 Project Flowchart...................................................................................................20

Figure 3. 2 SST MODIS-Aqua Satellite Imagery Download ..................................................23

Figure 3. 3 MODIS-Aqua SST SMI Image Sample ................................................................24

Figure 3. 4 Chlorophyll Concentration MODIS-Aqua Satellite Imagery Download ..............24

Figure 3. 5 MODIS-Aqua Chlorophyll Concentration SMI Image Sample ............................25

Figure 3. 6 Opening Data Products in SeaDAS .......................................................................25

Figure 3. 7 Viewing Data Products in SeaDAS .......................................................................26

Figure 3. 8 Cropping SST Image to Study Area ......................................................................26

Figure 3. 9 SST Cropped Result ..............................................................................................27

Figure 3. 10 Exporting SST Pixel Information ........................................................................27

Figure 3. 11 Extracted SST Pixel Information.........................................................................28

Figure 3. 12 SST Data Processing in Excel .............................................................................28

Figure 3. 13 SST Data Processing Result ................................................................................29

Figure 3. 14 Adding Point Data to ArcMap.............................................................................30

Figure 3. 15 Imported SST XY Data .......................................................................................30

Figure 3. 16 SST IDW Interpolation........................................................................................31

Figure 3. 17 SST Interpolated Image .......................................................................................31

Figure 3. 18 SST Symbolized Image .......................................................................................32

Figure 3. 19 Creating SST Contours ........................................................................................32

Figure 3. 20 SST Contours Output ..........................................................................................33

Figure 3. 21 Downloading Data from MGET Toolbox ...........................................................33

Figure 3. 22 Symbolized MGET Data .....................................................................................34

Figure 3. 23 Extracting Thermal Front ....................................................................................34

Figure 3. 24 Extracted Thermal Front......................................................................................35

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Figure 3. 25 Raster Overlay using Raster Calculator ..............................................................35

Figure 3. 26 Raster Overlay Analysis Result Overlaid on Chlorophyll Concentration Map ..36

Figure 3. 27 Longline Fishing Survey Data Sample ................................................................36

Figure 3. 28 Adding Georeferenced Monthly Catch Data .......................................................37

Figure 3. 29 Catch Data Attribute Table ..................................................................................37

Figure 3. 30 Creating Lines from XY Points to show Vessel Trips ........................................38

Figure 3. 31 Monthly Longline Result.....................................................................................38

Figure 3. 32 Adding a Float CPUE Field.................................................................................39

Figure 3. 33 Adding CPUE data to the created field ...............................................................39

Figure 3. 34 Modifying Longline Data Symbology.................................................................40

Figure 3. 35 Symbolized Longline Data ..................................................................................40

Figure 3. 36 Symbolized Longline Data overlaid on the PFZ .................................................41

Figure 3. 37 Identifying Favourable Oceanographic Conditions Ranges ................................41

Figure 4. 1 Sea Surface Temperature Maps .............................................................................44

Figure 4. 2 Monthly Highest, Lowest and Mean Sea Surface Temperatures ..........................44

Figure 4. 3 South East Monsoon and North East Monsoon Seasons (McClanahan, 1988).....45

Figure 4. 4 Chlorophyll Concentration Maps ..........................................................................47

Figure 4. 5 Monthly Highest, Lowest and Mean Chlorophyll Concentration Values .............47

Figure 4. 6 Mean Chlorophyll Concentration Values ..............................................................48

Figure 4. 7 Chl-a Concentration and SST Correlation .............................................................49

Figure 4. 8 Total Fish Catch by Month ....................................................................................49

Figure 4. 9 Total Fish Catch by Species ..................................................................................50

Figure 4. 10 Total Grouped Fish Catch ...................................................................................51

Figure 4. 11 Thermal Fronts Maps ..........................................................................................53

Figure 4. 12 Colour Fronts Maps .............................................................................................54

Figure 4. 13 Potential Fishing Zones Maps .............................................................................56

Figure 4. 14 PFZ Validation Maps ..........................................................................................58

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Figure 4. 15 Favourable Oceanographic Conditions Maps .....................................................61

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange
AVHRR Advanced Very High-Resolution Radiometer
AVISO Archiving, Validation and Interpretation of Satellite Oceanographic
Data
BMU Beach Management Unit
CC Chlorophyll Concentration
Chl-a Chlorophyll-a
CPUE Catch Per Unit Effort
CSV Comma Separated Values
CZCS Coastal Zone Colour Scanner
DWFN Distant Water Fishing Nations
EACC East African Coastal Current
EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone
EKE Eddy Kinetic Energy
ESRI Environmental Systems Research Institute
GAM Generalized Additive Model
GHRSST Group for High Resolution Sea Surface Temperature
GIS Geographic Information Systems
HSI Habitat Suitability Index
IDW Inverse Distance Weighted
IRS Indian Remote Sensing
JAXA Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
KeFS Kenya Fisheries Service
KES Kenya Shillings
KMA Kenya Maritime Authority
KMFRI Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute
KNBS Kenya National Bureau of Statistics
MGET Marine Geospatial Ecology Tools
MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NEM North East Monsoon
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

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OBPG Ocean Biology Processing Group
OCM Ocean Colour Monitor
OSCAR Ocean Surface Current Analysis Real-time
PFZ Potential Fishing Zone
QuickSCAT Quick Scatterometer
RCMRD Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for Development
RS Remote Sensing
SC Somali Current
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
SeaDAS Sea Data Analysis Software
SeaWiFS Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor
SEM South East Monsoon
SIED Single Image Edge Detection
SMI Standard Mapped Image
SMS Short Message Service
SNPP-VIIRS Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership Visible Infrared Imaging
Radiometer Suite
SSC Sea Surface Chlorophyll
SSHA Sea Surface Height Anomaly
SST Sea Surface Temperature
SSW Sea Surface Wind
TIFF Tagged Image File Format
TMI Tropical Microwave Imager
TRMM Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission
WIO West Indian Ocean

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
The Kenyan coastline (1.75-4.65ºS and 39.18-41.22ºE), lies on the Western Indian Ocean and
has a length of approximately 640 kilometres and an additional 200 nautical miles / 370
kilometers Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) under Kenyan jurisdiction (KMFRI, 2018). This
means that Kenya has the right to explore marine resources in this area as well as exploration
of energy production e.g. oil, gas and wind. Kenya has a seawater area of approximately
151,700 km2, with 9,700 km2 accounting for territorial water and the other 142,000 km 2
covered by the EEZ (Mbugua & Mwachinalo, 2017).

One of the main economic activities along the Kenyan coast is marine fishing, which
supports the livelihoods of small-scale fishermen and also provides a source of protein-rich
food, contributing to food security. The fisheries sector supports people directly or indirectly
in different sectors i.e. fish trade, boat building and repairs, fish processing and packaging
industries, fishing gear and repairs, tourism, transport and cold storage facilities. As such,
marine fisheries contribute indirectly to food security through creating employment and
enhancing purchasing power.

In Kenya, the marine fisheries sector is divided into artisanal and industrial subsectors. The
artisanal subsector is dominated by local fishers, who account for 80% of the total marine
products and are restricted to fishing in the reefs, estuaries and lagoons, and largely to near-
shore waters (inshore fishery). These waters host an assortment of fish species including
demersal and pelagic finfish, crustaceans (prawns, crabs and lobster) and cephalopods
(octopus and squid). In the artisanal subsector, vessels used for fishing include among others;
sail boats, dugout canoes, motor boats and open fishing boats (KMFRI, 2018).

Offshore fishery is mainly conducted by Distant Water Fishing Nations (DWFN) with key
emphasis on tuna like species fishing (van Hoof & Steins, 2017). The foreign fishing vessels
are authorized, by obtaining fishing licences from Kenya Fisheries Service (KeFS) in liaison
with Kenya Maritime Authority (KMA) (KMFRI, 2018; van Hoof & Steins, 2017). The
licenses are usually monthly, quarterly or annual. The license amounts vary depending on the
vessel type and fishing equipment used. Offshore fishery accounts for 20% of marine

1
products and is explored mainly by the semi-industrial and industrial subsectors, of which a
majority are the DWFN which utilize modern fishing methods.

The Kenyan coastline is governed by the two monsoon seasons; the Southeast Monsoon
(SEM) season between June and October and the Northeast Monsoon (NEM) season between
December and March (Painter, 2020). The monsoon climate controls the currents, which
impact the marine ecosystem productivity and subsequently affects the fish abundance and
fishing patterns across the seasons.

The fishing industry in Kenya contributes about 0.5% to the national GDP and marine fishery
catch data statistics indicated an annual production of 25,670 metric tonnes (mt) worth
approximately KES 4.75 billion in 2019 (KNBS, 2020). The potential of offshore fishery is
projected to be between 150,000 - 300,000 metric tonnes annually, worth KES 27 - 55
billion.

Through Vision 2030, Kenya has identified aquatic resources, specifically capture fisheries
and aquaculture, as a catalyst for economic development as well as a driver towards
achieving the food security and poverty reduction Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
The Blue Economy initiative recognizes the importance of aquatic-based activities and the
role they play in the economic development and food security in Kenya (KMFRI, 2018).

Fishery resources exploration by utilizing Remote Sensing (RS) technologies is achieved

through identification of climate areas favourable for fish habitats and feeding grounds where
fish aggregate. Cool water temperatures and chlorophyll rich areas, an indication of high
biological productivity, are factors that contribute to high probability fishing areas.

The aim of the study is to identify potential favourable locations for marine fisheries, both
inshore and offshore; to improve fish catch quantities for sustainable economic development
and reduce operational fishing costs, search time and overall effort in locating marine
resources. This will go a long way in the attainment of the food security and poverty
reduction SDGs.

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1.2 Problem Statement
The coastal region of Kenya includes counties that host vulnerable and marginalized groups
with high poverty and food poverty indices, Kilifi being among them. Agricultural production
is hampered by persistent drought and aridity of the area as a result of climate change, which
limits farming opportunities and productivity. In addition, land tenure insecurity hinders the
locals from making major investments in farming or engaging in long-term agricultural plans.
This results in them seeking other income generating opportunities and fishing offers an
alternative livelihood, given its relatively easy entrance and availability of the ocean (van
Hoof & Steins, 2017). A majority of the coastal population, therefore, relies on coastal and
marine ecosystems for employment, livelihoods and nutrition.

With increase in population and poverty levels driving more people into fisheries, it
consequently results in increased fishing pressure mainly caused by use of illegal fishing
gear. The outcome of this is reduced fish catch and a decrease in the average size of fish.

Lack of information on fishing grounds leads to the artisanal fishers’ reliance on traditional
knowledge and expertise which has been passed down through generations. This could be
through repeated experiences, intuition or gathering of information from fellow fishermen.
While this may work to a certain level, in most cases it leads to increased operational costs in
terms of fuel and labour. It also substantially increases the amount of effort and time to locate
the favourable locations and this may impact the wear and tear of the fishing vessels and
gear, which introduces repair or replacement costs. Furthermore, the longer the fishermen are
in the ocean, the more they are at risk of exposure to harsh weather conditions which may
lead to accidents or injury, and in some cases death.

Fishing is restricted to the shallow inshore areas due to the low-level technology adopted for
fishing craft, notably vessels and fishing gear (KMFRI, 2018). This is attributed to the low-
income levels of fishermen who cannot invest heavily in this sector and as such there have
not been any major changes in the fishing methods and fishing craft over the years. This
means that artisanal fishing mainly occurs around the reef areas in the continental shelf and
fishers hardly go beyond the territorial waters.
Kenya’s 200 nautical mile EEZ is alleged to have immense fishery resources that are under-
exploited. Distant Water Fishing Nations (DWFN) take advantage of their advanced fishing
technology and explore these waters since local fishermen are hindered due to inappropriate

3
fishing craft and equipment. The foreign vessels mainly target tuna and tuna like species
which have a very high demand in the western market. The location of Kenya’s EEZ is in the
substantially rich tuna region of the Indian Ocean and there is need to exploit these resources
optimally locally since foreign fleets rarely declare their offshore fishing catches in the
country. As such, the country loses economic revenue, and potential on-land jobs that would
have been created from the captured marine fisheries are not realized (van Hoof & Steins,
2017).

There is a high demand for fish in Kenya, which is a protein-rich food. This is corroborated
by the high quantity of fish imports in the country. In 2019, Kenya imported 45,000 tonnes of
fish, with marine fish constituting 49% of this figure. This is in contrast to the 7,000 tonnes of
marine fish exported (KNBS, 2020). This clearly shows that there is a demand for marine
fisheries in the country and through exploring the EEZ, Kenya can manage to feed its
population without the need for imports. The quality of fish imported is usually low
compared to the ones caught locally, therefore, the need to optimally utilize the marine
resources can provide the country with high quality protein food, which plays a part in
attaining food security.

Inland fisheries (freshwater fish) account for approximately 80% of the country’s total fish
catch. Marine fisheries capture produced less than 26,000 tonnes in comparison to
approximately 103,000 tonnes of freshwater fish capture. This can be attributed to the fact
that the inland fishery is both industrial and artisanal while marine fishery is mainly artisanal
(KNBS, 2020). Strategies need to be put in place for local fishers to embrace the industrial
subsector and explore the EEZ.

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1.3 Overall Objective
The main objective of this study was to Identify Potential Fishing Zones in the Kilifi
Territorial and EEZ Waters using Remote Sensing (RS) and GIS techniques.

1.4 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of this study were to:
i. Identify the factors that influence the aggregation of marine fisheries.
ii. Generate spatio-temporal maps for Potential Fishing Zones using the identified
factors.
iii. Validate the generated PFZ maps using fish catch data.

1.5 Justification for the Study

Fish plays a significant role as a source of food and income for local fishing communities
(KNBS, 2020). It is also a foreign exchange earner through export, being that fish is among
the most traded food commodities in the world.

The identification of potential fishing grounds will assist fishers in the aspect of time and
operational cost savings given that they will have the appropriate information on the location
of fish aggregates i.e. precision fishing. This will result in an increase of the Catch Per Unit
Effort (CPUE) and relative catch sizes, subsequently raising income levels among the fishers.
The ripple effect of this is that there will be more healthy and nutritious food available with
the availability of fish products at affordable prices which directly contributes to the
achievement of SDG 2: Zero Hunger, which aims to End Hunger, Achieve Food Security and
Improved Nutrition and Promote Sustainable Agriculture.

The raised income levels, through fish trade; both locally and internationally, brought about
by the improved fish catch quantities enhances the purchasing power of the fishermen and
fish traders. This indirectly contributes to food security but directly enables the locals to
overcome the extreme poverty conditions that they have been living in; this addresses SDG 1:
No Poverty, which aims to End Extreme Poverty in all Forms by 2030. It also contributes to
SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth, which aims to Promote Sustained, Inclusive
and Sustainable Economic Growth, Full and Productive Employment and Decent Work for
All. Increased income and purchasing power will ultimately lead to improved quality of life
for the local communities. The fishing profession, which has been undermined for the longest
time can then be appreciated and considered as decent work.

5
Businessmen can seize the opportunity given the gaps that exist i.e. lack of appropriate
fishing craft technology. Significant investments can be made in fishing vessels and gear that
can explore fishing in the EEZ and exploit the identified potential fishing zones in the deep
ocean. The resultant improved fish catches can positively impact the fish processing and
packaging industry, boat building and repairs sector, fishing gear and repair sector, cold
storage facilities and transport, improve infrastructure to facilitate the value chain and boost
tourism through sport fishing. This contributes to SDG 8 through economic development and
creating job opportunities as well as SDG 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, which
aims to Build Resilient Infrastructure, Promote Inclusive and Sustainable Industrialization
and Foster Innovation. The fishing sector would get a massive boost through revival or
growth of value addition industries, both for local and international markets.

Government and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) tasked with the conservation and
management of fishery resources can utilize the results for informed decision making. This
can include policy creation and revision as well as enforcement. The identification of PFZs
will aid in the achievement of sustainable fishing through management of the commonly
fished areas which leads to overfishing. The respective authorities can implement fishing
bans in the overfished areas and disseminate information to the fishers about the location of
alternative areas. This contributes to SDG 14: Life Below Water, which aims to Conserve and
Sustainably Use the Oceans, Seas and Marine Resources for Sustainable Development.

Scholars can use the results for learning, debating, reference or as a basis for further research
in the area or associated areas.

1.6 Scope of work

The Area of Interest in this study is the Kilifi County coastline which is 265 km along the
Indian Ocean and 200 nautical miles to the East (County Government of Kilifi, 2018). The
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) covers approximately 49,500 km 2. Kilifi County is located
between latitudes 2º20” and 4º0” South, and between longitudes 39º05” and 40º14” East. The
bordering counties are Mombasa to the South, Tana River to the North, Taita Taveta to the
West, Kwale to the South West and the Indian Ocean to the East. The area covered by the
county is roughly 12,370.8 km2 and has a population of approximately 1.45 million people
(County Government of Kilifi, 2018).

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 Figure 1. 1 Location of the study area

The variables used in this study were determined by literature review to identify the main
factors that influence fish aggregation.

Secondary data was used in this study. This constituted fish catch data for the study area and
satellite imagery obtained from ocean data relevant satellite systems e.g. NASA’s MODIS
(Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) Aqua satellite sensor. This was
determined by the factors / variables, identified through literature review, that were used in
the analysis to identify the Potential Fishing Zones.

The study was performed for the year 2020 and georeferenced longline marine catch data for
the study area was used for validation purposes.

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1.7 Report Structure
The report consists of five main chapters namely: Introduction, Literature Review, Materials
and Methods, Results and Discussion and finally Conclusion and Recommendations. The
Introduction chapter provides a background of the study as well as the problem that the study
seeks to address. The overall and specific objectives are also outlined in this chapter. The
study is justified and the motivation towards conducting it is expressed. Finally, the scope is
identified to determine the limits of the study.

The Literature Review chapter is a comprehensive survey and analysis of theories and
methods in scholarly works guided by the study objectives. A conceptual framework is
included to relate the key variables. This is followed by the Materials and Methods chapter
which explains the approach followed, the data used and software utilized to attain the
objectives of the study.

The Results and Discussion chapter explains in detail the results that were achieved from the
previous chapter using the specified methodology and associated materials. The final chapter,
Conclusion and Recommendations, relates the results to the study objectives, presents the
challenges encountered, provides recommendations from the output of the study and proposes
areas of further study on the topic.

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to review theories and methods in existing literature that relate
to the area of study to help identify the key parameters and methodologies used in the
analyses.

Notably, Remote Sensing and GIS technologies have been used by different countries in the
Americas, Europe and Asia but have hardly been optimized in Africa for marine resources
harvesting. Africa and Kenya in particular has therefore been missing out on the advantages
posed by these technologies and as such fishermen are still using traditional methods of
fishing grounds identification which are time and resource consuming.

2.2 Remote Sensing and GIS Applications in Fisheries

Remote Sensing (RS) is a science and art of collecting data without coming into direct
contact with the target objects. This is achieved through sensing and recording emitted or
reflected energy from the target of interest, processing and analysing the data and finally
applying the resultant information in decision making.

Together with standard data collection methods, remote sensing is a powerful tool that can be
utilized for optimum acquisition of marine resources. Satellite RS enables detection of marine
resources through visible and thermal infrared sensors as well as providing general views of
the ocean. These capabilities can be vital for identification of potential fishing grounds
(Solanki et al., 2005).

Satellite sensors are used to observe and measure oceanographic parameters such as sea
surface temperature, sea surface winds, ocean currents, phytoplankton productivity, waves
and frontal regions which influence the biological conditions of the ocean.

Monitoring these parameters in space and time is difficult without the use of satellites, which
are indirect methods for monitoring and are ideal since they provide high repeat times and
have a large spatial coverage. Marine ecosystems can be sampled uniformly and
independently using Remote Sensing. Additionally, Remote Sensing provides a means of
obtaining data for marine and coastal environments at low costs, especially in regions where
this is scarce i.e. the African region (Nykjaer & Hoepffner, 2008).

9
Ocean condition variations are key in influencing the fluctuation of fish stocks and their
susceptibility to harvesting. This ever changing ocean information is essential to comprehend
and forecast the effects of the marine environment on fish aggregations (Laurs & Fiedler,
1985).

Thermal infrared sensors, particularly the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer
(AVHRR), have been utilized for ocean temperature measurements which provide data for
fishery investigations (Laurs & Fiedler, 1985).

Ocean colour remote sensing is used to determine the ocean state as well as the processes that
occur in it based on the concentration of water leaving radiance. This is the result of
interaction between solar radiation and water. Sensors on the satellite receive the reflected
solar radiation from the water surface.

Ocean colour, which is representative of phytoplankton concentration, is measured using the

Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS) aboard the Nimbus-7 satellite, which has the capability
of identifying precise changes in water colour. The measurements are used to determine the
water circulation patterns, to identify the locations of oceanic fronts and for chlorophyll
concentration measurement (Laurs & Fiedler, 1985). Ocean colour sensors enable studies
about the biology of marine ecosystems and oceanic optical properties to be conducted. The
studies provide vital information on the occurrence and spatial distribution of phytoplankton
blooms, as well as the extent of primary production (Nykjaer & Hoepffner, 2008).

Differences in environmental conditions influence the availability, distribution and

abundance of fishery resources. The use of satellites to remotely measure all the variables
required to measure variations in the marine environment may not be possible. However,
ocean measurements can be derived from satellite sensors and incorporation with knowledge
of important oceanographic conditions, factors affecting fish stock may be deduced e.g.
ocean current information, frontal boundaries locations, water circulation patterns, surface
isotherms distributions and areas of upwelling. Satellite remote sensing can be an enormously
useful tool for identification of marine fish habitat distributions through the use of ocean
measurements (Laurs & Fiedler, 1985).

10
According to Nurdin et al. (2013), satellite sensors provide reliable ocean data of Sea Surface
Temperature and Chlorophyll Concentration at a global scale coverage and at relatively high
temporal and spatial resolutions. Compared to traditional shipboard sampling methods, which
are expensive, require more time and are limited in the areas they could cover, satellite
imagery is more efficient and effective.

Recently, the mapping of Sea Surface Temperature and Chlorophyll Concentration

parameters using satellite RS for fish abundance exploration has gained traction and this data
can be obtained from several satellite sensors e.g. NOAA-AVHRR and MODIS-AQUA
(Karuppasamy et al., 2020).

GIS is a framework for collection, storage, management, analysis and presentation of

geographic or spatial data for informed decision making. GIS allows integration of datasets
and databases created from different sources on a centralized platform and provides
capabilities to analyze the data efficiently in both space and time domains. Overlaying
different layers or maps to get a deeper understanding of the data, and the relationships
between the different datasets, is one of the significant functionalities of GIS (Perveen et al.,
2007).

In the subject area of marine fisheries, GIS has the capacity to perform a wide variety of
management functions. The main areas fisheries mapping can be applied are; fishing grounds
and fishing effort distribution mapping, local and production systems mapping, remote
sensing and subsequent mapping, data collection surveys design, resource inventory
preparation, fisheries management planning and mapping in support of international
agreements (Meaden & Do Chi, 1996).

11
2.3 Potential Fishing Zones (PFZ)
Changes in marine water environments cause fish to react and migrate to locations with
favourable biological conditions such as seawater salinity, temperature, oxygen levels and
areas where food is available. Several studies have been performed to identify locations
where fish prefer to aggregate using satellite imagery.

Laurs et al. (1984) determined albacore tuna catch distributions using sea surface temperature
satellite imagery from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA-7)
Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) satellite in combination with
phytoplankton pigment concentration images from the Nimbus-7 Coastal Zone Color Scanner
(CZCS) satellite. Albacore catch data was overlaid on the phytoplankton pigment and
satellite temperature images to identify potential fishing regions. It was observed that
albacore aggregations are found in blue warm waters, near colour and temperature fronts.
Emphasis was made on utilization of colour satellite scanners for fisheries management,
exploitation and research since the CZCS was able to identify colour boundaries in the
offshore waters where sea surface temperature gradients were non-existent.

According to Santos (2000), it is vital to precisely predict fishable fish aggregations in the
spatio-temporal domain to enable fishermen to access and harvest marine resources with
lower operational costs. Remote sensing techniques and methods play a key role in guiding
fishers to optimum fishing areas and as such, leads to a more effective fishing effort which
boosts economic returns. Satellites, using indirect detection, have been used in the prediction
and identification of potential favourable zones where fish aggregate e.g. oceanic fronts.
Santos (2000) stated that the wide use of infrared derived sea surface temperature (SST) as
the principal oceanographic parameter is due to the fact that it is the most easily observed and
measured using remote sensing technology. SST and its fluctuations are also an indicator of
significant ocean related processes e.g. advection, upwelling, and mesoscale oceanic features
i.e. fronts and eddies, which influence fish behaviour and abundance.

Solanki et al. (2003) integrated chlorophyll concentration imagery derived from the Indian
Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS-P4) Ocean Colour Monitor (OCM) and sea surface
temperature imagery derived from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (NOAA-AVHRR) to create a fishery forecast
for the Gujarat coast in northwest India. A chlorophyll-SST composite was created through

12
overlaying contours, generated from the SST images, on the chlorophyll concentration
images. This enabled the visualization of oceanographic features i.e. eddies, fronts, rings,
upwelling and meanders and identification of matching features. Zooplankton and fish
population are known to accumulate for feeding and spawning at such features.

Solanki et al. (2003) observed that chlorophyll concentration, derived from satellite data,
indicates a degree of improved biological production areas. SST, on the other hand, provides
suitable environment information for heightened production. The biological and physical
ocean processes can be better understood through the utilization of these two parameters.
This helps us identify the periods of food resource availability and high productivity for
exploration of marine fishery resources. For validation, the PFZ forecast, which included
areas of matching features, was disseminated for direct fishing to take place. The fishing
outcome was that high Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE) was observed in the identified features
and surrounding areas compared to non-PFZ areas. High catch points were observed where
ocean colour and temperature boundaries (matching features) coincided, an indication of
close coupling between physical and biological parameters.

Zainuddin (2004) used satellite remote sensing data from the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (NOAA-AVHRR)
Pathfinder and Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission’s (TRMM) Microwave Imager (TMI)
satellite distributed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) and respectively to derive SST and the Sea-
viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS) satellite to derive sea surface chlorophyll
(SSC) for albacore tuna potential fishing ground detection. Fishing ground contour maps
were made using the 20°C SST isotherm and 0.3 mg m -3 SSC contour lines. The values were
considered since they represented the most favourable ranges for high catch data. The
relationship between the potential albacore fishing locations and the specific SST and SSC
contour lines was identified by plotting the fish catch data on the contour map. A strong
relationship was discovered between the 20°C SST isotherm and 0.3 mg m-3 SSC contour
lines and the high favourable locations for albacore. Additionally, proximity of moderately
warm temperature habitats to the chlorophyll front indicated suitability of potential tuna
fishing grounds.

13
For exploration of fishery resources in the waters off Gujarat coast in the west coast of India,
Dwivedi et al. (2005) applied two approaches using satellite data from the Indian Remote
Sensing Satellite (IRS-P4) Ocean Colour Monitor (OCM) for chlorophyll data and NOAA-
AVHRR for SST extraction. In the first approach; matching features, revealed by
corresponding gradients, were identified through overlaying SST contours on the chlorophyll
images. This approach is similar to the one used by Solanki et al. (2003). The second
approach involved additional information from the ocean colour images through features that
could only be identified in the colour images but not present in SST images. Fishery forecasts
were generated for both approaches and disseminated for fishing operations. High fish
catches were observed in locations where thermal and colour gradients were detected in the
PFZ identified by the chlorophyll-SST composite. Additional frontal structures (a cyclonic
eddy), which can sustain fish population, was identified in the chlorophyll images, this was
not captured by the SST images. Fish catch in the vicinity of the colour gradient of the eddy
was higher than the initial approach with regard to success rate and percentage increase in
catch.

With a view of optimally exploiting marine fishery resources in the south coast of West Java,
Indonesia, Hakim et al. (2006) used SST and chlorophyll-a satellite imagery from the
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite for identification of
fishing ground areas. The approach employed was creation of isolines from the SST images
and overlaying them on the chlorophyll-a concentration images. The suspected fishing
ground area was then extracted from areas where the temperature gradient was denser than its
3 km radius environs and recorded high chlorophyll-a concentration values. These parameters
serve as an indicator of upwelling. It was discovered that visibility of primer productivity, an
indicator of upwelling, in satellite imagery begins a month after the upwelling event.

Solanki et al. (2010) introduced the sea surface wind (SSW) variable in addition to
chlorophyll concentration (CC) and sea surface temperature (SST) for forecasting potential
fishing zones for the Gujarat coast in northwest India. Chlorophyll concentration was derived
from integrated IRS-P4 Ocean Colour Monitor (OCM), sea surface temperature was derived
from NOAA-AVHRR and sea surface wind derived from NASA’s Quick Scatterometer
(QuikSCAT) satellite. A chlorophyll-SST composite, indicating SST and chlorophyll features
and values, was created by overlaying SST generated contours on the chlorophyll images.
Additionally, wind vector data was also overlaid on the chlorophyll imagery. Oceanic
14
features i.e. eddies, fronts, meanders and rings were identified on both SST and chlorophyll
images. Productivity of the upper water layer (euphotic zone) is influenced by sea surface
circulation which has an impact on nutrients supply. Wind vector, CC and SST analysis
enables us to comprehend the distribution of fish resources through understanding the
creation and shifting of productive grounds. It was established that by incorporating satellite
derived wind information with SST and CC, an enhanced methodology for PFZ forecasting
using remote sensing had been developed. The subsequent fishing operation carried out for
validation indicated up to 85% success rate.

Zainuddin (2011) conducted a study to identify potential fishing grounds for skipjack tuna
using chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) concentration and sea surface temperature remotely sensed
satellite data in the Bone Bay area in Indonesia. A combination of satellite RS and GIS was
used to detect the probable grounds for the highly migrant species. Both variables were
derived from the MODIS-Aqua satellite and georeferenced fishery catch data was overlaid on
the chlorophyll-a and SST imagery to estimate and extract Chl-a and SST values at the
fishing grounds and in the vicinity. This was done to gain an understanding of the
oceanographic conditions in relation to the temporal and spatial distribution patterns of
skipjack fishing grounds. The results revealed that skipjack tuna tend to aggregate within
some preferred environmental conditions due to the high catches in the specific ranges (SST
of between 29.0 to 31.5 °C and chlorophyll-a concentration of between 0.15 to 0.40 mg mg -
3). These ranges represent the optimum oceanographic preferences for skipjack tuna in the
Bone Bay area.

Satellite imagery provides an efficient and effective alternative to shipboard sampling

methods which are costly, time consuming and have limited coverage areas (Nurdin et al.,
2013). This was the approach used during their study in Spermonde, Indonesia to map
potential fishing zones using MODIS-Aqua satellite imagery. The aim was to determine the
optimum SST and Chl-a ranges for the Indian mackerel. Georeferenced fishery data was used
to determine the ideal ranges for the variables using histogram graphs Suitability Index. The
identified SST and Chl-a ranges were used to generate the PFZ map. The optimal temperature
range was SST of 30.75 ± 0.21°C, while the chlorophyll concentration range was 0.31 ± 0.10
mg m-3.

15
Identification of favourable fishing grounds through the use of satellite data have long been
attributed through detection of significant oceanographic parameters that influence fish
aggregation such as Chlorophyll concentration (Chl-a) and Sea Surface Temperature (SST)
(Nurdin et al., 2015). Satellite remote sensing sensors can detect these biological and physical
features in real time. Similar to the study done by Nurdin et al. (2013), Nurdin et al. (2015)
used Chl-a and SST satellite imagery and incorporated mean surface wind speed data and
mean surface current data from the NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory and the
NOAA Ocean Surface Current Analysis Real-time (OSCAR) websites respectively. The
effect of surface water currents and winds on the sea surface environment justified the use of
the additional variables. A prediction model was constructed using statistical methods.
Multiple regression models were used for the prediction together with GIS techniques to
generate maps for potential fishing grounds. Matching Chl-a and SST features were
considered as potential fishing grounds. The maps were validated using fish catch data and a
positive correlation was obtained between Chl-a and SST against Indian mackerel catch data.
The accuracy of the distribution and abundance of the fish species from the prediction map
was 76.9%.

Syah et al. (2017) conducted a study in the western North Pacific, using generalized additive
model and remotely sensed data to detect potential fishing zones for Pacific saury. SST and
Sea Surface Chlorophyll (SSC) data was derived from MODIS-Aqua satellite, Sea Surface
Height Anomaly (SSHA) was acquired from Archiving Validation and Interpretation of
Satellite Oceanographic Data (AVISO) and Eddy Kinetic Energy (EKE) was calculated using
the surface geostrophic velocities. General Additive Models (GAMs) were constructed using
the four variables as predictors of the species habitat suitability index (HSI). The distribution
of the predicted habitats was then compared to the monthly georeferenced fish catch data for
validation. It was noted that SST contribution was the highest in the model indicating the
effect of temperature changes on the species. The predicted suitability index maps showed
high probability of Pacific saury occurrence in the east, south and southeast regions.

With the aim of creating a spatial model to determine tuna fishery distribution in Bitung City,
Indonesia, Kumaat et al. (2019) used spatial analysis methods and incorporated Chl-a and
SST satellite data derived from MODIS-Aqua and tuna production data for identifying
potential fishing areas. The prediction zone maps for tuna fishing areas was generated by
overlaying SST images and chlorophyll-a contours. The optimum fishing zones were
16
determined by overlaying the existing tuna production data with specific information
regarding productive fishing areas.

Sea temperature has an effect on fish species development during their life cycle and SST is
among the most successfully measured parameters among the other satellite data
measurement. SST is the temperature of water in the upper ocean surface (1mm to 20m).
Phytoplankton biomass, the primary food source within the sea, is another important factor
(Karuppasamy et al., 2020). In their study to monitor potential fishing zones using a remote
sensing approach, Karuppasamy et al. (2020) utilized satellite imagery from MODIS-Aqua
for SST and chlorophyll concentration and Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper 8 for the
base map. Ranks were assigned to both temperature and chlorophyll denoting high and low
PFZ areas. Temperatures of low SST ranging between 24-27 °C were considered highly
suitable while SST temperature values ranging between 30-31 °C were considered low
suitability PFZ areas with the remaining regions falling in the medium suitability region.
Chlorophyll concentrations of between 1.02 mg/m³ - 1.23 mg/m³ were considered highly
suitable while CC values ranging between 0.45 mg/m³ - 0.82 mg/m³ were considered low
suitability areas. The values falling in-between were considered medium PFZ suitable.

Purwanto et al. (2020) conducted a case study of Nias Island waters to analyze potential
fishing zones in coastal waters. The research employed the use of remote sensing satellite
imagery from the Visible/Infrared Imager Radiometer Suite (SNPP-VIIRS) and Group for
High Resolution Sea Surface Temperature (GHRSST) satellites for SST images and MODIS-
Aqua for chlorophyll-a images. The PFZ was identified through detection of the thermal front
of SST using the Single Image Edge Detection (SIED) method and this was overlaid with the
chlorophyll-a values in the mesotropic area (areas with moderate levels of nutrients /
productivity). The overlay results were then grouped into 1 nautical mile grid sizes and
finally the polygon mass method was used to extract the PFZ coordinates. High Potential and
Low Potential areas were identified from the results.

17
2.4 Conceptual Framework
The literature review identified Sea Surface Temperature and Chlorophyll Concentration as
the key variables influencing the aggregation and abundance of fish resources. Consequently,
this helps in the identification of Potential Fishing Zones, which is the main objective of this
study.

The relationship between the variables is illustrated in Figure 2.1:

Figure 2. 1 Conceptual Framework Illustration

The changes in Sea Surface Temperature and Chlorophyll Concentration (the Independent
Variables) have an effect on whether a location is a Potential Fishing Zone (the Dependent
Variable).

18
2.5 Conclusion
From the literature reviewed, it is evident that sea surface temperature and chlorophyll
concentration oceanographic features play a significant role in the identification of potential
fishing grounds for a variety of fishes and fishes in general. Sea Surface Temperature
indicates the conduciveness of an environment for fishes, while food availability
(phytoplankton and other fishes) influences the occurrence, abundance and migration of
marine fisheries in the ocean. Chlorophyll pigment concentration is an indication of a
measure of biological productivity and can be associated with fish production. Chlorophyll
data is effective in fisheries research and is utilized for definition of marine resource habitats.

The MODIS-Aqua satellite has also been used in majority of the research recently since it
provides both SST and chlorophyll concentration imagery which is used for identification of
PFZs.

It is also clear that not much research has been conducted or published in the African context,
let alone Kenya and Kilifi in particular, regarding identification of potential fishing zones
using Remote Sensing integrated with GIS technologies.

19
CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the approach used in the identification of potential fishing zones in the
study area. The methodology indicates the steps taken, the data used, the analyses undertaken
and the software / applications used to achieve the objectives of this study. Spatial analysis
methods were used in this research. The interpreted satellite imagery and catch data are
presented in the form of maps, tables and graphs in Chapter 4. The methodology is outlined
in the flowchart shown in Figure 3. 1. The specific objectives are denoted by the purple
colour.

Figure 3. 1 Project Flowchart

20
3.2 Selection of Study Area
The study area / area of interest is identified as the Kilifi County coastline and a map of the
same is created as indicated in the scope of the project and in Figure 1.1 respectively for
reference purposes. The year of study is 2020, and data was collected for all the months in the
year.

3.3 Data Acquisition

3.3.1 Satellite Data Acquisition

Sea Surface Temperature and chlorophyll concentration satellite imagery data were used for
this project. These were the parameters chosen for the study after a comprehensive literature
review on the topic. The data was acquired from the Moderate Resolution Imaging
Spectroradiometer (MODIS)-Aqua satellite. The MODIS-Aqua satellite specifications are as
follows:

Table 3. 1 MODIS-Aqua Satellite Specifications (MODIS Web, n.d.)

Orbit 705 km, 10:30 a.m. descending node (Terra) or 1:30 p.m.
ascending node (Aqua), sun-synchronous, near-polar, circular
Scan Rate 20.3 rpm, cross track
Swath 2330 km (cross track) by 10 km (along track at nadir)
Dimensions
Telescope 17.78 cm diam. off-axis, afocal (collimated), with intermediate
field stop
Size 1.0 x 1.6 x 1.0 m
Weight 228.7 kg
Power 162.5 W (single orbit average)
Data Rate 10.6 Mbps (peak daytime); 6.1 Mbps (orbital average)
Quantization 12 bits
Spatial 250 m (bands 1-2), 500 m (bands 3-7), 1000 m (bands 8-36)
Resolution
Design Life 6 years
Operating 04-07-2002 to Present
Period

21
Primary Use Band Bandwidth1 Spectral Required
Radiance2 SNR3
Ocean Color/ 8 405 - 420 44.9 880
Phytoplankton/
9 438 - 448 41.9 838
Biogeochemistry
10 483 - 493 32.1 802
11 526 - 536 27.9 754
12 546 - 556 21.0 750
13 662 - 672 9.5 910
14 673 - 683 8.7 1087
15 743 - 753 10.2 586
16 862 - 877 6.2 516
Primary Use Band Bandwidth1 Spectral Required
Radiance2 NE[Δ]T(K)4
Surface/Cloud 20 3.660 - 3.840 0.45(300K) 0.05
Temperature 21 3.929 - 3.989 2.38(335K) 0.20
22 3.929 - 3.989 0.67(300K) 0.07
23 4.020 - 4.080 0.79(300K) 0.07
10.780 -
31 9.55(300K) 0.05
11.280
11.770 -
32 8.94(300K) 0.05
12.270
1 Bands 1 to 19 are in nm; Bands 20 to 36 are in µm
2 Spectral Radiance values are (W/m2 -µm-sr)
3 SNR = Signal-to-noise ratio
4 NE(Δ)T = Noise-equivalent temperature difference

Note: Performance goal is 30-40% better than required

22
The data was accessed from the NASA Oceancolor Web website (oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov/).
The data used was Level 3 browser data since it contains processed images (with radiometric
and atmospheric correction done) and have been aggregated over a well-defined time period.
In this study, monthly composites were used.

3.3.2 MODIS-Aqua Sea Surface Temperature Imagery Acquisition

Monthly SST satellite imagery daytime data at 4 km spatial resolution was downloaded for
all months for the year 2020.

The standard mapped image (SMI) format was used.

Figure 3. 2 SST MODIS-Aqua Satellite Imagery Download

23
 Figure 3. 3 MODIS-Aqua SST SMI Image Sample

3.3.3 MODIS-Aqua Chlorophyll Concentration Imagery Acquisition

Monthly chlorophyll concentration satellite imagery daytime data at 4 km spatial resolution
was downloaded for all months for the year 2020.

The standard mapped image (SMI) format was used.

Figure 3. 4 Chlorophyll Concentration MODIS-Aqua Satellite Imagery Download

24
 Figure 3. 5 MODIS-Aqua Chlorophyll Concentration SMI Image Sample

3.4 Data Extraction

The downloaded imagery was in NetCDF format and needed conversion into ASCII
(American Standard Code for Information Interchange) format. The NetCDF data format can
be opened by NASA’s SeaDAS (Sea Data Analysis Software), which is a comprehensive
open source software package for the reading, processing, analysis, display and quality
control of ocean colour data. SeaDAS can also be of use in analyses for other earth science
satellite-based data.

Figure 3. 6 Opening Data Products in SeaDAS

25
 Figure 3. 7 Viewing Data Products in SeaDAS

The area of interest extent was attained by cropping the imagery using geo-coordinates. The
coordinates used represent the spatial boundaries of the study area as indicated in Figure 1.1.

Figure 3. 8 Cropping SST Image to Study Area

The result of the cropping is as shown in Figure 3.9:

26
 Figure 3. 9 SST Cropped Result

To convert the data into ASCII format, pixel information was extracted from the cropped
raster image.

Figure 3. 10 Exporting SST Pixel Information

The extracted pixel information contains the SST distribution values for each pixel and their
respective coordinates in the study area and was stored as a text file (.txt), ready for further
processing.

27
 Figure 3. 11 Extracted SST Pixel Information

3.5 Data Processing and Analysis

Data processing was done in Microsoft Excel 2019, where the data was cleaned up to remove
unwanted columns.

Figure 3. 12 SST Data Processing in Excel

The processing output was a comma separated value (.csv) file which contained the SST
values and the associated coordinates.

28
 Figure 3. 13 SST Data Processing Result

This data was ready for additional processing and visualization through importation to
ArcGIS ArcMap 10.3 for further analysis. ArcGIS is a Geographical Information System
(GIS) commercial software by the Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) that
allows management, analysis and visualization of geographical information through layers. It
is used for creating maps, supporting field data collection operations, spatial analysis,
extracting data from imagery and remotely sensed data and is efficient in data storage and
management.

29
The point data was added to ArcMap.

Figure 3. 14 Adding Point Data to ArcMap

The data imported into ArcMap appeared as shown in Figure 3. 15:

Figure 3. 15 Imported SST XY Data

30
To create a continuous raster image, the point data was interpolated using the Inverse
Distance Weighting (IDW) interpolation method, which assumes that values that are closer
are more related than values that are further away. It is a deterministic method which
computes a mean value for unsampled locations using values from nearby sampled and
weighted locations.

Figure 3. 16 SST IDW Interpolation

Figure 3. 17 SST Interpolated Image

The interpolated image was exported into a raster Tagged Image File Format (.TIFF) format
and after applying appropriate symbology, the image was displayed as shown in Figure 3. 18:

31
 Figure 3. 18 SST Symbolized Image

The same steps were applied for all monthly downloaded MODIS-Aqua SST and Chlorophyll
Concentration images. The end result was to generate a TIFF raster symbolized image for all
downloaded satellite images.

SST and Chl-a concentration contours were then generated from the raster images.

Figure 3. 19 Creating SST Contours

The contour images were exported and saved as shapefiles for later analysis.

32
 Figure 3. 20 SST Contours Output

Raster data, which is not interpolated was required for the further analysis. The data was
downloaded using the Marine Geospatial Ecology Tools (MGET) version 0.8a75, an open-
source geoprocessing toolbox that plugs in to ArcGIS and can be used to access
oceanographic data, process the data and identify oceanographic features in remote sensing
images.

Figure 3. 21 Downloading Data from MGET Toolbox

The retrieved data was exported as a raster image in TIFF format and after symbolization, it
was represented as shown in Figure 3. 22:

33
 Figure 3. 22 Symbolized MGET Data

What followed was the identification of fronts on the raster image. Fronts are locations which
serve as boundaries between water masses with dissimilar properties i.e. temperature, colour,
salinity, density. In a satellite image, they can be detected as breaks in chlorophyll
concentration through ocean colour or SST of ocean water (Solanki et al., 2003). They are a
representation of biomass productivity for chlorophyll and upwelling for SST, meaning water
with greater nutrient concentration from the deeper layers will be available in the euphotic
(upper) layer and thus enable enhanced production.

Figure 3. 23 Extracting Thermal Front

The identified front was indicated by the lines where the breaks were determined using the
Cayula-Cornillon Single Image Edge Detection (SIED) algorithm.

34
 Figure 3. 24 Extracted Thermal Front

The image was extracted to TIFF format to allow overlaying with the colour front of the same
month using raster calculator. This was repeated for all months where SST and Chl-a
concentration fronts were detected.

Figure 3. 25 Raster Overlay using Raster Calculator

The result was a combination of both fronts on the same image which was exported to raster
TIFF format and symbolized in readiness for overlaying with chlorophyll concentration
images. The fronts, colour and thermal, represent the potential fishing zones.

35
 Figure 3. 26 Raster Overlay Analysis Result Overlaid on Chlorophyll Concentration Map

3.6 Data Validation

Georeferenced fish catch data from a longline fishing survey done by Kenya Marine and
Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI) in the study area was used to validate the output of the
PFZ maps. The longline data acquired contains data for the months of April to August. Total
fish catch data from Kenya Fisheries Service (KeFS) for the county for the year 2020 was
also used for reference and discussion purposes.

The longline catch data was modified since it contained daily records which were aggregated
to monthly data to match the temporal PFZ maps that have been generated. The data was
filtered to contain only the necessary fields to be used for analysis in the spatial extent of
interest. The coordinate fields represent the locations the hook setting was completed (X and
Y Start) and the locations the hauling process began (X and Y End). Catch Per Unit Effort
was calculated by dividing the number of fish caught by the total number of hooks set.

Figure 3. 27 Longline Fishing Survey Data Sample

The data is added to ArcMap for visualization and analysis.

36
 Figure 3. 28 Adding Georeferenced Monthly Catch Data

The result was as shown in Figure 3. 29 and the data was exported to a shapefile format.

Figure 3. 29 Catch Data Attribute Table

To recreate the longline fishing vessel fishing start and end points in a trip, lines were created
between the two locations.

37
 Figure 3. 30 Creating Lines from XY Points to show Vessel Trips

Figure 3. 31 Monthly Longline Result

These lines represent the areas where fishing operations were undertaken. The data was
exported to a shapefile format and a float field added to the feature for the CPUE data.

38
 Figure 3. 32 Adding a Float CPUE Field

Figure 3. 33 Adding CPUE data to the created field

The feature symbology was modified to use graduated symbols using CPUE as the value so
as to quickly visualize the difference between the catch efforts.

39
 Figure 3. 34 Modifying Longline Data Symbology

The result is as shown in Figure 3. 35:

Figure 3. 35 Symbolized Longline Data

The resultant layer was overlaid with the PFZ map generated earlier to observe whether PFZ
areas record higher CPUEs compared to non PFZ areas.

40
 Figure 3. 36 Symbolized Longline Data overlaid on the PFZ

Further analysis was done to identify the biological (Chl-a) and physical (SST) preferences of
fishes from the areas that recorded the highest CPUEs. Chlorophyll concentration and SST
contours were overlaid with the longline CPUE data to extract the range of values where high
CPUEs were observed.

Figure 3. 37 Identifying Favourable Oceanographic Conditions Ranges

41
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses and explains the results that were attained during the methodology
steps from the satellite data acquisition to identification of potential fishing zones and
validation of the PFZ maps. Marine water fish usually migrate for feeding or spawning
purposes. The marine food chain begins with phytoplankton, the primary food source in the
marine environment. Therefore, it is important to understand the role that phytoplankton
populations play and their relationship to local environments as they eventually link to
fisheries.

Fishes look for food in areas with a high probability of finding prey, consequently reducing
the amount of energy used in the search, according to the optimal foraging theory (Reese et
al., 2011). This forms the basis of the food chain where smaller organisms (zooplanktons)
and small fish feed on the phytoplankton and these are prey for other pelagic fishes which are
hunted by large demersal fishes and so on.

4.2 Sea Surface Temperature

Ocean waters are characterized by SST, which determines the suitability of ocean
environments for enhanced biological production. Cooler waters are an indicator of high
nutrient waters due to enhanced production compared to warmer waters. Marine fishery
resources depend on a physiologically suitable environment for their habitats. (Solanki et al.,
2010).

The sea surface temperatures (SST) for the different months are as shown in Figure 4. 1:

42
43
 Figure 4. 1 Sea Surface Temperature Maps

The temperature distributions are shown in the chart in Figure 4.2 indicating the highest,
lowest and average temperatures observed for each month.

Figure 4. 2 Monthly Highest, Lowest and Mean Sea Surface Temperatures

For the year 2020, cooler water temperatures were experienced between the months of June
to October, with August recording the lowest temperatures of 24.08 °C and an average of
25.71 °C. This range of cool SST months coincides with the South East Monsoon (‘Kusi’)
season where strong south-easterly winds accelerate the East African Coastal Current
(EACC), which is a northward flowing current along the Kenyan coastal waters (Painter,
2020). The strong winds displace the warm surface layer waters and this will be replaced by
cool, nutrient rich waters from the bottom layers. This process is known as upwelling which
enhances vertical water mixing thus reducing the SST (Nurdin et al., 2013).

44
High SST was observed between January and April, which also coincides with the North East
Monsoon (‘Kaskazi’) season which begins in December and ends in March. April recorded
the highest temperatures of 32.24 °C, with an average temperature of 30.92 °C. In the North
East Monsoon (NEM) season, warm moderate flowing north-easterly winds affect the Somali
Current (SC) from the north and cause warming of the sea surface.

An illustration of the monsoon seasons is shown in Figure 4. 3:

Figure 4. 3 South East Monsoon and North East Monsoon Seasons (McClanahan, 1988)

The wind directions are indicated by the dashed lines and the current patterns by the solid
lines. The first image represents the SEM, showing the EACC while the second represents the
NEM showing both the EACC from the south and the SC from the North. The long rains
(‘Masika’), which occur between April and May, and the short rains (‘Vuli’) which normally
occur between October and November, separate the monsoon seasons (Painter, 2020).

4.3 Chlorophyll Concentration

Enhanced biological production areas in the ocean can be determined using chlorophyll
concentration values. High chlorophyll concentration is considered an indicator of biomass
production (Solanki et al., 2003). Ocean colour sensors have the capability to detect the
production and abundance of food resources in the euphotic water layer (Solanki et al., 2010).

45
The chlorophyll (Chl-a) concentration for the different months are as shown in Figure 4.4:

46
 Figure 4. 4 Chlorophyll Concentration Maps

The chlorophyll concentration distributions are shown in Figure 4. 5 indicating the highest,
lowest and average values observed for each month.

Figure 4. 5 Monthly Highest, Lowest and Mean Chlorophyll Concentration Values

There are some high chlorophyll concentration values e.g. in December, that prevent the
detection of the mean trend. The high chlorophyll concentration levels, especially at the
shorelines and indicated by the red colour, could be attributed to river discharge, which could
contain fertilizer, rainwater runoff and sewerage. It could also be caused by sediments
especially during runoff. These values could be outliers and as such, the mean values will be
considered for the study.

The trend is therefore shown in Figure 4.6 to help us understand the mean distribution over
the months.

47
 Figure 4. 6 Mean Chlorophyll Concentration Values

High chlorophyll concentration was observed between the months of June to October, with
September recording the highest mean concentration values at 0.3 mg m -3. This range of
months also coincide with the SEM where the strong south-easterly winds generate vertical
mixing of water and causes upwelling (Nurdin et al., 2013). Upwelling occurs when deeper
and colder ocean waters that have high concentration of nutrients move up to the ocean
surface to displace the warmer nutrient depleted waters. This usually happens when winds
cause diversion of surface waters from other water masses or movement away from the
coastline. The result is enhanced biological productivity caused by the restocking of surface
layers with nutritional components as well as cooling the temperature of the sea surface.

The cooler temperature, nutrient rich areas become fertile and enhances the growth of
phytoplankton which in turns attracts zooplankton and pelagic fishes. This phenomenon is
visible in the satellite imagery in Figure 4.4, where the months of July-October show a lot of
concentration (green to red colour) especially in the EEZ.

Low mean chlorophyll concentration was observed between November and April, which also
coincides with the NEM. November recorded the lowest mean concentration values at 0.13
mg m-3. There is a distinct correlation between SST and chlorophyll concentration where
cooler temperatures are observed to be conducive for phytoplankton production and this
mainly occurs in during the South East Monsoon season as shown below.

48
 Figure 4. 7 Chl-a Concentration and SST Correlation

4.4 Kilifi Fish Catch Data

Fish catch data was acquired from Kenya Fisheries Service (KeFS) who are the authoritative
stakeholders for fish catch data and statistics in Kenya. The data for 2020 was however
unpublished as at the time of acquisition.

In 2020, a total of 5,368,009.48 kgs of fish were caught. The distribution of fish caught is
shown in a series of charts below.

Figure 4. 8 Total Fish Catch by Month

The month of May recorded the highest fish catch of the year at 1,589 tonnes which was
more than thrice the size caught in the second most successful month of October at 435

49
tonnes. The lowest catch recorded was for the month of June at 215 tonnes. May falls
between the two monsoon seasons and is usually the period of long rains. The average SST
observed was 28.52 °C and a mean chlorophyll concentration of 0.22 mg m -3.

The distribution of total fish caught by species is indicated in Figure 4. 9:

Figure 4. 9 Total Fish Catch by Species

The fish can be categorized into four main groups and their catch statistics are shown in
Figure 4. 10:

50
 Figure 4. 10 Total Grouped Fish Catch

This shows that pelagic fish, which live and feed nearer the upper surface waters, contribute
50% of fishes caught while demersal fish, which live and feed near the seabed contribute
approximately 43%. Crustaceans and cephalopods contribute the remaining 7%. This shows
pelagic fishes; whose main food is phytoplankton in the surface layer waters are prey for the
demersal fishes and thus identification of productive waters with high chlorophyll
concentration can aide in fishing of both kinds of fishes.

4.5 Oceanic Fronts

Fronts are oceanic features formed at water masses boundaries where there is a difference in
temperature or density, and are linked to enhanced biological production. Satellites can
observe fronts on the sea surface where differences in temperature or colour in water masses
occur (Miller, 2011). Fishing grounds can be deduced from remote sensing SST and Chl-a
imagery through the detection of oceanic features as a result of upwelling and indicate areas
of high biological productivity (Dwivedi et al., 2005).

Fish population have been observed to aggregate for spawning and feeding at oceanic
features i.e. fronts, eddies and upwelling areas (Solanki et al., 2003).

51
SST and colour fronts were detected from the acquired satellite imagery through the use of
Single Image Edge Detection algorithm formulated by (Cayula & Cornillon, 1992). The
algorithm is an automated method of detecting fronts at locations where there is a substantial
difference between the average temperature or colour of neighbouring water masses (Miller,
2011).

4.5.1 SST Fronts

The following fronts were detected from the SST imagery:

52
 Figure 4. 11 Thermal Fronts Maps

Thermal fronts were not detected from satellite imagery for the months of January, April and
June. Significant thermal fronts were detected in the months of March, May and December.

4.5.2 Colour Fronts

The following fronts were detected from the Chl-a concentration imagery:

53
 Figure 4. 12 Colour Fronts Maps

Colour fronts were detected in all months. Significant colour fronts were observed in the
months of January, February, June, July, August, September and October.

4.6 Potential Fishing Zones

The potential fishing zones were attained by overlaying the thermal and colour fronts to form
one oceanic structure which represents favourable areas for fish feeding as well as
physiologically suitable environments for marine resources. The identified PFZs for 2020 are
shown in Figure 4.13:

54
55
 Figure 4. 13 Potential Fishing Zones Maps

4.7 Potential Fishing Zone Validation

To validate the created PFZ maps, georeferenced longline fishing survey data was acquired
from Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI), an authoritative source of
scientific data and information for marine fisheries. The survey contained exhaustive
information about the fish catch for the months April – August.

The georeferenced data was overlaid on the PFZ maps to detect whether high fish catches,
through the use of Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE), were observed in the PFZs or in areas close
to the PFZ. The validation maps are shown in Figure 4.14:

56
57
 Figure 4. 14 PFZ Validation Maps

In April, a total of eight trips were done in the survey area and the average CPUE for the
month was 0.1142. CPUE is calculated by dividing the total number of fishes caught against
the total number of hooks set. Two trips were made close to the identified PFZ areas and they
recorded CPUEs of 0.1726 and 0.1607, which was above average.

In May, a total of sixteen trips were done in the survey area and the average CPUE for the
month was 0.1153. Five trips crossed the PFZ are and recorded CPUEs of 0.1696, 0.1339,
0.1550, 0.1815 and 0.0556. 80% of the trips that crossed the PFZs were above average. Two
trips that were made close to the identified PFZ areas recorded CPUEs of 0.1458 and 0.1568.
These recordings were also above average. One outlier was observed in a trip that was not
close to a PFZ and recorded a CPUE of 0.1994, the highest for the month.

In June, a total of twelve trips were done in the survey area and the average CPUE for the
month was 0.1349. Two trips crossed the PFZ are and recorded CPUEs of 0.1429 and 0.1458.
100% of the trips that crossed the PFZs were above average. Three trips that were made close
to the identified PFZ areas recorded CPUEs of 0.1518, 0.1190 and 0.1042. Two recordings
were below average and one above average. Outliers were observed in trips that were not
close to a PFZ and recorded a CPUEs of 0.2018, the highest for the month and 0.1707 which
was above average.

In July, a total of four trips were done in the survey area and the average CPUE for the month
was 0.1390. One trip crossed the PFZ are and recorded a CPUE of 0.1339. 0% of the trips

58
that crossed the PFZs were above average. Three trips that were made close to the identified
PFZ areas recorded CPUEs of 0.1667, the highest for the month, 0.1488 and 0.1131. Two
recordings were above average and one below average.

In August, a total of fourteen trips were done in the survey area and the average CPUE for the
month was 0.1234. Six trips crossed the PFZ are and recorded CPUEs of 0.1111, 0.1071,
0.1071, 0.1518, 0.0774 and 0.0506. 16% of the trips that crossed the PFZs were above
average. Five trips that were made close to the identified PFZ areas recorded CPUEs of
0.0685, 0.1161, 0.2560, the highest for the month, 0.1726, and 0.0327. Two recordings were
above average and three below average.

The highest CPUE was observed in August at a value of 0.2560 with a catch of 2611.3 kgs
and the lowest in May at a value of 0.0206 with a catch of 877.5 kgs.

4.8 Oceanographic Ranges

The validation maps which use georeferenced data were used in identification of preferable
oceanographic conditions, both physical (SST) and biological (Chl-a). The areas with highest
CPUEs were used to identify the surrounding conditions. SST and Chl-a contours were
overlaid with the longline fishing survey data to achieve this purpose. The following were the
resultant maps:

59
60
 Figure 4. 15 Favourable Oceanographic Conditions Maps

In April, the oceanographic ranges which observed high CPUE are SSTs between 30-31 °C
and chlorophyll concentrations between 0.1-0.2 mg m-3. In May, which was significantly the
highest in terms of fish catch for the year, the oceanographic ranges which observed high
CPUE are SSTs between 28-29 °C and chlorophyll concentrations between 0.1-0.2 mg m -3.

In June, the oceanographic ranges which observed high CPUE are SSTs of 27.5 °C and
chlorophyll concentrations of 0.2 mg m -3. In July, the oceanographic ranges which observed
high CPUE are SSTs of 26.5 °C and chlorophyll concentrations of 0.2 mg m -3. In August,
which had the highest CPUE value from the survey, the oceanographic ranges which
observed high CPUE are SSTs between 25-25.5 °C and chlorophyll concentrations of 0.2 mg
m-3.

61
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion
The study successfully utilized remote sensing and GIS techniques for data acquisition,
analyses and presentation of results incorporation with other software to identify Potential
Fishing Zones. Factors that influence the aggregation of marine fisheries were identified
through a comprehensive literature review which underlined Sea Surface Temperature and
Chlorophyll concentration as the key parameters due to their effect on ocean productivity and
habitat conduciveness. Spatio-temporal PFZ maps were generated through detection of
oceanic fronts (thermal and colour fronts) from SST and Chl-a derived MODIS-Aqua satellite
images. Validation of the identified PFZs using georeferenced data showed that vessel trips
that conducted fishing operations in the PFZs or areas nearby observed above average Catch
Per Unit Efforts (CPUEs). Potential favourable oceanographic conditions (physical and
biological) were deduced from the georeferenced data using the high CPUE locations and can
be used to further create additional PFZ maps.

The results of the study may not be 100% accurate as shown by the validation results, but RS
and GIS techniques have shown that they can provide a cost-effective method to identify
potential fishing grounds to assist fishermen to reduce fishing related operational costs and
fishing effort through lower search time and inherently increase their catch quantities. To
minimize the errors, in situ catch data with georeferenced locations of where fishes were
explicitly caught would assist in generating more accurate PFZs. The availability of
georeferenced catch data, however, is a challenge, not only in Kenya but in the East African
region as a whole. This kind of data would go a long way in improving analyses and as such
improving results. Lack of data in some satellite images caused by cloud cover, especially in
chlorophyll concentration data, which is crucial in the analysis may also contribute to the
inaccuracy encountered in the results.

Despite high productivity and consequent high mean chlorophyll concentration being
observed during the South East Monsoon season, the fish catch data in the months between
June-October were considerably low. This can be attributed to reduced fishing effort by
fishermen due to rough sea conditions caused by the strong south-easterly winds.
Productivity is also seen to be dominant in the EEZ areas which is a challenge for artisanal
fishers to exploit due to lack of appropriate fishing equipment.

62
The study required extensive research on the biological and physical ocean processes, the
oceanography of the West Indian Ocean (WIO) and methods of oceanic features
identification.

5.2 Recommendations
The study has shown that majority of the PFZs are located away from the near shore and are
mainly found in the EEZ waters. To reduce the fishing pressure in near shore waters,
strategies need to be put in place by relevant stakeholders to identify how the EEZ waters can
be explored by local fishermen for socioeconomic advantages to be reaped and to ensure
sustainable exploitation of marine resources.

The study was conducted for historical data. The same approach can be used for near real
time data to identify PFZs and the information disseminated to local fishermen through
different methods e.g. SMS, social media platforms, through Beach Management Units
(BMUs) or local fisheries offices. Direct fishing operations would then be used to validate the
PFZs.

County governments bordering marine waters together with interested stakeholders can take
advantage of the capabilities of Remote Sensing and GIS technologies and generate the PFZ
maps for optimal marine resources exploitation. Sensitization campaigns for the local
fishermen can be undertaken to increase uptake of this effective and efficient alternative
method.

5.3 Areas for Further Research

Future prospective studies can include incorporating other parameters which may influence
fishery distribution e.g. nutrient composition and salinity levels, winds and currents; as was
shown by the effect of the monsoon seasons on ocean productivity and sea surface height, for
identification of additional oceanic features e.g. eddies.

Another area of research could be identification of PFZs for particular fish species and
extraction of their optimum biological and physical environment data.
Studies can also be conducted to determine the difference in fish species sizes for fishes
captured in the near shore waters in relation to those captured in deep sea waters. Such

63
studies would demonstrate whether there is a need for deep sea fishing and also attest to the
theory of overfishing in the near shore waters.

64
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 IDENTIFICATION OF POTENTIAL FISHING ZONES USING REMOTE SENSING AND GIS TECHNIQUES ALONG THE
KILIFI COASTLINE
TEDDY GREGORY LENGA F56/34013/2019
TABLE OF CORRECTIONS
Chapter Section Examiners Comments Response
General Add list of abbreviations. The project report template was adopted and a list of
Comments The report consists of five chapters and list of abbreviations added.
references. It also includes a list of figures, Unnecessary spaces were removed between paragraphs.
tables and abbreviations.
The correct template should be adopted.
Avoid unnecessary spaces between paragraphs.
Abstract Cite figures with respect to average CPUE Figures from the results were cited for context.
values. Clarification was done to show similarity of the two
Clarify that potential fishing grounds are similar terms.
to potential fishing zones.
1. Introduction The tenses should be corrected to reflect work Tenses were corrected in the objectives section to reflect
done as indicated in the text with respect to the work done.
objectives section. The study area map was maintained in chapter 1 for
The study area map should be moved to chapter definition of the scope of work. The map was referenced
3. accordingly in chapter 3.
A section on organization of the report should be A report structure section was introduced.
introduced.
2. Literature Review Introduce a section 2.5 on conceptual model as A conceptual framework was introduced in section 2.4 of
suggested in the text for completeness. the document for completeness.
3. Methodology Link specific objectives to Figure 3.1. The specific objectives were linked to the project
All figures and tables should be referenced in the flowchart as advised.
text as suggested. All figures and tables were referenced as advised.
Show only relevant information in the images. Images cropped to display only the relevant sections.
Borders were added to all images to make them
Add outline to make images more presentable. presentable.
4. Results and Check whether 3 decimal places are adequate. Decimal places in results reduced to 4 from 6.
Discussion Try to adopt standard scale e.g. 1:2,500,000. The scale used in the maps was chosen for presentation
Enclosing figures in a text box does not make purposes to enable visibility of the identified features.
them tables. Refer to them as figures and Figures that were referenced as tables have been
reference them appropriately. correctly labelled and referenced accordingly.
Further each result should be explained Each result has been sufficiently discussed n its own
sufficiently. Include a section on discussion of section.
the results.
5. Conclusion and Conclusions and recommendations should be Conclusions and recommendations have been aligned to
Recommendations aligned to the specific objectives. the specific objectives.
Include a section on areas for further studies. A section on areas of further studies has been added.