high-rise building

By The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 

high-rise building, also called high-rise, multistory building tall enough to require the use of a
system of mechanical vertical transportation such as elevators. The skyscraper is a very tall
high-rise building.

The first high-rise buildings were constructed in the United States in the 1880s. They arose in
urban areas where increased land prices and great population densities created a demand for
buildings that rose vertically rather than spread horizontally, thus occupying the
less precious land area. High-rise buildings were made practicable by the use of steel structural
frames and glass exterior sheathing. By the mid-20th century, such buildings had become a
standard feature of the architectural landscape in most countries in the world.

The foundations of high-rise buildings must sometimes support very heavy gravity loads, and
they usually consist of concrete piers, piles, or caissons that are sunk into the ground. Beds of
solid rock are the most desirable base, but ways have been found to distribute loads evenly
even on relatively soft ground. The most important factor in the design of high-rise buildings,
however, is the building’s need to withstand the lateral forces imposed by winds and
potential earthquakes. Most high-rises have frames made of steel or steel and concrete. Their
frames are constructed of columns (vertical-support members) and beams (horizontal-support
members). Cross-bracing or shear walls may be used to provide a structural frame with greater
lateral rigidity in order to withstand wind stresses. Even more stable frames use closely spaced
columns at the building’s perimeter, or they use the bundled-tube system, in which a number
of framing tubes are bundled together to form exceptionally rigid columns.
High-rise buildings are enclosed by curtain walls; these are non-load-bearing sheets of glass,
masonry, stone, or metal that are affixed to the building’s frame through a series of vertical and
horizontal members called mullions and muntins.

The principal means of vertical transport in a high-rise is the elevator. It is moved by an electric

motor that raises or lowers the cab in a vertical shaft by means of wire ropes. Each elevator cab
is also engaged by vertical guide tracks and has a flexible electric cable connected to it that
provides power for lighting, door operation, and signal transmission.

Because of their height and their large occupant populations, high-rises require the careful
provision of life-safety systems. Fire-prevention standards should be strict, and provisions for
adequate means of egress in case of fire, power failure, or other accident should be provided.
Although originally designed for commercial purposes, many high-rises are now planned for
multiple uses. The combination of office, residential, retail, and hotel space is common
skyscraper
skyscraper, a very tall multistoried building. The name first came into use during the 1880s,
shortly after the first skyscrapers were built, in the United States. The development of
skyscrapers came as a result of the coincidence of several technological and social
developments. The term skyscraper originally applied to buildings of 10 to 20 stories, but by the
late 20th century the term was used to describe high-rise buildings of unusual height, generally
greater than 40 or 50 stories.

The increase in urban commerce in the United States in the second half of the 19th century
augmented the need for city business space, and the installation of the first safe
passenger elevator (in the Haughwout Department Store, New York City) in 1857 made
practical the erection of buildings more than four or five stories tall. Although the earliest
skyscrapers rested on extremely thick masonry walls at the ground level, architects soon turned
to the use of a cast-iron and wrought-iron framework to support the weight of the upper floors,
allowing for more floor space on the lower stories. James Bogardus built the Cast Iron Building
(1848, New York City) with a rigid frame of iron providing the main support for upper-floor
and roof loads.

It was, however, the refinement of the Bessemer process, first used in the United States in the
1860s, that allowed for the major advance in skyscraper construction. As steel is stronger and
lighter in weight than iron, the use of a steel frame made possible the construction of truly tall
buildings. William Le Baron Jenney’s 10-story Home Insurance Company Building (1884–85)
in Chicago was the first to use steel-girder construction. Jenney’s skyscrapers also first
employed the curtain wall, an outer covering of masonry or other material that bears only its
own weight and is affixed to and supported by the steel skeleton. Structurally, skyscrapers
consist of a substructure of piers beneath the ground, a superstructure
of columns and girders above the ground, and a curtain wall hung on the girders.
As the population density of urban areas has increased, so has the need for buildings that rise
rather than spread. The skyscraper, which was originally a form of commercial architecture, has
increasingly been used for residential purposes as well.
Woolworth Building

Chrysler Building

The design and decoration of skyscrapers have passed through several stages. Jenney and his
protégé Louis Sullivan styled their buildings to accentuate verticality, with delineated columns
rising from base to cornice. There was, however, some retention of, and regression to, earlier
styles as well. As part of the Neoclassical revival, for instance, skyscrapers such as those
designed by the firm of McKim, Mead, and White were modeled after Classical Greek columns.
The Metropolitan Life Insurance Building in New York City (1909) was modeled by Napoleon Le
Brun after the Campanile of St. Mark’s in Venice, and the Woolworth Building (1913), by Cass
Gilbert, is a prime example of neo-Gothic decoration. Even the Art Deco carvings on such
towers as the Chrysler Building (1930), the Empire State Building (1931), and the RCA Building
(1931) in New York City, which were then considered as modern as the new technology, are
now viewed as more related to the old ornate decorations than to truly modern lines.

The International Style with its total simplicity seemed ideally suited to skyscraper design, and,

during the decades following World War II, it dominated the field, notable early examples being
the Seagram Building (1958) in New York City and the Lake Shore Drive Apartments (1951) in
Chicago. The stark verticality and glass curtain walls of this style became a hallmark of
ultramodern urban life in many countries. During the 1970s, however, attempts were made to
redefine the human element in urban architecture. Zoning ordinances encouraged the
incorporation of plazas and parks into and around the bases of even the tallest skyscrapers, just
as zoning laws in the first decades of the 20th century were passed to prevent city streets from
becoming sunless canyons and led to the shorter, stepped skyscraper. Office towers, such as
those of the World Trade Center (1972) in New York City and the Sears Tower (1973; now called
Willis Tower) in Chicago, continued to be built, but most of them, such as the Citicorp Center
(1978) in New York City, featured lively and innovative space for shopping and entertainment at
street level.

Another factor influencing skyscraper design and construction in the late 20th and early 21st
centuries was the need for energy conservation. Earlier, sealed windows that made necessary
continuous forced-air circulation or cooling, for instance, gave way in mid-rise buildings to
operable windows and glass walls that were tinted to reflect the sun’s rays. Also, perhaps in
reaction to the austerity of the International Style, the 1980s saw the beginnings of a return to
more classical ornamentation, such as that of Philip Johnson’s AT&T Building (1984) in New
York City. See also high-rise building.
A listing of the world’s tallest buildings is provided in the table.

Source: Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat.

Ran Year of Ht in Ht in Occupied

Building Location
k completion Mtr Ft floor

Dubai, United
1 Burj Khalifa 2010 828 2,717 163
Arab Emirates

2 Shanghai Tower Shanghai, China 2015 632 2,073 128

Makkah Royal Clock Mecca, Saudi

3 2012 601 1,972 120
Tower Arabia

Ping An Finance
4 Shenzhen, China 2017 599 1,965 115
Center

Seoul, South
5 Lotte World Tower 2017 554 1,819 123
Korea

One World Trade New York, N.Y.,

6 2014 541 1,776 94
Center U.S.

Guangzhou CTF Guangzhou,

7 2016 530 1,739 111
Finance Centre China

Tianjin CTF Finance

8 Tianjin, China 2019 530 1,739 97
Centre

9 CITIC Tower Beijing, China 2018 527 1,731 109

10 TAIPEI 101 Taipei, Taiwan 2004 508 1,667 101

Shanghai World
11 Shanghai, China 2008 492 1,614 101
Financial Center

International Hong Kong,

12 2010 484 1,588 108
Commerce Centre China

New York, N.Y.,

13 Central Park Tower 2020 472 1,550 98
U.S.

Saint Petersburg,
14 Lakhta Center 2019 462 1,516 87
Russia

15 Vincom Landmark 81 Ho Chi Minh City, 2018 461 1,513 81

 Vietnam

Changsha IFS Tower

16 Changsha, China 2018 452 1,483 94
T1

Kuala Lumpur,
17 Petronas Tower 1 1998 452 1,483 88
Malaysia

Kuala Lumpur,
Petronas Tower 2 1998 452 1,483 88
Malaysia

19 Suzhou IFS Suzhou, China 2019 450 1,476 95

20 Zifeng Tower Nanjing, China 2010 450 1,476 66

Kuala Lumpur,
21 The Exchange 106 2019 445 1,462 95
Malaysia

22 Wuhan Center Tower Wuhan, China 2019 443 1,454 88

23 Willis Tower Chicago, Ill., U.S. 1974 442 1,451 108

24 KK100 Shenzhen, China 2011 442 1,449 98

Guangzhou
Guangzhou,
25 International Finance 2010 439 1,439 103
China
Center
*To architectural top, as measured from the level of the lowest significant open-air pedestrian
entrance to the topmost architectural feature of the building, including spires but not including
antennas, signage, flag poles, or other functional or technical equipment.

Source: Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat

What is a tall building?

Council on Tall Buildings & Urban Habitat A building is deemed “tall” when its design, use or
operation is influenced by some aspect of “tallness”.

Emporis standards- “A multi-story structure between 35- 100 meters tall, or a building of
unknown height from 12-39 floors is termed as high rise. Building code of Hyderabad, India - A
high-rise building is one with four floors or more, or one 15 meters or more in height. The
International Conference on Fire Safety – "any structure where the height can have a serious
impact on evacuation“ Massachusetts, United States General Laws – A high-rise is being higher
than 70 feet (21 m).
High-rise is physically defined as the multi-storied building, generally constructed with a
structural frame; provide high-speed elevators for vertical main circulation and combining
extraordinary height with ordinary space. Buildings between 75 feet and 491 feet (23 m to 150
m) high are considered high-rises. Buildings taller than 492 feet (150 m) are classified as
skyscrapers.

Demand on High-rise Structures

•General
•Vertical load
•Horizontal
•Unexpected Deflections
•Wind Loads
• Earthquake Loads
• Seismic load
• Temperature load etc.

Load: Load is the external forces acting on very small area on a particular point of a supporting
structural element. This load is classified in some points.
Sources of building loads
• Geophysical
• Man-made
Dead load: Dead loads may be defined as the static force caused by the weight of every
element within the structure.
Live load: Loads caused by contents of objects within or on a building are called occupancy
loads. This load includes allowance for the weights of people, furniture, moveable partitions,
mechanical equipment etc.
General
•A high-rise is a tall building or structure
•The structures are high &leads to higher vertical loads and higher lateral loads (mainly due to
wind stress) in comparison with lower buildings.
Vertical Loads
•Dead loads arise from the weight of the individual construction
elements and the finishing loads.
Horizontal Loads
•It generally arises from unexpected deflections,
wind and earthquake loads.

Wind load: The mean wind velocity is generally increases with height. The formula of pressure
generated by the wind on a building.
Wind turbulence

Wind pressure

Seismic load: It is this wave motion that is known as earthquake., It is apparent that a fault
which has suffered from earthquakes in the past is most likely subject to future disturbances

Column : It is a structural member used to support axial compressive loads applied at the
member ends .
Types of Column Exposure:
The degree of exposure on any exterior column is critical to the potential thermal movement
caused by temperature effects. Fig. shows the four basic types of column exposure in order of
increasing thermal response to ambient temperatures.

Three basic types of cladding details for a -partially exposed column are discussed below.
Simple Cladding:
Column insulation of this type is least effective because the air surrounding the column
responds readily to the temperature
of the metal cladding, which is highly susceptible to the effects of exterior temperatures.
Insulation of this type
should not be used in buildings more than 10 stories high.

Columns Encased in Concrete with Exterior Cladding :

A seamless composite skin is created, offering effective insulation as well as increased structural
rigidity.

Insulated Cladding
The insulation of the cladding controls the transition of
outside temperature to the column. Furthermore,
a non-ventilated air space is created between the cladding and column providing good
insulation
for the column.

Types and Effects of Temperature-Induced Movement:

Many types of building movement are related to temperature effects.
Column Bending:
The interior to exterior temperature differential, called temperature gradient, causes unequal
stresses in exterior columns which cause bending. Differential Movement Between Interior and
Exterior Columns. A vertical displacement occurs between the interior and
exterior columns as changes in the gradient temperature create either expansion or contraction
along the exterior column line.
Differential Movement Between Exterior Columns:
Differential vertical movement may appear between columns having different external surface
exposures such as for corner columns.
PHYSICAL RESTRAINT:
Compensating roof truss: Eliminates differential movement between interior and exterior
columns by providing compressive restraint for exterior columns in expansion, and tension
restraint when columns are in contraction
Thermal break: A compensating truss is placed at central points in the structural frame,
ensuring that the total thermal movement along the exterior column line is greatly decreased
• Restraining floor system: Structural rigidity can be increased by applying restraint at each
floor level. Restraint of this nature requires deep floor systems.
• Rigid beam to column connections: When rigidly connected
beams span between exterior and interior columns, resistance to the free movement of the
exterior columns is provided. The amount of counteraction offered by these beams is
dependent on their relative stiffness.

F0rced mechanical ventilation: Exterior columns can be mechanically heated by either forced
air ventilation or radiant electric elements, to create a constant, uniform temperature around
the column,
thus eliminating column movement due to temperature changes.
Gravity type vertical air circulation:
• In buildings exceeding 50 stories, temperature effects on exterior columns.
• using non-ventilated air spaces.
• Gravity-type air circulation through the column air spaces provides a uniform air temperature
• Openings at the top and bottom of the column shaft at each floor permit a natural warm air.
Beam:
Beam is a rigid structural element which carries and transfer vertical gravitational forces but
can also be used to carry horizontal loads (earth quake or wind) .
Material: steel, concrete, wood.
Type:
1) square beam –rectangular cross section in reinforced concrete beam.
2) I beam- steel frame structure.
Special type-
(a)L beam
(b)C (channel) beam
(c)Tube beam
Used in cylindrical shell or tube in case of special requirement.

Wall:
Upright construction , continuous surface ,serving as enclosure , protect an area.
Types:
1)Load bearing wall
2)Non load bearing wall
Depending on how these walls are arranged within the building, one may subdivide them into
three
basic groups.
• The cross wall system consists of parallel linear walls running perpendicular to the length of
the
building , thus does not interfere with the treatment of the main facade.
• The long wall system consists of linear walls running parallel to the length of the building ,
thus
forming the main facade wall.
• Two-way system consists of walls running in both direction.

The longitudinal walls carry the gravity loads and transfer the wind forces in local bending to
the floor.

The response of a shear wall to lateral loading depends greatly on its shape in plan, that is, the
inertia
it provides against bending. Some common linear shear wall forms are presented.

Slab : A rigid planer usually monolithic structure that disperses applied loads in
multidirectional pattern with the loads generally following the shortest and stiffest
routes to the supports in the system of construction slabs are used to provide flat,
useful surface. A reinforced concrete slab is broad , flat plate , usually horizontal ,
with top and bottom surface parallel or nearby.
Types of High-Rise Buildings Structural Systems
A multistory building higher than 21m or 21 to 29 floor buildings with unknown height
described as high-rise structure. Various structural systems are available to be used in the
construction of high-rise building

1. Braced frame structural system

 Braced frames are cantilevered vertical trusses resisting laterals loads primarily diagonal
members that together with the girders, form the “web” of the vertical truss, with the
columns acting as the “chords’’.
 Bracing members eliminate bending in beams and columns.

Fig.1:Different bracing types

  It is used in steel construction
 This system is suitable for multistory building in the low to mid height range.
 efficient and economical for enhancing the lateral stiffness and resistance of rigid frame
system.
 This system permits the use of slender members in a building.
 An outstanding advantage of braced frame is that, it can be repetitive up the height of
the building with obvious economy in design and fabrication.
 However, it might obstruct internal planning and the location of doors and windows.
That is why it shall be incorporated internally along with lines of walls and partitions.

Fig.2:Braced frame structure

2. Rigid frame structural system

 In rigid frame structure, beams and columns are constructed monolithically to withstand
moments imposed due to loads.
 The lateral stiffness of a rigid frame depends on the bending stiffness of the columns,
girders and connections in-plane
 It is suitable for reinforced concrete buildings.
 It may be used in steel construction as well, but the connections will be costly.
 One of the advantages of rigid frames is the likelihood of planning and fitting of
windows due to open rectangular arrangement.
 Members of rigid frame system withstand bending moment, shear force, and axial
loads.
  20 to 25 storey buildings can be constructed using rigid frame system.
 Advantages of rigid frame include ease of construction, labors can learn construction
skills easily, construct rapidly, and can be designed economically.
 Maximum beam span is 12.2m and larger span beams would suffer lateral deflection.
 A disadvantage is that the self-weight is resisted by the action from rigid frames.
 Finally, Burj Al Khalifa which is the tallest structure in the world is constructed using rigid
frame system.

Fig.3:Rigid frame structural system

3. Wall-frame system (dual system)

 It consists of wall and frame that interact horizontally to provide stronger and stiffer
system.
 The walls are usually solid (not perforated by openings) and they can be found around
the stairwells, elevator shafts, and/or at the perimeter of the building.
 The walls may have a positive effect on the performance of the frames such as by
preventing a soft storey collapse.
 Wall-frame system suitable for buildings with storey number ranges from 40-60 storey
which is greater than that of shear or rigid frame separately.
 braced frames and steel rigid frames provide similar advantages of horizontal
interaction.
 Fig.4:wall frame system

4. Shear wall system

 It is a continuous vertical wall constructed from reinforced concrete or masonry wall.

 Shear walls withstand both gravity and lateral loads, and it acts as narrow deep
cantilever beam.
 Commonly, constructed as a core of buildings
 It is highly suitable for bracing tall buildings either reinforced concrete or steel structure.
This because shear walls have substantial in plane stiffness and strength.
 Shear wall system is appropriate for hotel and residential buildings where the floor-by
floor repetitive planning allows the walls to be vertically continuous.
 It may serve as excellent acoustic and fire insulators between rooms and apartments.
 shear wall structural system can be economical up to 35 stories building structure.
 Shear walls need not to be symmetrical in plan, but symmetry is preferred in order to
avoid torsional effects.
 Fig.5:shear walls system

5. Core and outrigger structural system

 Outrigger are rigid horizontal structures designed to improve building overturning

stiffness and strength by connecting the core or spine to closely spaced outer columns
 The central core contains shear walls or braced frames.
 Outrigger systems functions by tying together two structural systems (core system and a
perimeter system), and render the building to behave nearly as composite cantilever.
 The outriggers are in form of walls in reinforced concrete building and trusses in steel
structures.
 Multilevel outrigger systems can provide up to five times the moment resistance of a
single outrigger system.
 Practically, Outrigger systems used for buildings up to 70 stories. Nonetheless, it can be
used for higher buildings.
 Not only does the outrigger system decline building deformations resulting from the
overturning moments but also greater efficiency is achieved in resisting forces.

Fig.6:Outtrigger structure system

6. Infilled frame structural system

 Infilled frame structure system consists of beam and column framework that some of
the bays infilled with masonry, reinforced concrete, or block walls.
 Infill walls can be part-height or completely fill the frame.
 The walls may or may not be connected to the formwork.
 Great in plan stiffness and strength of the walls prevent bending of beams and columns
under horizontal loads. As a result, frame structural performance will be improved.
 During an earthquake, diagonal compression struts form in the infills so the structure
behaves more like a Braced Frame rather than a Moment Frame.
 It can build up to 30 storey buildings.

Fig.7:Infilled frame structure system

7. Flat plate and flat slab structural system

 This system consists of slabs (flat or plate) connected to columns (without the use of
beams).
 flat plate is a two-way reinforced concrete framing system utilizing a slab of uniform
thickness, the simplest of structural shapes.
 The flat slab is a two-way reinforced structural system that includes either drop panels
or column capitals at columns to resist heavier loads and thus permit longer spans.
 Lateral resistance depends on the flexural stiffness of the components and their
connections, with the slab corresponding to the girder of the rigid frame.
 Suitable for building up to 25 stories.
 Fig.8:Flat slab and flat plate structure system

8. Tube structural system

 This system consists of exterior columns and beams that create rigid frame, and interior
part of the system which is simple frame designed to support gravity loads.
 The building behaves like equivalent hollow tube.
 It is substantially economic and need half of material required for the construction of
ordinary framed buildings.
 Lateral loads are resisted by various connections, rigid or semi-rigid, supplemented
where necessary by bracing and truss elements.
 It is used for the construction of buildings up to 60 storeys.
 Types of tube structure system include framed tube system (fig.9), trussed tube system
(fig.10), bundled tube system (fig.11), and tube in tube system (fig.12).
 Trussed tube system is formed when external bracing added to make a structure stiffer.
This structure type suitable for building up to 100 storeys.
 Bundled tube system consists of connected tubes and it withstand massive loads.
 A tube-in-tube system (hull core) is obtained, if the core is placed inside the tube frame
structure.
Fig.9:Framed tube structure system

Fig.10:Trussed tube system

 Fig.11:Bundled tube structure system

Fig.12:Tube in a tube system

9. Coupled wall system

 This system composed of two or more interconnected shear walls

 Shear walls connected at the floor levels by beam or stiff slabs.
 Stiffness of the whole system is far greater than that of its components.
 The effect of the shear-resistant connecting members is to cause the sets of walls to
behave in their partly as a composite cantilever, bending about the common centroidal
axis of the walls.
 The system is suitable for buildings up to 40 storey height.
 Since planer shear walls support loads in their plane only, walls in two orthogonal
directions need to withstand lateral loads in two directions.
 Fig.13:Coupled wall system

10. Hybrid structural system

 It is the combination of two or more of basic structural forms either by direct

combination or by adopting different forms in different parts of the structure.
 Its lack of torsional stiffness requires that additional measures be taken, which resulted
in one bay vertical exterior bracing and a number of levels of perimeter vierendeel
“bandages”

Fig.14:Vierendeel frame
  It can be used for the buildings of as high as 300m.
 According to chines code (JGJ3-2002), hybrid system can be used for the construction of
buildings with maximum 150m height in seismic regions.

Fig.15:Hybrid structure system

Foundation Types
• Raft foundation: one of the most common foundations. It is known for its load distributing
capability. With the usage of this type of foundation the enormous load of the building gets
distributed & helps the building stay upright and sturdy. Loads are transferred by raft into the
ground.
• Pile foundation: used for high rise construction. Load of building is distributed to the ground
with the help of piles. Transfer the loads into the ground with an Adequate factor of safety.
• Combined raft-pile: is the hybrid of 2 foundation. It Consists of both the pile and raft
foundation. Useful in marshy sandy soil that has low bearing capacity.
CONSTUCTION METHODS AND TECHNIQUES –

Slip forming, continuous poured, continuously formed, or slip form construction is a

construction method in which concrete is poured into a continuously moving form. Slip forming
is used for tall structures (such as bridges, towers, buildings, and dams), as well as horizontal
structures, such as roadways. Slip forming enables continuous, non-interrupted, cast-in-place
"flawless" (i.e. no joints) concrete structures which have superior performance characteristics
to piecewise construction using discrete form elements. Slip forming relies on the quick-setting
properties of concrete, and requires a balance between quick-setting capacity and workability.
Concrete needs to be workable enough to be placed into the form and consolidated (via
vibration), yet quick-setting enough to emerge from the form with strength. This strength is
needed because the freshly set concrete must not only permit the form to "slip"
upwards but also support the freshly poured concrete above it. In vertical slip forming the
concrete form may be surrounded by a platform on which workers stand, placing steel
reinforcing rods into the concrete and ensuring a smooth pour. Together, the concrete form
and working platform are raised by means of hydraulic jacks. Generally, the slipform rises at a
rate which permits the concrete to harden by the time it emerges from the bottom of the form.

SLIP FORM CONSTRUCTION

Slip forming is an economical, rapid and accurate method of constructing reinforced concrete.
At its most basic level, slip forming is a type of movable formwork which is slowly raised
allowing the continuous extrusion of concrete.

CLIMB FORM CONSTRUCTION

CLIMB FORM CONSTRUCTION is an economical, rapid and accurate method of
constructing reinforced concrete, or post-tensioned concrete structures. At its most basic level,
slip forming is a type of movable formwork which is slowly raised, allowing the continuous
extrusion of concrete.
TABLE FORM/FLYING FORM
A table form/flying form is a large pre-assembled formwork and falsework unit, often forming a
complete bay of suspended floor slab. It offers mobility and quick installation for construction
projects with regular plan layouts or long repetitive structures, so is highly suitable for flat slab,
and beam and slab layouts. It is routinely used for residential flats, hotels, hostels, offices and
commercial buildings.
SYSTEM COLUMN FORMWORK
The column formwork systems now available are normally modular in nature and allow quick
assembly and erection on-site while minimizing labour and crane time. They are available in
steel, aluminium and even cardboard (not reusable but recycled) and have a variety of internal
face surfaces depending on the concrete finish required. Innovations have led to adjustable,
reusable column forms which can be clamped on-site to give different column sizes.

VERTICAL PANEL SYSTEMS

Crane-lifted panel systems are commonly used on building sites to form vertical elements and
usually consist of a steel frame with plywood, steel, plastic or composite facing material.
The systems are normally modular in nature, assembly times and labour costs are considerably
lower than traditional formwork methods with far fewer components required. They offer
greater opportunities for reuse for different applications on site. Panel systems are extremely
flexible and the larger crane-lifted versions can be used for constructing standard concrete
walls, perimeter basement walls, columns and in conjunction with jump form climbing systems.

JUMP FORM SYSTEMS

Generally, jump form systems comprise the formwork and working platforms for cleaning/fixing
of the formwork, steel fixing and concreting. The formwork supports itself on the concrete cast
earlier so does not rely on support or access from other parts of the building or permanent
works. Jump form, here taken to include systems often described as climbing form, is suitable
for construction of multi-storey vertical concrete elements in high-rise structures, such as shear
walls, core walls, lift shafts, stair shafts and bridge pylons. These are constructed in a staged
process. It is a highly productive system designed to increase speed and efficiency while
minimising labour and crane time. Systems are normally modular and can be joined to form
long lengths to suit varying construction geometries. Three types of jump form are in general
use:
Normal jump/climbing form –
units are individually lifted off the structure and relocated at the next construction level using a
crane.
Guided-climbing jump form –
also uses a crane but offers greater safety and control during lifting as units remain
anchored/guided by the structure.
Self-climbing jump form –
does not require a crane as it climbs on rails up the building by means of hydraulic jacks, or by
jacking the platforms off internal recesses in the structure. It is possible to link the hydraulic
jacks and lift multiple units in a single operation.

TUNNEL FORM
Tunnel form is used to form repetitive cellular structures, and is widely recognised as a
modern innovation that enables the construction of horizontal and vertical elements (walls and
floors) together. Significant productivity benefits have been achieved by using tunnel form to
construct cellular buildings such as hotels, low- and high-rise housing, hostels, student
accommodation, prison and barracks accommodation.