L E V E L

TRUCK TYRE BASICS

INTRODUCTION

MICHELIN CERTIFICATION TRAINING - WHY?

The ultimate success of a business is determined by the quality of the service

and products that it sells. The higher the quality of the product, the higher a
customer's service expectations will be. Michelin brand tyres have an
unsurpassed reputation for quality amongst transport operators. As a result,
transport operators expect authorised Michelin dealers to be able to offer the
best service available in today's truck tyre market.

More and more, the provision of timely and accurate service is the major
factor when purchasing truck tyres. The ability to secure new business and
to retain existing business will be determined by our success in meeting the
service demands of our customers. The Michelin Certification Training
Program is designed to ensure that authorised Michelin dealers and their

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staff are able to meet these demands both today and into the future.

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Like many industries, truck tyre retailing is constantly changing. To keep

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pace with these changes, we need to fully understand the products we sell
and we must be able to provide end-users with timely and accurate advice

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on how they can reduce their operating costs.

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MICHELIN CERTIFICATION TRAINING - THE PROGRAMME

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You are holding Module 1 of the Michelin Certification Program. When you
have completed this module we would expect that you will have a strong R
understanding of truck tyre design, service applications and maintenance.
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Using the information contained in this module will assist you in providing
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your customers with the best tyre and service solutions for their business.
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However, the program does not finish with the completion of this module.
The Michelin Certification Program will be an ongoing and evolving training
tool to ensure that you have the skills and knowledge to stay ahead of the
competition. Michelin is committed to providing the resources necessary to
ensure that our supportive dealers and their staff become the industry
benchmarks for the delivery of quality truck tyre sales and service. Future
modules will be focussed on new product developments, sales techniques
and the provision of best practice service.
 BEFORE YOU BEGIN

The value of practising good study habits cannot be stressed enough. Make
an effort to find a time and a place where you will be able to review the
information in this Study Handbook with as few distractions as possible.

Gather everything you need to study and take your test. You may also want
a pen and a highlighter in order to make notes in the Study Handbook and
perhaps even a notebook. Be sure that the area is well lit and you have
enough space to work comfortably.
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The objective of this test is to help you build a solid understanding on the
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fundamentals of industry terms, nomenclature, mounting and service. For

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some of you this test is simply a refresher on the basics. For all of you,
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successful completion of this test qualifies you to participate in additional

Michelin Certification Courses.
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After you have reviewed all the information in the study handbook, take the
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test. Read each question carefully and be sure to select the best answer to
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each question from the choices given. Most questions are directly derived
from this booklet however some specific questions will require that you use
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the Michelin Technical Databook given with this booklet. Those documents
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can also be used as a daily reference that will work for you long after you've
completed the test.
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If you have any questions about completing the test call your local Michelin
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Technical Sales Representative ...........................................................at

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...................................................

We recommend that you keep a copy of this test in the event it is lost in
transmission

Good Luck!
MICHELIN CERTIFICATION TRAINING - THE RULES

Your local Michelin Technical Sales Representative must enrol you in the
Michelin Certification Program before you take the test.

Take the test after you have read the handbook carefully. There is only one
correct answer per question.

Answers must be submitted only on the Test Answer Sheet provided

(Refer last page of the booklet). All Test Answer Sheets are to be faxed
back to (03) 9867 3077.

Participants must score a minimum of 35/40 (87,5%) correct. Successful

completion will entitle you to:

- A certificate recognising your achievement

- An exclusive Michelin reward
- And you will be entitled to enrol in additional Michelin Certification

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Courses

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

WHY MICHELIN? 5
HISTORY OF MICHELIN 6

1.Tyre fundamentals 8
TYRE PROPERTIES 8
MATERIALS USED IN TYRE CONSTRUCTION 11
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RADIAL TYRE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS 13

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TRUCK TYRE TYPES: BIAS AND RADIAL 14

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ADVANTAGES OF RADIAL TYRES 16

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RADIAL TYRE COMPONENTS 18

TUBELESS VS TUBE-TYPE TYRES 20
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2.Tyre marking and applications 22

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TRUCK TYRE SIZE MARKINGS 23

ASPECT RATIO 24
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LOW-PROFILE TRUCK TYRES 25

ULTRA LOW-PROFILE TRUCK TYRES 25
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SPEED CATEGORY SYMBOLS AND LOAD CAPACITY INDICES 26

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PLY RATING AND LOAD INDICES 27

ADDITIONAL MARKINGS 28
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TREAD DESIGN 30
TYRE APPLICATIONS 32
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3.Tyre maintenance 33
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CONDITIONS OF USE 33
FITTING 36
INFLATION PRESSURE 38
BALANCING 40
TORQUING 41
MATCHING TYRES ON TANDEM AXLES 42
TYRE ROTATION 43

LEVEL ONE TRUCK TYRE BASICS TEST 45

LEVEL ONE TEST ANSWER SHEET 51
WHY MICHELIN?

Experience

Michelin. Its name is known around the world for high quality tyres and
technological innovation.
Michelin has earned that enviable reputation over the last century by making
radial tyres for almost every vehicle on the road and in the air: from bicycles
and motorcycles to passenger and performance cars to heavy trucks and
earthmovers to aircraft.
Michelin tyres are designed, produced and marketed by a work force of more
than 120,000 employees, with over 80 manufacturing plants and in excess of
830,000 tyres are produced every day.

Quality

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Before, during and after the manufacturing process, Michelin products are

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tested to ensure quality control. New methods of testing are always being

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developed, in order to keep producing a better product.
Engineers in physics, chemistry, electronics and other fields use a wide

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range of materials and techniques to study the tyre and the tyre and wheel

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assembly interaction with the rest of the vehicle.
Quality control goes beyond the laboratory to the production line itself. At

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each stage of the manufacturing process, from raw materials to finished

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product, production standards and requirements are constantly verified.

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In addition, Michelin tyres are fitted every day on various vehicles and
machines and tested repeatedly on tracks, roads, highways and job sites
around the world. Y
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Integrity
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Because the tyre is the vital contact between the driver and the road,
Michelin is dedicated to providing customers with tyres built for outstanding
performance and dependability at the lowest cost-per-kilometre.
At Michelin, there is only one boss - the customer. It is the customer who
judges the product and ultimately decides whether the company succeeds or
fails. So Michelin puts its considerable technological strength into a full line
of radial tyres to meet customer needs.

5
 HISTORY OF MICHELIN
Currently the company is headed by three senior managers, Edouard
Michelin, François Michelin and Rene Zingraff. The company's headquarters
are in Clermont Ferrand, France.

For over a century, Michelin has been building a worldwide reputation based
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on technological breakthrough after breakthrough. The following are some

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of the outstanding achievements that have made the company what it is

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today - and the modern tyre what it is today.

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1889 Brothers
BrothersEdouard
Edouardand andAndre
AndreMichelin
Michelinfound
foundthethecompany
companyas asa
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small rubber
a small factory
rubber factory in in
Clermont
ClermontFerrand,
Ferrand,France.
France.They
They were
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presented with thewith

were presented problem of repairing
the problem a puncture
of repairing in the tyre
a puncture in of
a the
touring cyclist,
tyre of something
a touring that took athat
cyclist, something trained
took aspecialist
trained an
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entire day to
specialist repair.day
an entire After two years
to repair. After of
twoexperimenting,
years of they
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produced the first

experimenting, detachable
they produced pneumatic bicycle tyre,
the first detachable which
pneumatic
could be replaced
bicycle tyre, which in acould
merebe fifteen minutes.
replaced in a mere fifteen
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minutes.
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1895 Michelin
Michelin produce
produce the
the first
first pneumatic
pneumatic automobile
automobile tyre.
tyre.
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1938 Michelin
Michelin replaces
replaces thethe usual
usual textile
textile fabric
fabric oftyre
of a a tyre
withwith steel
steel wire,
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wire, the "Metallic", which was the forerunner of

the "Metallic", which was the forerunner of the steel-belted the steel-
belted
radial. radial.
This This represented
represented a milestone
a milestone in the
in the development of
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development
heavy-duty truckoftyres.
heavy-duty truck tyres.
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1946 AA revolution
revolution begins.
begins. Michelin
Michelin patents
patents thethe first
first steel-belted
steel-belted radial,
radial,drivers
giving giving distinct
drivers distinct advantages
advantages over bias-ply
over bias-ply tyres: tyres:
greater
greater mileage, better ride comfort, fewer flats, improved
mileage, better ride comfort, fewer flats, improved traction and
traction
greater and
fuel greater fuel economy.
economy.

1952 Thefirst
The firstradial
radialtruck
trucktyre,
tyre, the
the semi-metallic
semi-metallic with
with fabric
fabric casing
casing
and
and steel
steel belt.
belt.

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1959 The first radial tyre for earthmover.

1979 Michelin introduces the "Pilote X" the first low profile truck
tyre, which improves mileage, fuel economy and handling.

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1981 The first radial for aviation.

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1984 The first radial for motorbikes.

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1992 Michelin introduces the "green" tyre for automobiles, a low

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rolling resistance product designed to improve fuel efficiency

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and to be more environmentaly friendly.

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1993 Start of industrial production with the revolutionary C3M

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process.

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1995 The American space shuttle lands on Michelin tyres.

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1998 "Bibendum", the Michelin man celebrates his 100th birthday.
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PAX is introduced. It is a tyre and suspension system that can

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run flat removing the need for a spare wheel for passenger
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cars.

2000 Michelin organises its supply chain through the Internet.

2001 Michelin re-enters Formula One.

7
1 1 . T Y R E F U N D A M E N TA L S

TYRE PROPERTIES

The importance of the pneumatic tyre

It has been said that the invention of the pneumatic tyre was one of the
greatest developments of modern times. Without it, the automobile and
truck could not have advanced to become the vehicles we have today.
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The name "tyre" was derived from the function of tying together the spokes
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of early day wagon wheels with a wooden "tyre". Later, leather, then a metal
band, was put on for increased durability. As uses for rubber were
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developed, a solid rubber "tyre" was put around the wooden one for reduced
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noise and comfort. Later developments of a hollow belt filled with air gave
birth to a pneumatic "tyer" or tyre, as we know it today.
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During World War II, when a grave shortage of rubber coincided with an
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exceptional demand for tyres, various inventions sought to replace the

pneumatic tyre. Among these were cushion tyres, spring wheels and
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pneumatic hubs, but none of them were successful.

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P

Properties of a radial truck tyre

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A radial truck tyre must have three basic qualities:

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1. Load capacity
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2. Adequate tread contact area for:

a) Steering control
b) Road grip

3. Heat resistance

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1. Load Capacity

A radial truck tyre, like a spring, has a self-dampening quality (ability to

reduce unnecessary motion) and deflects under load. The more a tyre
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compresses vertically under load, the more protection it provides to the
vehicle, passengers and payload from road shocks.
The load carrying capacity is the result of vertical deflection or the amount
by which a tyre deflects under a given load. Vertical deflection is also a
measure of a tyre's protective qualities.

The vertical deflection of a tyre allows:

The air inside the tyre to carry the load

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The tyre to better absorb road shocks

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An increase in footprint (the amount of
tread contact with the road)

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Traction, flotation, braking and steering

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capabilities

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Vertical deflection within the same size and construction can differ
depending on manufacturer; therefore, all tyres are not the same.

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2. Adequate tread contact area

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Because of its deflection, the pneumatic tyre makes tread contact with the
road over a considerable area and not just (Footprint) a short strip across its
width, as would a completely solid tyre.
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Since the load is spread over a larger area,

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local pressure on the road is reduced. The

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narrow contact strip of the solid tyre, if

heavily loaded, would eventually destroy
normal road surfaces. A similar example
could be illustrated as follows: A 55 kg
woman with spike heels walking across a
wooden floor will damage the floor

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1 because all her weight is concentrated in one tiny spot. But a 120 kg football
player walking across the same floor with street shoes would do less
damage to the floor. Furthermore, a pneumatic tyre of sufficient size in
relation to the load can operate on soft and sandy areas, whereas a solid tyre
would become bogged.

a) Steering Control
Another property given by a greater contact area is the ability to steer the
vehicle. If the direction of the vehicle is to be controlled by the driver, it is
necessary that the tyres make efficient contact with the road over the
footprint area. The forces needed to change direction of the vehicle or to
counteract external forces such as wind or cambered road surfaces are the
result of steering control.
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b) Road Grip
Due to the even distribution of load over a large contact area, the pneumatic
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tyre can provide the surface grip or traction necessary to transmit the power
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of high-torque engines. It can also support the braking effort necessary to

slow a vehicle down from a high rate of speed in a reasonably short distance.
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3. Heat Resistance
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The sidewall of a tyre has to flex and straighten out repeatedly to give
adequate cushioning power and contact area. This, along with the other
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forces exerted on the tyre's acceleration, cornering and braking, cause

distortions which generate heat. Therefore, all tyres must have the ability to
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withstand heat generated by internal stresses without causing the bonding

agents and compounds to break down. This breakdown accelerates once
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the tyre reaches the temperature at which it was built. This can sometimes
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result in what many refer to as a "blow-out" when the driver "didn't hit
anything".
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MATERIALS USED IN TYRE CONSTRUCTION

Natural Rubber
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The basic material used to manufacture tyres is rubber. Natural rubber

M AT E R I A L U S E D I N T Y R E C O N S T R U C T I O N
comes from a white fluid (latex), collected from trees, that becomes elastic
and pliable when coagulated. Coagulation is the process that removes the
natural rubber particles from the liquid latex. Natural rubber has the specific
advantage of being very elastic, as well as being very durable.

Synthetic Rubber

Synthetic rubber was developed during World War II when shortages of

natural rubber occurred. Synthetic rubbers are produced from
petrochemicals. By using specific petrochemicals, different properties of
synthetic rubber can be produced.

Synthetic rubbers have two main advantages:

1. They are less expensive and easy to produce
2. They retain air better than natural rubber
One specific type of synthetic rubber is called butyl. This rubber has
petrochemicals blended together to form an airtight material needed for the
inner tubes and the inner liners of tyres.

Carbon Black

Carbon black is produced from the precise burning of crude oil stock. By
varying the burning conditions, different types of carbon black can be
produced for specific applications.
When added to rubber, carbon black gives the new mixture increased
hardness and improved resistance to abrasion. Therefore, rubber in
different areas of the tyre will have specific carbon black properties. For
example, the tread area will use a carbon black type that wears slowly. The
sidewall will have carbon black properties that resist flexing fatigue and
ozone deterioration.

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1 Steel

Steel is used throughout the tyre. In most truck tyres today, steel forms the
body of the tyre. Michelin first used steel in a tyre in 1930. Steel has specific
qualities needed to form the tyre's body:
High tensile strength - the ability to stretch without breaking
M AT E R I A L U S E D I N T Y R E C O N S T R U C T I O N

Sheer strength - resistance to being cut

Fabric Material

There are some truck tyres produced today that are constructed with fabrics
comprising the body of the tyre. Nylon is widely used in bias-ply truck tyres.
While inexpensive to manufacture, fabric doesn't dissipate heat as well as
steel in truck tyres. In fact, under very severe operating conditions, fabric
tyres have actually caught fire.

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RADIAL TYRE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
The manufacture of a tyre, even in automated plants, is broken down into the
following phases:
1
1-Mixing The
Therubber
rubberarrives at theatfactory
arrives in 10kg bales
the factory in 10kg bales
(synthetic)
(synthetic)oror100kg
100kgbales
bales(natural). It isIt chopped
(natural). intointo
is chopped

RADIAL TYRE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

small
smallpieces
piecesand then
and mixed
then mixedwithwith
otherother
products in
products in
powerful
powerfulmills.
mills.The
Thesteel, rayon
steel, or nylon
rayon or nylon cords cords
are are
formed
formedinto
intoplies.
plies.

2-Preparation Aftermixing,
After mixing,the the different
different mixes
mixes areare used
used for for coating
coating
plies(steel
plies (steel or textile),
or textile), sealing
sealing bead and
bead wires wires
for and for
forminginto
forming intosheet
sheetororprofiled
profiledextrusions.
extrusions.The
Thecords
cordsare
are
bondedinto
bonded intorubber
rubberandandcut.
cut.

3-Tyre building All

Allthe
thecomponent
component parts
parts of of a tyre
a tyre areare placed
placed oneone
at aat a
timeand
time andwith
withgreat
greatprecision
precision
onon a tyre
a tyre building
building drum:
drum:
somehave
some havetotobebe impregnated
impregnated with
with solvent
solvent in in order
order to to
adhere.The
adhere. Thebeadwires
beadwiresareareplaced,
placed,the
theplies
pliesnow
nowform
formaa
sleeve and are covered in rubber.
sleeve and are covered in rubber.

4-Finishing Thetyre
The tyre
at at
thisthis stage,
stage, is built
is built but
but is is cylindrical.
cylindrical. The The
finishing
finishingprocess
processconsists of reforming
consists it by compressed
of reforming it by
air or vacuum into its final shape.
compressed air or vacuum into its final shape.

5-Vulcanising The
Thetyre
tyreis is
enclosed in ainmould
enclosed containing
a mould the tread
containing the tread
pattern and is vulcanised with high pressure
pattern and is vulcanised with high pressure steam both
internally
internallyandandexternally.
externally.Heat
Heatwill
willproduce
producea achemical
chemical
change
changeofofrubber
rubberproperties.
properties.

4-Finishing

1-Mixing

3-Tyre building

2-Preparation 5-Vulcanising
13
1 TRUCK TYRE TYPES: BIAS AND RADIAL
Bias-ply Tyres

The bias-ply truck tyre is made up of a number of textile cords (rayon, nylon,
polyester, etc.) set on a bias (at an angle) going from bead to bead, with each
layer forming a cris-cross pattern with those above and below it. Depending
on the tensile strength of the cord used and the required size of the tyre,
there could be from six to 20 plies in a bias-ply casing. The number of plies
must be increased to improve the carrying capacity of the tyre. There are no
steel belts to stabilise the tread in a bias-ply tyre. A big disadvantage in
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using textile cords is that a large number of cords are needed to give the tyre
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its required strength. This gives the tyre a thick, rigid casing.
P
Y
T
E
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Y

Bias-ply tyre Cross section of a

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Bias-ply tyre

Because the strands of fabric in the sidewall extend through the tread, the
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tread and sidewalls work as if they are one unit. As the sidewall flexes, the
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tread and contact patch distort, resulting in abrasive forces similar to a pencil
eraser.
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Textile is a poor heat conductor and does not dissipate heat very quickly. In
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textile cords which make up bias-ply tyres, the heat build-up tends to pocket
in certain areas of the tyre, especially the shoulder and bead area, which are
flex points. The excess heat generation prematurely ages the components
and shortens the life of the tyre.

14
Another factor resulting from heat generation is that textile cords stretch
during their life. Therefore, the casing grows and this makes it difficult to
obtain a perfect match of new, worn and retreaded tyres. The tensile
strength of the textile cords is not as high as that of steel cords.
1
The number of cross plies in a bias-ply tyre tends to stiffen its walls,
preventing sufficient flex under heavy load. By having such a thick casing,
there is greater heat build-up which results in more energy being absorbed
by the tyre. The plies in the bias tyres stretch and do not return to their
original cold strength.

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In summary, the main disadvantages of the bias-ply tyre are:

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1. Tread distortion causing low mileage and poor road grip
2. Heat build-up and retention causing breakdown of textile cords

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3. Casing growth and loss of strength causing poor retreadability and

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difficulty in matching tyres

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4. Textile cords are less able to prevent punctures resulting in air loss and
an increased likelihood of downtime

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Bias-ply construction has been in use for about 80 years and has reached the

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ultimate in its development. Today, less than 3% of the total replacement

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truck tyre market in Australia and New Zealand is bias.

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Radial Tyres

Michelin introduced the radial truck tyre in 1952. This new concept in truck K
C
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tyre technology used steel as a casing cord, with belts placed
circumferentially under the tread.
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The radial was introduced to meet modern transport needs (safe and
efficient operation), minimise downtime and reduce maintenance.

The cords in the radial casing are wrapped at a ninety-degree angle to the
bead wires, a design feature that makes the tyre's walls extremely flexible.
These supple walls "give" under load, absorbing unevenness in the road
surface. The radial, therefore, introduced a new era in driving comfort.

15
1
T Y R E S

Radial tyre Cross section of a

Radial tyre

Another radial innovation is the belt around the casing that braces and
stabilises the tread, improving contact between the vehicle and the road,
reducing unwanted movement in the tread-road contact area.
R A D I A L

The steel belt tread area and the radial sidewalls work as if the two parts are
independent of each other, producing multiple advantages and benefits.

ADVANTAGES OF RADIAL TYRES

O F

Increased mileage
Because of the low distortion and more uniform contact stress distribution
of the tread area, radials reduce the rate-of-wear per mm of rubber. This can
A D V A N T A G E

yield a considerable increase in tyre mileage.

Greater road grip

Reduced distortion of the tyre in the contact area and the use of more
efficient tread designs allow better traction.

Less Heat Build-Up

The separation of the functions of the tread from that of the casing in the
radial tyre allows for less heat build-up than in bias-ply tyres. Thus, the tyre
is cooler running, extending the life of the casing (more kilometres) and
saving fuel.

Fuel Savings
A radial tyre saves fuel as a result of the actions of radial construction and a
reduction in heat build-up. The tyre runs cooler. Also, tread squirming and
shuffling is greatly reduced and the resistance to tyre rotation is decreased.
Less power is needed to propel the vehicle forward and less energy is
wasted merely generating heat within the tyre. The cooler running radial
tyre saves fuel and conserves energy.
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Tyre growth
The steel casing does not grow or stretch as fabric does and, therefore, it is
possible for a new radial tyre to be used with a retread, size for size, provided
they are of similar tread depth.
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T Y R E S
Better retreadability
The radial can be retreaded with any type of system. If good quality
workmanship and materials are used in the retreading process, similar life
expectancy to the new tyre can be realised and all the advantages of road
grip, less heat build-up, fuel savings, fewer flats etc. can be expected from
the retreaded casing. Retread acceptance level is also a major factor in

R A D I A L
generating the lowest cost per kilometre.

More flexible casing

The greater flexibility of the casing offers four advantages:
a) Greater comfort to the driver
b) Greater protection to the payload, especially fragile equipment or goods
c) Greater protection to the vehicle with less vehicle body repairs or spring

O F
breakage
d) Easier mounting

A D V A N T A G E
Fewer punctures (Reduction in Downtime)
The use of steel-protector plies in the crown helps resist damage caused by
road hazards.

Ease of Repair
Repairs can be done more effectively on radial-ply tyres than with bias-ply
tyres. If damaged, the injury affects only a local area and, provided the
proper radial-ply materials are used, the tyre can often be repaired and put
back into service. Hidden damage is easier to determine than with bias-ply
tyres due to fewer plies camouflaging the damage. Larger size damages can
more often be repaired in radials than in bias.

Quiet Rolling
The possibility of better, more advanced tread designs on a radial casing
also allows the use of a more efficient quieter rolling tyre when compared
to bias-ply.
With the tread de-coupled from the sidewall, a more uniform contact stress
pattern allows the use of more advanced tread designs offering lower rolling
noise. 17
1 RADIAL TYRE COMPONENTS
The following is a diagram of a cross section of a tubeless radial truck tyre.

CUSHION RUBBER UNDER

PROTECTION PLY (BELT)
TREAD PATTERN
CROWN

SHOULDER
C O M P O N E N T S

TREAD PATTERN

CROWN PLIES (BELT)

TREAD GROOVE

AIRTIGHT INNER LINER SIDEWALL

CASING PLY

CENTERING RING

BEAD CORE
BEAD AREA
BEAD TOE

BEAD PROTECTOR PLY

BEAD HEEL

BEAD SOLE
T Y R E

Casing Ply Steel cords

Steel comprise
cords the the
comprise body of the
body tyre.
of the They
tyre. must
They
have sufficient
must tensile strength
have sufficient tensiletostrength
hold thetoairhold
pressure
the
required by design
air pressure and application.
required by design and application.
All Alldriving, brakingand
driving, braking and steering
steering forcesforces
are are
transmitted
transmittedbetween
between thethe
wheel and
wheel andthethe
tread ofofthe
tread
tyrethe
bytyre
the casing ply.
by the casing ply.
R A D I A L

Cushion Rubber This

This rubber
rubber is used
is used as the
as the bonding
bonding agent
agent between
between the
the various
various components
components within
within the theThe
tyre. tyre. The
thickness in
thickness in the crown also helps to absorb shock.
the crown also helps to absorb shock.

Tread Pattern TheThe rubber

rubber on on
thethe outer
outer circumference
circumference of of
thethe tyre
tyre in
contact with the
in contact withroad surface.
the road It usually
surface. contains a
It usually
pattern or design made of ribs, lugs, grooves and
contains a pattern or design made of ribs, lugs,
sipes for road grip. It is compounded for resistance
to grooves
wear andand must
sipes for road grip.
provide It is
acceptable anti-skid
properties.
compounded for resistance to wear and must
provide acceptable anti-skid properties.
Shoulder TheThe section
section of tyre
of tyre which
which joins
joins thethe outer
outer edges
edges
the tread to the sidewall. It affects cornering and
of
of the
is compounded
tread to use
theand to giveItadded
sidewall. resistance
affects to and
cornering wear is
from atmospheric conditions.
compounded to give added resistance to wear from
18
use and atmospheric conditions.
Crown Comprised
Comprised of
the casing
stabilise
distortion.
of steel
ply
steel plies
like
tread
tread distortion.
a
plies laid
belt.
the of
laid at
Its
tyre
at an
an angle
angle on
function
the and
is
the casing ply like a belt. Its function is to
the treadthe
area ofarea
on top
to
minimise
tyre and
top of
of
stabilise
tread
minimise
1
Sidewall The
The portion of the tyre
tyre between
between the
theshoulder
shoulderandand
the bead.TheThe
the bead. sidewall
sidewall rubber rubber
must be must be
compounded
compounded to withstand constant
constant flexing
flexingofofthe
the

C O M P O N E N T S
casing.
casing. The
Thesidewall
sidewallrubber
rubberprotects
protectsthethecasing
casingply
from abrasions
ply from abrasionsandandatmospheric
atmospheric conditions,
conditions,but
does notnot
but does actually
actuallystrengthen thetyre.
strengthen the tyre.The The
suppleness
suppleness ofofthethe sidewall
sidewall makesmakes
a majora major
contribution
contribution to
to the
the smoothness
smoothness of of the
the ride.
ride.

Inner Liner AA layer of butyl

butyl rubber
rubberbonded
bondedtotothe
theinside
insideofof
a a
casing
casing to improve
improve air
airretention,
retention,thus
thusmaking
makingit a
it a
tubeless
tubeless tyre.
tyre.

Bead Area The

The portion of
of the
thetyre
tyrethat
thatserves
servesasasanan anchor
anchor
between
between the
the carcass
carcassofofthe
thetyre
tyreand
andthe
therim
rim flange.
Also provides
flange. greater lateral
Also provides greaterstability.
lateral stability.

T Y R E
Bead protector ply AA layer ofof cord
cord covering
coveringthe
thebead
beadwires
wiresin in some
some
tyres
tyres for
forprotection
protectionagainst
againstchafing
chafingand
andtotoreinforce
the bead area
reinforce and lower
the bead sidewall
area and . sidewall.
lower

R A D I A L
Bead Heel The
The portion
portion of the bead which sits against
against the
the rim
rim
flange .
flange.

Bead Sole The

The portion
portion of
of the
thebead
beadthat
thatsits
sitson
onthe
thetapered
taperedrim
seat.
rim seat.

Bead Toe The portionofofthe

The front portion the bead
bead sole
sole which
which is anis an
integral
integral part
part of
of the
the bead.
bead.

Bead Core Steel

Steel wires wound in in varying
varyingnumbers
numberstotoformforma a
hoop
hoop placed
placed circumferentially
circumferentially inin the
the bead
bead area
area of
of
the
the tyre. function is
tyre. Their function is to
tohold
holdthe
thetyre
tyreononthe
the
rim
rim and
and to
to form
form an
an anchor
anchor on on which
which thethe casing
casing ply
or
plyplies are wrapped.
or plies are wrapped.

19
1 TUBELESS VS TUBE-TYPE TYRES
As radial tyres have replaced bias tyres in the trucking industry because of
performance, tubeless tyres have replaced tube-type tyres due to their
performance.
The following diagram shows the increased number of components
associated with tube-type tyres.
TYRES
TUBE-TYPE

SUMMARY OF TUBELESS ADVANTAGES

Ease of Mounting - fewer parts… no flap, tube, lock rings. Saves on

VS

labour costs.
TUBELESS

Better Handling - equivalent size tubeless tyres have a lower sidewall

height providing greater responsiveness.

Cooler Running/Added Fuel Savings - less internal friction without tube

and flap.

Reduction of Run Flats - the butyl liner clings to penetrating objects,

thus, slowing air loss.

20
 Reduction of parts inventory (rims) reducing risks of mismatching rim
parts - Safer handling when mounting.

Lower Weight - tubeless wheel saves weight allowing more payload.

1
As an example:

TUBE-TYPE TUBELESS

TYRES
COMPONENT WEIGHT IN KG COMPONENT WEIGHT IN KG

10.00R20 XZE 49.5 11R22.5 XZE2 56.5

FLAP 4

TUBE 2

WHEEL* 45 WHEEL* 38

TUBE-TYPE
TOTAL ASSY 100.5 TOTAL ASSY 94.5

*Typical weight for 7.5x20 multi-piece wheel and 7.5x22.5" tubeless steel
wheel.

Longer Casing Life - casing life is extended due to the lower operating
temperatures.

VS
TUBELESS

21
2 2. TYRE MARKING AND
APPLICATIONS
Now that we have examined the construction and components of a tyre we
A P P L I C AT I O N S

will emphasise how to read and understand the markings on the sidewall in
order to fit the most suitable tyre.

Position of Wear indicator.

MICHELIN Manufacturer’s name.
295 Nominal section width in mm (S=295mm).
80 Tyre aspect ratio (H/S = 0.80).
R Radial construction.
22.5 Nominal diameter of rim to which tyre is to
&

be fitted (22.5 inches).

XZA1 Tread pattern.
M A R K I N G

152 Load capacity index for single fitment

corresponds to 3550 kg/tyre.

148 Load capacity index for twin fitment

corresponds to 3150 kg/tyre.
M Speed index : 130 km/h.
Tubeless Tubeless tyre.
X® Michelin Radial Trade Mark Steel belts.
T Y R E

22
TRUCK TYRE SIZE MARKINGS

Tyre size markings are written on the sidewalls of the tyres. A majority of
2
tyres have the average inflated section width followed by the diameter of the
rim or wheel on which the tyre may be mounted. Conventional truck tyre
sizes are indicated by the section width in inches, followed by "R" for radial,

M A R K I N G S
followed by the rim or wheel diameter in inches.

TUBE-TYPE TUBELESS
10.00R20 11R22.5
10.00 = average section 11 = average section
width in inches width in inches

20 = rim or wheel 22.5 = rim or wheel

diameter in inches diameter in inches

S I Z E
NOTE: A rule-of-thumb formula for finding equivalent tubeless sizes
compared to tube-type. Take average section width and round up to the next
whole average section number, then add 2.5 to rim diameter.

Example:

T Y R E
TUBE-TYPE TUBELESS

AVERAGE CROSS SECTION RIM DIAMETER

11R22.5
10.00 R 20

T R U C K
Round up Add 2.5 to rim Thus, we have
from 10.00 = 11 diameter 20 = 22.5 11R22.5 tubeless

Section Width

Overall
Section Diameter
Height

Wheel 23
Diameter
2 ASPECT RATIO
This is the ratio of section height divided by section width, expressed as a
percentage. Therefore as the section height decreases, in relation to the
section width, the aspect ratio decreases. The term "profile" is often used to
describe aspect ratio.

Aspect ratio
Percentage = H/S x 100

Changes in aspect ratio

O

Aspect ratio is not generally included in the tyre size marking for tyres
I

marked with a section width in inches, for example:

A T

Size Marking Nominal Aspect Ratio

10.00R20 100%
R

8.25R16 100%
11R22.5 90%
T

12R22.5 90%
C
E

Note: A rule of thumb for converting size markings to aspect ratio for truck
P

tyres: If the Nominal section width in inches has two digits after the decimal
point (eg. 9.00) the aspect ratio will be 100%. If there is no decimal point or
S

one digit (eg. 11 or 9.5) then the aspect ratio is 90%.

A

For tube type tyres the aspect ratio is 100%

Nowadays, all tyres that are marked with the section width in millimetres
have the aspect ratio included to comply with international standards.
(eg. 275/70R22.5)

24
LOW-PROFILE TRUCK TYRES
Michelin was the first to introduce the low-profile radial tyre concept in the
trucking industry. Lower-profile radials have since been proven to be the
2
most economical tyres for a wide variety of applications.

T Y R E S
The most usual low profile tyre range is the 80 series also known as "Pilote".

Thus for the tyre 295/80 R 22.5 XZE2 Pilote TL:

295 = Nominal section width in millimetres

T R U C K
80 = Aspect Ratio

R = Radial construction

22.5 = Nominal rim diameter in inches

L O W - P R O F I L E
XZE2 = Steer all positions tyre for national and regional haulage

Pilote = Michelin generic name for 80% aspect ratio

ULTRA LOW-PROFILE TRUCK TYRES

The term "Ultra Low-Profile" designates tyres that have aspect ratios less
than 75%. These products are designed primarily for specific applications
where height is an important factor. However, the 70% aspect ratio truck tyre
range is becoming increasingly popular in both urban and long haul
applications.

25
2 SPEED CATEGORY SYMBOLS AND LOAD
CAPACITY INDICES
Truck tyres show the load and speed indices, but unlike car tyres this
incorporates a load index for the tyre when used in single formation and
another for twin operation.
S Y M B O L S

The load index is an assigned number ranging from 0 to 279 that

corresponds with the load carrying capacity of a tyre.

The speed index is an assigned letter ranging from A1 to Z that corresponds

to the given speed at the associated load index.

These two elements put together are called the service description and are
mutually dependent on each other.
C A T E G O R Y

Note: When fitting it is very important that the various markings be checked,
in order to be certain that the tyre is suitable for operation at the maximum
allowed vehicle speed and loading.

The table below gives the load index and speed symbol with their
corresponding values.

Load index Speed symbols

S P E E D

LI kg LI kg LI kg LI kg LI kg LI kg SYMBOL KM/H
70 335 90 600 110 1060 130 1900 150 3350 170 6000 A1 5
71 345 91 615 111 1090 131 1950 151 3450 171 6150 A2 10
72 355 92 630 112 1120 132 2000 152 3550 172 6300 A3 15
73 365 93 650 113 1150 133 2060 153 3650 173 6500 A4 20
74 375 94 670 114 1180 134 2120 154 3750 174 6700 A5 25
75 387 95 690 115 1215 135 2180 155 3875 175 6900 A6 30
76 400 96 710 116 1250 136 2240 156 4000 176 7100 A7 35
77 412 97 730 117 1285 137 2300 157 4125 177 7300
A8 40
78 425 98 750 118 1320 138 2360 158 4250 178 7500
B 50
79 437 99 775 119 1360 139 2430 159 4375 179 7750
C 60
80 450 100 800 120 1400 140 2500 160 4500 180 8000
D 65
81 462 101 825 121 1450 141 2575 161 4625 181 8250
E 70
82 475 102 850 122 1500 142 2650 162 4750 182 8500
F 80
83 487 103 875 123 1550 143 2725 163 4875 183 8750
500 G 90
84 104 900 124 1600 144 2800 164 5000 184 9000
515 925 1650 2900 5150 J 100
85 105 125 145 165 185 9250
86 530 106 950 126 1700 146 3000 166 5300 186 9500 K 110
87 545 107 975 127 1750 147 3075 167 5450 187 9750 L 120
88 560 108 1000 128 1800 148 3150 168 5600 188 10000 M 130
26 89 580 109 1030 129 1850 149 3250 169 5800 189 10300 N 140
Thus for the tyre 295/80 R 22.5 XZE2 Pilote TL 152/148 M:

152 = Load Index when used in single formation (3550 kg per tyre or
7100 kg per axle)
2
148 = Load Index when used in dual formation (3150 kg per tyre or
12,600 kg per axle)
M = Speed symbol (130km/h)

I N D I C E S
Note: A secondary Service Description known as the unique point may also
appear on some tyres. This indicates that the tyre is capable of operating at
an alternative load and/or speed to that shown on the primary marking.

PLY RATING AND LOAD INDICES

L O A D
Until the introduction of the radial truck tyre by Michelin in 1952 all tyres
were of cross-ply construction. As vehicle technology and particularly
weights and carrying capacities of vehicles changed, there was a need for
tyres with gradually increasing carrying capacities. This was achieved within

A N D
any particular size of tyre by increasing the number of plies in the tyre
casing. A system was developed whereby the varying carrying capacities of
the tyres was described as "ply rating". In most cases what was originally a
count of the actual number of plies in the tyre became an indication of its

R AT I N G
recommended carrying capacity. This system however caused some
confusion, as it was often assumed that any tyre marked for example "PR14"
had the same rated carrying capacity. But a 9.00R20 PR14 tyre has a different
carrying capacity from a 11.00R20 PR14 tyre!

Today the Load Index System ensures that every tyre with a particular Index,
irrespective of size, has the same rated load capacity.
P LY

Despite the introduction of the Load Index on tyres there are some tyres,
which for legislative reasons still have a Ply Rating given to them as a
measure of their carrying capacity. This ply rating may also be found on
some tyres in conjunction with the Load Index. It is anticipated that the term
"ply rating" and marking "PR" will eventually disappear.

27
2 ADDITIONAL MARKINGS
In recent years countries have made enormous additions to their legislation
on road vehicle safety. More and more standards for minimum acceptable
levels of performance have been established covering almost every
component that affects vehicle safety and these have inevitably included
tyres. Since many components conforming to such standards have to be
identified they need to be marked on the tyres, the only place where such
G

markings can be placed is on the sidewall.

N

International co-operation has led to a fair degree of standardisation

I

between groups of countries to avoid an even greater degree of complexity

K

if each country applied its own standards. The TRAA-Tyre and Rim
Association of Australia establish Australian standards. In order to be sold in
R

Australia a tyre must comply with TRAA standards. However the two main
A

standards are set in North America and Europe. A tyre will be marked to
comply with both of these standards. No additional information on the
M

sidewalls is required specifically for Australia or New Zealand.

L

North American standards are effectively laid down in the USA. The
industry's trade body is the Tyre and Rim Association (TRA) but the major
A

instigator of new standards in recent years has been the US Government

N

through its Department Of Transportation (DOT).

O

European standards are basically those of the European Tyre and Rim
I

Technical Organisation (ETRTO) which apply throughout Europe and with

T

which standards of all national bodies such as the BRMA in the UK - are
usually aligned. ETRTO standards have to conform to the requirements of
I

European Economic Community (EEC) and Economic Commission for

D

Europe (ECE). Not all tyres receive ECE Approval. In order to be ECE
D

branded, a tyre must receive laboratory approval, meet strict testing

requirements and have the facility where the tyre was manufactured
A

inspected and approved.

An ECE approval number will be similar to:

E2 0087847

28
The following types of markings may appear on tyre sidewalls, indicating
compliance with the above standards.

Regroovable
2
This word appears on any tyre that has been built with regroovability in
mind. If regroovable does not appear on the sidewall, the tyre must not be
regrooved. In New Zealand, regroovable tyres are speed limited to 50k/hr.

G
Serial Numbers

N
Many tyres are marked at the factory with an individual serial number. This
makes it possible to follow the complete life of that tyre and ensure the

I
highest standards of quality. Some fleets brand their tyres with identifying

K
letters and numbers for this purpose. Michelin identifies each tyre with its

R
own individual Serial number although an increasing number will also
display a Bar Code.

A
M
Example: EAY 21611A

D.O.T. Numbers

L
All new truck tyres for highway use are also marked with a D.O.T. number

A
which identifies the manufacturer, the plant, the tyre size and type and the

N
week the tyre was manufactured.
The D.O.T. number is located on the lower sidewall of the tyre just above the

O
bead. Following is an example of a Michelin D.O.T. number:

I
B6AH BTA X 432

T
The last three digits represent the week and year of production.
43 Represents the 43rd Week I
D

2 Represents the last digit of the year.

D

(ie in this case week 43, 1992)

A

The triangle following the 2 represents the 1990's.

Note: For tyres made after year 2000 the triangle is replaced with a second
digit for the year of manufacture. Assuming the same week of manufacture
the above D.O.T number for year 2000 would be: B6AH BTA X 4300.

29
2 Other markings A new marking may begin to appear on some tyres:
Example:

006

This marking is for products exported to Brazil due to new legislation. It has
a similar objective to the DOT and ECE markings. It applies to all tyres to be
sold in Brazil.

TREAD DESIGN
Tread designs can be categorised in two basic groups. The proper selection
of tread design will enable the user to maximise tread life.
G

Rib Tread Design

N

A rib tread design is characterised by grooves placed parallel to the bead,

I

thus forming ribs. These groups range in depth from 10 mm to 20 mm.

S

The rib tread design enhances lateral stability (side to side). In addition, the
rib tread design permits better handling response. The grooves also
E

channel water out from under the tyre contact patch at the rear of the tyre.
D

The rib tread design is usually significantly better for fuel economy but does
not provide enhanced wet or snow traction.
D

The rib tread design is usually found on the steering axle of a prime mover
and on other tyre rolling axles such as trailer and tag axles.
A

Rib tread designs are also placed on drive axles when traction is not a high
E

priority.
R
T

30
Block or lug tread design
Selecting block or lug tread designs is done primarily for traction and
improved mileage. This tread design is characterised by grooves placed
laterally and perpendicular to the bead. These cross-bar type tread depths
2
range from 15 to 25 mm. This tread design is found primarily on the drive
axle. The increased tread depth is needed to offset the scrubbing and/or
spinning that can occur when power is transmitted to the drive axle.
Tread designs will vary according to various vehicle and/or operational
requirements. Tyre tread mileage can be maximised or shortened depending
on the tread design chosen.

G
N
I
S
E
D
D
A
E
R
T

31
 TYRE APPLICATIONS
One of the first questions you usually ask a customer is what type of job they
are doing. This to determine application required for their tyres.

The specific tread design used should only be considered after the vehicle
type and user application has been determined.
There are several categories of tyre application depending on the wear rate
and the road surface aggressivity.

Freeway A
S

Vehicles travelling
travellinglong distances
long withwith
distances minimum stops,stops,
minimum
usually freeway use. Limited acceleration and braking.
N
O

Highway E
Vehicles
Vehicles travelling
travellinglong distances
long predominantly
distances using using
predominantly
I

highways. Operation
Operation may
may include
include frequent
frequent acceleration
acceleration and
and
A T

braking.

Urban U
Stop and go delivery, public transportation, operation within
C

a limited radius.
I
L

On/Off road Y
Usually short
shortdistances
distancesonon
andand
off the
off road. Access
the road. to
Access to
P

loading or unloading may be on difficult terrain.

P

Off Road H,L

A

High percentage
percentageofofuse off off
use the the
road.road.
Provides off road
Provides off road
traction, where the risk of accidental damage is high.
E
R

Severity of application
Y
T

OFF ROAD

URBAN
ON/OFF
ROAD
NATIONAL Surface roughness
HIGHWAYS

FREEWAY
32
3. TYRE MAINTENANCE
In the previous section we identified the meaning of the information written
3
on the sidewall of a tyre and the different possible applications. This last
section will investigate the different conditions of use for tyres and good
maintenance principles in order to extend tyre life.

CONDITIONS OF USE

E
S
Truck tyre life will be affected by operating and road conditions. There are
three main types of road conditions that must be examined when

U
determining tyre life:

Road contour and grades

F
Surface material

O
Slope

Road Contour

S
N
Contour and grades of roads will determine the amount of braking,
accelerating and cornering the vehicle must perform. Winding and hilly

O
roads will require more braking and cornering, which will accelerate tread
wear despite lower speeds. Hills increase the need for tractive efforts, also

I
increasing tread wear.

T
I
D
Surface Material
N
Roads are made of different surface materials. Asphalt tends to be less
abrasive than concrete, especially when the concrete highway is new. Old
O

highways, despite potholes, tend to be less abrasive than the comparable

surface material of a new highway. Older highways are smoother due to the
C

polishing effect of years of traffic. Also, speeds tend to be higher on new

roads, thus, increasing tread wear rates.

33
3 Slope or Road Crown

Most roads are crowned to facilitate water runoff. If tyres are of equal tread
depth and have equal inflation pressure, the inner tyre in a dual assembly is
more deflected because it is under heavier load. It also has more grip than
the outer tyre. The inner tyre, thus, dictates revolutions per kilometre of the
assembly. Therefore, the outer tyre will have more rapid tread wear.

10,000 kg Larger Tyre

E
S
U
F
O

2,000 kg 2,500 kg
3,100 kg 2,400 kg

When matching dual assemblies, tyres of the same circumference should

S

always be mounted together. If it is necessary to match tyres of slightly

different circumferences, the smaller circumference should be on the inside
N

dual.
O
I

Climate
T

Climate and seasonal conditions may add to or subtract from the heat
I

generated within the tyre. However, normal pressure build-up reduces

D

flexing and thus reduces the amount of heat generated. It allows the tyre to
reach a "heat balance" ie the temperature at which the rate of heat being
N

generated is equalled by the heat dissipation.

O
C

34
Example of heat balance:

As the tyre revolves during operation, heat is generated on the inside of the
tyre at 2ºC per minute. However, the tyre loses heat at the rate of 1.5ºC per
minute. After 40 minutes of continuous operation, the tyre temperature has
3
increased 20ºC. As the air temperature inside the tyre increases, the inflation
pressure also increases. Thus, a tyre inflated to 80 psi cold would now be at
85 psi. Because the inflation pressure has increased, the amount of tyre
flexing has decreased reducing the amount of heat generated per minute to
1.5ºC. Assuming the heat dissipation factor is still 1.5ºC per minute, the net
temperature change is nil (0). This is called thermal equilibrium.

E
Climate also affects the tread contact area of a tyre. Tread life will be

S
shortened due to surface heat during the summer months. It is less
economic to mount new tyres during warmer months, as the deeper tread

U
rubber will run hotter and wear at a premature rate. On the other hand,
during the winter months, which are generally characterised by wetter
weather, tyres are subject to more road hazards, such as cuts and snags due

F
to the lubricating action of water.

O
Geography

S
Tread wear rates will vary according to the characteristics of the roads taken.

N
O
Long non-stop transportation across vast rural areas will produce longer
tread life but may cause the casing to operate at higher temperatures. Local

I
runs with frequent stops may allow the tyre to run cooler but accelerate

T
tread wear.

I
D
N
O
C

35
3 FITTING
The correct fitting of tyres is of the utmost importance. Tyre life can be
maximised only if it is properly mounted throughout its useful life. The
following are some guidelines when mounting tube-type and tubeless truck
tyres.

Correct fitting of tyres will ensure that the tyre is fitted concentrically on the
recommended rim, the bead area has not been distorted or stretched, and
there is no damage in the bead area that may cause ingress of moisture or
air into the casing of the tyre. Care must be taken not to damage the casing
plies in any way.

Proper Components

It is essential to use the proper wheel or rim size as indicated in the tyre
specification tables. Also, a new flap and tube should always be used when
mounting a tube-type tyre. Flaps become hard and brittle with age. Tubes
will exhibit growth in size over time and this may increase the possibility of
creasing, which may result in failure of the tube.

Tyre & Rim Lubrication

G

It is essential to use a lubricant when mounting and demounting tubeless

and tube-type wheels. Vegetable oil base soaps (eg. Michelin Tigre Grease)
N

should always be used instead of petro-chemical based oils since the petro-
chemical based oils will damage the rubber components of the tyre.
I
T

Lubricants minimise the possibility of bead damage from tyre tools, as well
T

as easing the mounting of the tyre onto the rim. A better bead seat will help
prevent irregular wear due to improper seating on the rim.
I
F

Rim & Wheel Preparation

Wheels and rims should be thoroughly inspected for cracks, rust, flange
deformation and any other abnormalities on side rings, lock rings, etc.

36
SUMMARY OF GOOD FITTING PRACTICES
3
1. Clean all components especially beads and rim seats, check the tyre
internally/externally.

2. Lubricate the tyre and rim with a non-petroleum based lubricant.

3. Replace the valve or o-ring.

4. Use the correct fitting tools.

5. Inflate in a safety cage.

6. Ensure perfect seating on the rim by inflating to maximum safe pressure

and inspect fitting line.

7. Reduce to the recommended pressure for operation.

8. Check the tyre centering rib for concentrity with the wheel flange.

9. Balance and check for lift and runout.

10. Check wheel concentrity and torque nuts to the recommended setting.

G
N
I
T
T
I
F

37
3 INFLATION PRESSURE
The most critical factor in tyre maintenance is proper inflation. No tyre or
tube is completely impervious to loss of air pressure. To avoid the hazards
of under-inflation, lost air must be promptly replaced.
To determine the proper inflation pressure, all trucks should be weighed.
Encourage truck owners to weigh their vehicles, fully loaded, on a scale.
Each axle (or axle group), front and rear, and trailer must be weighed
separately. Actual gross axle weights should be compared with the
manufacturer's tyre data book to determine the inflation pressure required.
P R E S S U R E

The load carried by each individual front axle tyre should be noted.
If the maximum load-carrying capacity of the tyre is below the actual scale
weight, greater carrying-capacity tyres must be used, either a higher load
index (load range or ply rating) or a larger tyre size.
Many of today's tyre problems are caused by insufficient or careless
attention to tyre pressures. It is the air in the tyre which supports the load.
If we have incorrect pressures, such as over-inflation, the tyre will be more
susceptible to damage in the form of shocks and rapid tread wear. The
opposite condition is referred to as under-inflation. Under-inflation will
increase the deflection of the sidewalls. The effect of over-flexing and the
generation of too much heat will cause carcass fatigue and deterioration.
Below is a chart illustrating the effects of variance in tyre pressure on the life
I N F L A T I O N

of the tyre:
UNDERINFLATION CORRECT PRESSURE OVERINFLATION
FOR LOAD

-20% -10% 0 +10% +20%

-10%

-20%

-30%

MILEAGE LOSS

38
 Example: Tyre pressure calculation on a typical prime mover

Load Dimensional characteristics

3
Pressure Load
O per axle ETRTO dimensions(1) Michelin dimensions(1) Advised Flaps Tubes
index
of the rim or
single twinned and speed S D R.C. R’ E
rim bar PSI (2) (3) seal
kg kg symbol mm mm mm mm mm

22.5 295/80 R 22.5 XZE2 TL - XDE2 TL

5560 9880 6.5 95
5950 10560 7.0 100 8.25
6330 11240 7.5 110 152/148M 313 1062 3184 486 338 9.00 - -

P R E S S U R E
6720 11920 8.0 115
7100 12600 8.5 125

11 R 22.5 XZA TL - XZE2 TL - XDE2 TL - XTA TL

4860 8960 6.0 85
5220 9620 6.5 95 7.50
5580 10280 7.0 100 148/145L 287 1064 3203 489 303 8.25 - -
5940 11940 7.5 110
6300 11600 8.0 115

Let's take the example of a 6x4 prime mover with 295/80R22.5 XZE2 on the
steer axle and 11R22.5 XDE2 on the drive axles operating at maximum legal

I N F L A T I O N
weights of 6,000 kg on front axle and 16,500 kg on drive bogie.

Using the Michelin Technical Truck Tyre Data book, the minimum steer
pressure will be 102 psi. However, due to the typical operational
requirements of a steer tyre this pressure would normally be increased by
10% as a recommended starting point ie 115 psi (rounded up).

For the drive axles, from the Data book, a load of 8,960Kg per axle or 17,920
kg on the bogie requires a pressure of 85 psi. Optimum tyre life and traction
performance on a drive axle will be achieved by operating as close to the
data book load/pressure as possible. In this case we would recommend 85
psi, although a pressure of 80 psi would be acceptable from a load capacity
viewpoint.

Note: Recommended pressures should also take into account the effects on
vehicle handling which may vary between models and applications.

39
3 BALANCING
There are two types of balance to be considered, Static and Dynamic

A tyre and wheel assembly is said to be in perfect static balance when the
mass of the assembly is uniformly distributed about its centre so that, when
mounted on a free bearing, the assembly will come to rest in any position. If
it always comes to rest in the same position thus indicating a heavy point it
is said to be out of balance statically.
The expression dynamic is used because this type of imbalance can only be
detected when the tyre and wheel assembly is in continuous motion. The
driver will report "shimmy" or vibration which may appear over a range of
speed, rather than continuously.

An out of balance assembly generates:

Vibrations
G

Premature wear of suspension components and/or bearings

N

Irregular wear
I

Below is a chart indicating the force generated by incorrect balancing

C
N

Effects of incorrect balancing on a 295/80R22.5

A

233.3
L

200
A

166.6
Force of disturbance in Kg

156.2
150
B

111.6

100 100
94.4

nce
ala
mb
0gI 66.9
70 67.4
nce
50 bala
g Im
500 40.4
nce
0 0g Imbala
3

Speed in Km/h 50 70 90 110

40
TORQUING
One of the primary causes of misalignment of tyre and rim assemblies
mounted on spoke wheels is the improper tightening of wheels studs.
3
Incorrect torque on a spoke wheel can result in a significant wobble, causing
accelerated torque loss and severe tyre wear. The recommended procedure
for torquing cast wheels is by "triangulation". This procedure is as follows:

1. Turn nut #1 until snug.

2. Rotate the wheel/rim assembly until nut #2 is in the top position. Turn
until snug.

3. Again rotate the assembly until nut #3 is in the top position and turn the
nut until snug.
Then #4, #5 and #6 depending on whether it is a 5 or 6 spoke wheel. Since
the entire weight of the tyre /rim assembly is on the top spoke position, this
procedure allows even application of force against all points of the rim for
proper alignment.

G
N
4. Repeat the procedure, this time bringing each nut to recommended
torque.

I
U
Q
1
Correct Torque
1
1 6 R
3 6
3 4
O

3 4
5 4
T

5 2 5 2
2

Incorrect Torque

41
3 Even when the triangulation method is used, nuts still lose torque when the
vehicle is operated. This is caused by the "seating" of the rim assembly to the
wheel. After 50 to 100 kilometres of operation the nuts should again be
brought to recommended torque. The wheel / rim assembly will remain
tight, baring accidents such as stud-breakage or clamp failure. This
AXLES

procedure should be followed every time a tyre rim assembly is put on a

spoke wheel.

Each manufacturer has his/her own recommendations for specific vehicles

and applications. Also most vehicle manufacturers will supply a wrench for
TANDEM

tightening wheels. During the tightening process it is essential to make sure

that the resulting lateral and radial run out is within recommended
tolerance.

Disk wheel: The triangulation tightening procedure is equally important with

disk type wheels. In this case it avoids distortion of the brake drum which
may cause vibration under braking.
ON

However, the lift and run out, critical to good tyre wear, should not be
affected by the mounting procedure.
TYRES

MATCHING TYRES ON TANDEM AXLES

Tandem driving rear axles without an inter-axle differential necessitate that
M AT C H I N G

the eight tyres be matched so that the average tyre diameter on the one axle
is within 6 mm of the average tyre diameter on the other axle.

Since a given tyre size may lose as much as 40 mm in diameter due to

normal wear and still be serviceable, it is readily seen that a wide difference
in tyre diameter may exist.

The best method of avoiding damage due to having tyres of unequal

circumferences is to inspect and match tyres so that the average tyre
diameter on one axle is within 6 mm of the average tyre diameter on the
other axle. Equal tyre inflation at the pressures recommended by the tyre
manufacturer should be maintained.

42
TYRE ROTATION
Radial tyres should be rotated only when necessary. If the tyres are wearing
evenly, there is no need to rotate. If irregular wear becomes apparent or if
3
the wear rate on the tyres is perceptibly uneven, then the source of this wear
should be corrected and the tyres should be rotated in such a manner to
alleviate the problem.

On trucks, particularly with duals, a change of tyre position can frequently

avoid low tyre mileage or prolong casing life. Rotation procedures, such as
those recommended by vehicle manufacturers, may be followed.

When rotating tyres, the following points should be taken into consideration.

1. The load carried by a particular tyre in a particular position. The inside

N
tyre of a dual mounting carries more load than the outside tyre on the

O
same axle.
2. Adjacent dual tyres should not differ more than 6 mm in diameter

I
(3 mm in tread wear).

T A T
3. Curbing on dual applications damages tyre sidewalls. If so, rotate the
wheel and tyre to the inner wheel position.
4. Often it is beneficial to rotate the tyres so that irregularly worn tyres are
moved to a position where they are turning in a direction opposite to the

O
original position.

R
5. THERE IS NO RESTRICTION PREVENTING DIAGONAL ROTATION.

E
R
Y
T

43
 Thank you
for reading Module One
of Truck Tyre Basics.
How much do you now
know?

44
LEVEL ONE TRUCK TYRE BASICS TEST
Please record your answers on the answer sheet at the end of the test
1- The Michelin man "Bibendum" was created in:

TEST
A-1889
B-1898
C-1946
D-1964

BASICS
2-The name Tyre came from:
A-A wooden band which had the function of tying together the spokes of
early day wagon wheels
B-The French translation of the word "tyre" which means pull
C-The original name of a hollow belt filled with air

TYRE
D-None of the above

3-What qualities must a radial truck tyre have?

A-Load capacity

TRUCK
B-Adequate tread contact area for steering control and road grip
C-Heat resistance
D-All of the above

4-Carbon Black:

ONE
A-Is a type of rubber with specific properties
B-Has a standard blue colour
C-Is used to form the body of the tyre
D-Provides improved qualities to rubber when added to it LEVEL

5-Vulcanising:
A-Is a chemical change of rubber by heat
B-Consists of reforming the tyre into its final shape
C-Is the mixing of raw materials
D-None of the above

6-Assuming the same Section Width which of the following is true?

A-The lower the Aspect Ratio the lower the sidewall
B-The lower the Aspect Ratio the higher the sidewall
C-The higher the Aspect Ratio the lower the sidewall
D-None of the above
45
 7-What weight can be carried by a tyre with the load rating 127?
A-1210Kg
B-12100kg
C-1750 kg
TEST

D-4500 kg

8-Among the main disadvantages of the bias ply tyre are:

A-Heat build up and retention causing breakdown of textile cords
B-Casing growth and loss of strength causing poor retreadability and
BASICS

difficulty in matching tyres

C-Tread distortion causing low mileage and poor road grip
D-All of the above

9-A Butyl Liner is:

A-A rubber used as a bonding agent between the various components
within the tyre
TYRE

B-A rubber layer on the outer circumference of the tyre compounded for
resistance to wear
C-A rubber layer used in the inside of a tubeless tyre to improve air retention
D-A rubber layer on the sidewall to resist flexing fatigue and ozone
TRUCK

deterioration

10-The radial truck tyre was introduced by Michelin in:

A-1948
B-1950
C-1952
ONE

D-1954

11-Less heat is built up in a radial truck tyre because of:

A-The separation of functions between the tread and the casing
LEVEL

B-Carbon black
C-Better air retention with a change of temperature
D-The use of steel-stabilising plies

12-A rule of thumb formula for finding equivalent tubeless sizes compared
to tube type:
A-Is to add 2.5 to rim diameter of tube type and take the average section
width
B-Is to add 2.5 to rim diameter of tube type and round up to the next whole
average section width
C-Is to round up rim diameter of tube type and add 2.5 to the average section
width
D-Is to round up rim diameter of tubeless and add 2.5 to the average section
width of tube type
46
13-A Rib tread design:
A-Enhances lateral stability
B-Permits better handling response
C-Channels water out at the rear of the tyre
D-Permits all of the above

TEST
14-Which of the following is wrong about block or lug tread design?
A-It is primarily designed for traction
B-Mileage partly depends on tread design chosen

BASICS
C-It offsets the scrubbing and/or spinning
D-Improves fuel economy

15-With respect to a road surface,

A-New roads may be worse than older highways for the tyre as the surface
can be more abrasive
B-The outer tyre in a dual assembly will have more rapid tread wear due to

TYRE
the road crown
C-The inner tyre in a dual assembly will carry more load due to the road crown
D-All of the above would apply

16-If it is necessary to match dual tyres of slightly different circumferences,

TRUCK
A-The smaller circumference tyre should be on the outside dual
B-The smaller circumference tyre should be on the inside dual
C-It should never be done
D-The order is not important

ONE
17-DOT HL 3T CFA X 388 on the sidewall of a tyre means that:
A-The tyre was manufactured the 38th week of 1998
B-The tyre was manufactured the third month of 1988
C-The tyre was manufactured the third week of 1988 LEVEL
D-The tyre was manufactured the third month of 2000

18-What is the expected mileage loss due to 20% underinflation?

A-0%
B-10%
C-20%
D-30%

19-A 4x2 prime mover fitted with 11R22.5 XZE2 TL carries a load of 8.960kg
on the drive axle. What pressure would you recommend to carry the load?
A-85 PSI
B-90 PSI
C-115 PSI
D-120 PSI
47
 20-Which of the following is wrong for a 275/70R22.5 XZA1 TL 148/145M?
A-Tyre aspect ratio is 70%
B-Load index dual mounted is 148
C-Tread pattern is XZA1
TEST

D-Speed index is M=130Km/h

21-Which of the following is correct for a 8.25R20 XZE TT

A-The tyre aspect ratio is 100%
B-The nominal section width is 9 inches
BASICS

C-The condition of use is off road

D-The tyre is tubeless

22-Which of the following is wrong for an 11R22.5 XZA TL 148/145L?

A-The advised rim is 7.50 inches wide
B-The tyre is for Off Road short distance transport
TYRE

C-The dual load index is 145

D-The speed index corresponds to 120Km/hr

23-What is the aspect ratio of a 10.00R20?

TRUCK

A-110%
B-100%
C-90%
D-80%

24-Which of the following tyres has the highest aspect ratio?

ONE

A-9.5R19.5
B-445/45R19.5
C-10.00R20
D-10R22.5
LEVEL

25-Which of the following tyres could be called ultra low profile?

A-11R22.5
B-9.5R19.5
C-335/80R20
D-295/60R22.5

26-Where would you find the date code on a tyre?

A-As part of the ECE type approval
B- As part of Serial number
C- As part of ETRTO number
D- As part of DOT number
48
27-Which of the following is true?
A-The air inside the tyre carries all the load
B-The tyre walls carry the load
C-The air inside the tyre carries half of the load
D-The casing ply carries the load

TEST
28-A B-double is fitted with 265/70R19.5 ENERGY XTA TL. The first trailer
axle carries a load of 9,000kg. What pressure would you recommend to
carry the load?
A- 95 PSI (approx)

BASICS
B-105 PSI (approx)
C-115 PSI (approx)
D-120 PSI (approx)

29-Which of the following statements is wrong for Ply Rating?

A-It is an old load index system

TYRE
B-It was based on counting the number of plies of bias tyres
C-It is not used for radial tyres
D-It can indicate various carrying capacities with the same index

30-What would be the equivalent tubeless tyre in size and load capacity for

TRUCK
a 8.25R15 low loader?
A-9.5R17.5 XTA
B-8.5R17.5 XZA
C-8R17.5 XZA
D-11 R 22.5 XTE1

ONE
31-Textile cords:
A-Dissipate heat very quickly
B-Are very good heat conductors
C-Have the same strength as steel cords LEVEL
D-None of the above

32-On tandem axles the average tyre diameter on one axle:

A-Should be within 6mm of the average tyre diameter on the other axle
B-Should be within 2mm of the average tyre diameter on the other axle
C-Should be within 1cm of the average tyre diameter on the other axle
D-Should be within 2cm of the average tyre diameter on the other axle

33-When "PILOTE" is written on the sidewall of a Michelin truck tyre it means:

A-That the tyre could be used for competition
B-That it is an ultra low profile truck tyre
C-That the aspect ratio is 80%
D-That the aspect ratio is 90%

49
 34-Thermal equilibrium is:
A-When the amount of heat generated by rotation of the tyre is equal to the
heat dissipated
B-When at a given speed the net temperature change is nil
C-When the tyre flexing has decreased enough due to the increase of tyre
TEST

pressure that the tyre temperature stabilises

D-All of the above

35-Given the same road and vehicle usage:

A-Tyres will wear at a faster rate in summer
BASICS

B-Tyres will wear at a faster rate in winter

C-Tyres will be more susceptible to damage by road hazards in winter
D-Both A and C

36-Underinflation:
A-Will increase the deflection of the sidewalls
TYRE

B-Will increase heat generation in the tyre

C-Will cause carcass fatigue and deterioration
D-All of the above

37-Overinflation:
TRUCK

A-Increases the risk of shock damage

B-Will result in more rapid tread wear
C-All of the above
D-None of the above

38-At 90Km/hr the force of disturbance generated by a 500g imbalance on a

ONE

295/80R22.5 is:
A-Around 70kg
B-Around 110kg
C-Around 170kg
LEVEL

D-Around 210kg

39-An out of balance assembly generates:

A-Vibrations
B-Premature Wear of suspension components and/or bearings
C-Irregular wear
D-All of the above

40-"Triangulation":
A-Is the recommended procedure to bring each nut to recommended torque
B-Is a way to position your tyres when mounting them on tandem axles
C-Is the recommended procedure to rotate your tyres
D-None of the above

50
LEVEL ONE TEST ANSWER SHEET
Please FAX this sheet to (03) 9867 3077
Results will be sent back only after all enrolled participants from your

TEST
dealership have completed the test

Last name …………………………………………………………

BASICS
First name …………………………………………………………

Dealership name ………………………………………………….

Telephone number ………………………………………………..

TYRE
1 A B C D 21 A B C D
2 A B C D 22 A B C D
3 A B C D 23 A B C D

TRUCK
4 A B C D 24 A B C D
5 A B C D 25 A B C D
6 A B C D 26 A B C D
7 A B C D 27 A B C D
8 A B C D 28 A B C D

ONE
9 A B C D 29 A B C D
10 A B C D 30 A B C D
11 A B C D 31 A B C D LEVEL
12 A B C D 32 A B C D
13 A B C D 33 A B C D
14 A B C D 34 A B C D
15 A B C D 35 A B C D
16 A B C D 36 A B C D
17 A B C D 37 A B C D
18 A B C D 38 A B C D
19 A B C D 39 A B C D
20 A B C D 40 A B C D

51
 NOTES
S
E
T
O
N

52
 MICHELIN AUSTRALIA TRAINING CENTRE

Training for a better future

Michelin Australia Pty Ltd ABN 84 006 761 628

Level 7, 492 St Kilda Road Melbourne, Victoria 3004
Tel: (03) 9825 3111 - Fax: (03) 9867 3077
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