Geotechnical Engineering Journal of the SEAGS & AGSSEA Vol. 43 No.

4 December 2012 ISSN 0046-5828

In-Situ Testing of Peat – a Review and Update on Recent Developments

M. Long1 and N. Boylan2
1
School of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering, University College Dublin, Ireland
2
Senior Geotechnical Engineer, Formerly PhD Researcher School of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering,
University College Dublin, Ireland
E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT: This paper reviews the techniques used and some recent developments on in situ testing of peat for the purposes of the design
and surveillance of engineering structures. Geophysical techniques, especially ground penetrating radar, are now being used extensively in
peatlands. All geotechnical in-situ tests in peat can be influenced by partial drainage and therefore can give misleading results if not used
carefully to well established guidelines and if not interpreted correctly. There is therefore a benefit in multi-measurement tests (e.g. CPTU
and piezoball) which give additional information to help assess the drainage condition. There seems promise in the use of the pore pressure
measurements for both CPTU and piezoball for the purposes of profiling peat decomposition and possibly shear strength assessment. Field
vane testing will frequently give misleading results. Other standard geotechnical techniques may only be useful when used in conjunction
with locally derived empirical correlations. Pore pressure measurements in peat may be influenced by the presence of gas in the deposits.

1. INTRODUCTION generated behind the blade into which the compressed peat in front
of the blade drained resulting in a modified peat, see Figure 1 (Noto,
Throughout the world, construction on peat soils presents engineers 1991). This partially drained / drained behaviour would lead to
with many challenges arising from their high compressibility and strength parameters that are higher than the truly undrained su-FV.
relative low shear strength. While avoiding construction on these Noto (1991) confirmed this by carrying out vane tests at rotation
soils may be a favoured option, in certain conditions development rates from 0.1°/sec to 10°/sec, which showed a trend of decreasing
on these soils cannot be avoided. For example, in Ireland and strength with increasing rotation rate (Figure 2). Attempts to observe
Scotland, to utilise the renewable energy resources available from the influence of strain rate by Landva (1980), were masked by the
wind and water, developments often take place in peatland variability of the material and no consistent trends could be
environments in both upland and lowland settings. Catastrophic peat observed. For the range of vane sizes and rotation rates generally
landslides that have occurred in these environments have increased used in practice, and considering the typical consolidation properties
awareness of this geohazard and the importance of properly of peat, it is unlikely that undrained conditions could be obtained
characterising this material. In the Netherlands many dikes are using this test in peat.
constructed of and on peat / strongly organic soils and ongoing Landva (1980) and Helenelund (1967) also reported that a
monitoring and stability assessment of these structures is of cylindrical shear surface occurred at a diameter 7 mm to 10 mm
significant importance. Highway and infrastructure developments on outside the edge of the blade and the length of the vane shear face
peat in other parts of the world, for example Canada, the USA, was shorter due to the compression / void mechanism described
Malaysia and Indonesia, all require knowledge of the properties of above. Therefore the assumed failure surface, from which su-FV is
the peat. calculated, is quite different to the actual failure surface.
Due to the difficulties in sampling of peat and subsequently Additionally in fibrous peat, fibres often wrap around the vane
preparing specimens for laboratory testing engineers have made during rotation and increase the resistance being measured. Landva
significant efforts to develop in situ techniques for characterisation (1980) concluded that the field vane test is “of little engineering
of peat deposits and for estimating the relevant engineering value in fibrous material” and is also not suitable for organic soils.
properties. This paper provides a review of this work and gives an
update of some recent developments.
2.3 Influence of size of vane
2. FIELD VANE TESTING Unlike mineral soils, su-FV in peat has been found to decrease with
increasing diameter, possibly due to the scale effect of the fibres
2.1 Introduction (Landva, 1980). Figure 3 shows the results of in-situ vane tests
There are no special in situ techniques available for testing peat which were carried out at the Vinkeveen research site in the
soils. Therefore standard techniques for inorganic soils are generally Netherlands (Boylan, 2008).
used in peat. The field vane test is often used to determine the shear
strength of peat (su-FV). Despite its use in peat being heavily
criticised it has continued to be used throughout the world and
remains perhaps most common test. Therefore a review of the issues
involved and its application is appropriate.

2.2 Problems with field vane testing in peat

The problems with using the vane test in peat were recognised at an
early stage in several countries. For example in Ireland, Quinn
(1967) stated that the “test was open to criticism as the failure
mechanism is one of tearing rather than shearing”. In Finland,
Helenelund (1967) concluded that the “test is not reliable in fibrous
peat”. For work in France, Mangan (1993) suggested that, as the
mode of deformation of peat is often characterised by punching
failure, field vane strength should be applied with caution.
Perhaps the most well known and comprehensive review of the Figure 1 Interaction of vane with peat during test - illustrated in
practice is that of Landva (1980). He observed that a void was (Noto, 1991)

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 Geotechnical Engineering Journal of the SEAGS & AGSSEA Vol. 43 No. 4 December 2012 ISSN 0046-5828

The Swedish Geotechnical Institute developed the following

reduction factor (Larsson et al., 1984):

 0.43 
 FV C   
0.45
(2)
 wL 

where: wL = liquid limit.

In Poland Sanglerat and Mlynarek (1980) and Mlynarek et al.

(1983) found that the relationship between laboratory UU triaxial
strength and vane strength varied between 0.26 for sedge moss peat
and 0.69 for carbonate sedimentary peat. Lechowicz (1994)
recommended that the Swedish correction factors be used in practice
in Poland.
Hanzawa et al. (1994) reported that in Japan the mobilised shear
strength in a peat deposit that failed under and embankment load
was calculated to be 50% of su-FV and that the laboratory direct shear
Figure 2 Influence of rotation rate on su-FV (Noto, 1991) strength was 67% of su-FV.
For work in the US Edil (2001) suggested a vane correction
An electrical GEOTECH vane (www.geotech.se) was used. This factor, μ FV-C = 0.4 – 0.5. Mesri and Ajlouni (2007) suggested a
apparatus is computer controlled and torque data is logged on a correction, μFV-C = 0.5 be applied to the results of vane tests in peat.
laptop computer. The vane head which applies the torque to the rods In the experience of the author’s it is not possible to determine
is mounted on a frame to ensure stability during testing. Tests were the liquid limit of peat, using either the fall cone or the Casagrande
conducted both a 280 mm x 140 mm and 172 mm x 80 mm size cup, due to the effects of the fibres and in Irish practice a single
vane. factor of 0.5 is often employed.
Figure 3 shows the shear strength (su-FV) from these tests to lie
between 7-15 kPa. The results of tests with the smaller size vane are 2.5 Comparison with laboratory DSS strength
more scattered and generally higher than those with the larger size
vane. This is similar to the findings of Landva (1980). The results of A comparison is made here between the results of direct simple
remoulded vane tests are also indicated. shear (DSS) tests and in situ vane tests in peat. Simple shear tests
provide strength parameters appropriate for stability analyses of
2.4 Correction factors translational type failure, which peat slope failures often resemble
(Long and Boylan, 2012). In addition the simple shear strength is
In engineering practice reduction factors have been introduced to often taken as the average strength mobilised under an embankment
modify the measured strength and provide strength parameters or large shallow foundation.
representative of undrained conditions and account for viscous rate It would be also possible to compare the field vane test results
effects in some cases. These reduction factors have been developed with those from triaxial testing. However, as detailed by Long
in response to local experience and conditions. The undrained shear (2005), there are many problems associated with the triaxial test in
strength adopted for design (su) is taken as: peat, for example; controlling the very low effective stresses

su   FV C suFV
required for consolidation, the large volume changes which occur
during consolidation, accounting for the effects of end platen
(1)
roughness, membrane stiffness effects and maintaining the

Golebiewska (1983) proposed FV-C = 0.5 to 0.55 for peat.

verticality of the specimen during testing. These factors play a role
in the scatter of shear strengths reported from triaxial tests on peat.
Landva and Rochelle (1983) provided vane and ring shear data A comparison of field vane test results and laboratory direct
where the ring shear value is 42% to 57% of su-FV. simple shear strength measurements at three Irish sites are shown on
Figure 4. The simple shear specimens were consolidated to the best
Vane Shear Strength, su-FV (kPa)
estimate of the in situ vertical effective stress (typically 5 kPa to 10
0 5 10 15 20
kPa). Simple shear tests are carried out as constant volume tests
0 thereby measuring an undrained strength, that is generally lower
than the partially drained / drained field vane test (Long and Boylan,
2012). The anisotropy of peat strength due to the presence of fibres,
allied with the different failure mechanisms in simple shear and
2 vane tests also plays a role in these differences.
In order to classify the material and distinguish between
different types of peat, engineers often use the classifications system
Depth (m)

of Von Post and Granlund (1926). This is based on a visual

4 inspection of the peat and a simple hand squeezing test. The peat is
classified on a scale of H1 (no decomposition) to H10 (completely
decomposed) as outlined on Table 1.

6
280 X 140 mmVane - Intact
172 X 80 mm Vane - Intact
172 X 80 mm Vane - Remoulded
8

Figure 3 Vinkeveen in-situ vane tests

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 Geotechnical Engineering Journal of the SEAGS & AGSSEA Vol. 43 No. 4 December 2012 ISSN 0046-5828

Table 1 Determination of decomposition Von Post and Granlund

(1926)
Degree Decom- Plant Material
of position Structure Extruded on
Humf- Squeezing
ication
H1 None Easily identified Clear, colourless
water
H2 Insignificant Easily identified Yellowish water
H3 Very slight Still identifiable Brown, muddy
water; no peat
H4 Slight Not easily Dark brown, muddy
identifiable water; no peat
H5 Moderate Recognisable Muddy water and
but vague some peat
H6 Moderately Indistinct (more About one third of
strong distinct after peat squeezed out;
squeezing) water dark brown
H7 strong Faintly About one half of
recognisable peat squeezed out;
any water very dark
brown
H8 Very strong Very indistinct About two thirds of
peat squeezed out;
also some pasty
water
H9 Nearly Almost Nearly all peat
complete unrecognisable squeezed out as
fairly uniform paste
H10 Complete Not discernible All peat passes
between fingers; no
free water visible

Data for the West Donegal site, shown on Figure 4a, is typical
for Irish peat and illustrates that the water content of the peat
decreases from about 1000% at 0.5 m to 600% at 2.5 m. Broadly the
peat can be described as moderately decomposed throughout but can
be divided into an upper less decomposed zone with von Post and
Granlund (1926) H = 4 to 8 to 1.5 m and a lower more decomposed
region with H = 5 to 6. Shear strength values obtained from simple
shear tests (su-DSS) show a clear increase with depth from about 5
kPa near the surface to 11 kPa with depth. The average su-DSS value
is about of about 8.0 kPa. As expected there is a clear tendency for
an increase in su-DSS with decreasing water content. There is no clear
relationship between su-DSS and von Post and Granlund H. Vane test
results (su-FV) are in general higher and very scattered. There is a
greater difference between the vane and simple shear test results in
the deeper more decomposed zone.
Similar results can be seen for the Glinsk site in Co. Mayo Figure 4 Comparison of su from field vane and laboratory DSS tests
where the peat is very similar to that at the West Donegal site (a) West Donegal site, (b) Glinsk site, Co. Mayo and (c)
(Figure 4b). Here the vane test results are even more scattered. Crockagarron, Co. Tyrone
Data for the Crockagarron site in Co. Tyrone is interesting
because here the peat has unusually high water content, being of the The wide variation of ratios and the high values, far greater than
order of 1200% to 1600% (Figure 4c). Simple shear values are 1.0, suggests that in-situ vane tests may grossly overestimate the
correspondingly lower with an average of about 4.5 kPa. Hand vane shear strength of peat deposits. Considering the su-FV/su-DSS ratio of
su values are higher than those of the larger vanes. The larger vanes, 2.0 implied by the vane correction factors discussed above
particularly the 55 mm x 110 mm Geonor H10 vane, give su-FV approximately 70% of the values lie above this level meaning that a
values slightly greater than those from the simple shear tests. universal factor is insufficient for correcting vane tests in peat.
Long and Boylan (2012) compared in situ vane test and simple
shear tests for 8 sites (including the three detailed above). The ratio 2.6 Conclusion
su-FV/su-DSS versus degree of decomposition, H, for depths at which
vane tests and simple shear tests exist are compared on Figure 5. It is clear from the discussion above that vane tests in peat may give
The ratio of su-FV/su-DSS ranges from 1 to 5.7, with the highest ratios misleading and non-conservative results and should be treated with
observed for lower values of decomposition. great caution.
This is as expected due the greater concentration of fibres at low
decomposition levels. In addition, the effect of partially drained /
drained conditions on the vane tests would be greater in the more
compressible peat of low decomposition.

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6
5
4
su-FV/su-DSS

3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Decomposition, H
Figure 5 Ratio of in situ vane strength compared to DSS

3. CONE PENETRATION TESTING

3.1 Introduction
Figure 7 CPTU and ball results – Crockagarron Wind Farm site, Co.
The cone penetration test (CPT) or the cone penetration test with
Tyrone, Northern Ireland
pore pressure measurements (CPTU) (commonly referred to as the
piezocone test) test is widely used in peat deposits due to the
In addition to this the measured resistance can be very scattered
availability of lightweight equipment to access peat sites, the
due to the variable interaction with fibres.
relatively low cost, speed and minimal site disturbance caused by
To improve resistance measurements in these very soft deposits,
the testing, see Figure 6.
Viergever (1985) performed tests in organic soil using cones with
A typical set of CPTU test results, for the Crockagarron Wind
large projected areas (50 and 100 cm2) and the traditional cone (10
Farm site in Co. Tyrone, Northern Ireland is shown on Figure 7. It
cm2). The results of tests using the largest cone measured resistances
can be seen that about 4.7 m of peat overlies granular mineral soil.
that were 30%–45% lower than that of the 10 cm2 cone. The larger
Corrected cone resistance (qt) and sleeve friction (fs) values are very
cones measured a more homogenised soil volume, possibly under
low being of the order of 0.1 MPa and 5 kPa respectively. A wood
conditions closer to fully undrained, than the smaller cones,
fragment was encountered at about 3 m. Pore water pressures (u 2)
resulting in a substantial reduction in the standard deviation of the
are greater than hydrostatic in the peat and drop off suddenly on
penetration resistance.
encountering the mineral soil.
Landva (1986) similarly conducted tests with a large 300 mm
It can be seen that a significant issue with CPTU tests in peat is
diameter cone while Noto (1991) used a larger cone with a 20 cm2
the low tip resistances and some standard cones (10 cm2 bearing
bearing area.
area) have difficulty resolving these resistances accurately.
3.2 Accuracy of CPTU testing in peat
Boylan and Long (2006a) and Boylan et al. (2008) explored the
accuracy of CPTU testing for the characterisation of organic soils.
Laboratory studies on a number of cones show that the measured
parameters can be greatly influenced by differences in the
temperature at which the cone is zeroed and the temperature in the
ground itself, even if the cone is temperature compensated. This
effect can result in significant positive or negative shifts in the
measurements from this test.
An example of this effect on two tests from the Vinkeveen
research site are shown on Figure 8. In the first test, the cone was
stabilised and zeroed as normal in air (11°C - 12°C) before the test
commenced. In the second test, the cone was equilibrated to the
ground temperature (7°C - 8°C) by immersing the cone in a bucket
of water from a stream adjacent to the test location. Both of these
tests were carried out as standard CPTU tests at a penetration rate of
2 cm/sec. It can be clearly seen, especially in terms of q t, that the
cone which has not been equilibrated to the ground temperature has
been affected by the temperature differential. In the early stage of
the test (< 2.5m) qt is extremely scattered. At greater depths qt
becomes less scattered and there is a clear disparity between the two
tests of approximately 170kPa.
Sleeve resistance (fs) measurements were also affected by the
temperature differential. Similar to the qt measurements above 2.5m
fs values are slightly more scattered for the cone which has not been
equilibrated. Below 3.5m there is a clear difference of
approximately 2 kPa.
Figure 6 Lightweight CPT equipment used on peat in Ireland by Note that the negative values of qt and fs recorded in these tests
Lankelma Ltd and In Situ Site Investigations Ltd are purely due to temperature effects. The change in temperature
between the CPTU truck and the ground causes an electronic shift in
the transducer readings hence recording negative values in some
cases.
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The pore pressure (u2) appears to be more reliable than the

corrected resistance (qt) or friction sleeve resistance (fs). Long
(2008) presented similar findings from a number of comparative
cone trials in clay.
Piezocone testing of soft organic soils often involves measuring
parameters which are close to the accuracy of the equipment and can
be highly influenced by factors such as temperature, zero offsets,
poor calibration, testing procedures etc. The European Standard for
piezocone testing (ENISO 22476-1, 2007) provides comprehensive
guidelines on all aspects of piezocone testing and the factors which
influence it’s accuracy. Adoption of this standard is crucial for
accurate investigation with CPTU in organic soils.

3.3 Profiling peat from CPTU tests

Figure 8 Temperature effects on CPTU results in peat Lunne et al. (1997) provide a useful review of the use of the CPTU
in peat and organic soils. They summarised case histories of work in
This problem can be overcome by equilibrating the cone to the peat from Holland, Germany and Canada. They suggest that peat is
ground temperature (ideally in a bucket of water taken from the often characterised by a high friction ratio (Rf = fs/qt) greater than
ground itself) prior to the test commencing. It is therefore especially perhaps 5% and that negative pore pressures can be developed in
important in peat that CPTU testing is carried out to a recognised fibrous zones.
standard. Up to the present the best official guideline for performing Long (2005), Boylan and Long (2006a) and Boylan and Long
CPTU was the IRTP (International Reference Test Procedure) (2006b) investigated the use of the pore pressure parameter (Bq) in

u  u0
Bq = pore pressure parameter = u  2
published by the International Society for Soil Mechanics and order to characterise the degree of decomposition of the peat.
Geotechnical Engineering in 1999 (ISSMGE, 1999) A European
qt   v 0
Standard (ENISO 22476-1, 2007) has been completed and will be (3)
q net
where: u0 = ambient or in situ pore water pressure and v0 = in situ
officially available from late 2012 or early 2013. This document is
an updated version of the IRTP, based on the same principles.
Boylan et al. (2008) also detailed the results of CPTU tests total vertical stress
which were also carried out at the Vinkeveen site using various
cones with differing accuracies. Figure 9 shows the results of all This was motivated by the finding, discussed above, that pore
tests in terms of qt, fs and u2. Also indicated on this figure are the pressure (u2) tends to be the most reliable measured CPTU
accuracy ranges required for an Application Class 1 test by the parameter. Peat permeability changes as it decomposes and this
European Standard for piezocone testing (ENISO 22476-1, 2007). should be reflected in measured Bq values.
This application class is the intended accuracy class for soft to very An example of such profiling for the Crockagarron site (Figure
soft soil deposits. For qt the accuracy range corresponding to Class 1 4c) is shown on Figure 10. The degree of decomposition, as
is 35 kPa or 5% of the measured value whichever is less. For fs and expressed by the Von Post and Granlund (1926) H value increases
u2 the corresponding values are 5 kPa / 10% and 10 kPa / 2% with depth in a similar manner to Bq and both reach a maximum at
respectively. about 2.7 m.
For qt the agreement between the various cones is generally Although this approach shows some promise further work is
good. However, the range of values falls outside the accuracy range needed before definite recommendations on the link between Bq and
for an Application Class 1 test if all the tests are considered H can be made. A particular issue here is the consistency of
together. Similarly, the range of fs values fall outside the accuracy definition of degree of decomposition as this can be a subjective and
range of an Application Class 1 test if all the tests are considered operator dependant parameter.
together. During testing all cones recorded pore pressures close to
the hydrostatic pore pressure and the range of measured values is
generally within the required accuracy range.

Corrected Resistance, qt (MPa) Sleeve Resistance, fs (MPa) Measured PWP, u2 (MPa)

-0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2
0 0 0
Application Class 1 Application Class 1 Application Class 1
1 1 1

2 2 2
Depth (m)

3 3 3

4 4 4
GeoMil 1
5 5 GeoMil 2 5
GeoDelft
6 6 Fugro 6

Figure 9 CPTU tests using different cones at Vinkeveen site

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Work by Mollé (2005) and Long (2008) suggested that the soil
behaviour charts of Robertson et al. (1986) and the similar
normalised chart of Robertson (1990) were perhaps the most widely
used charts world-wide. They found that these charts are adequate to
reasonably accurately characterise uniform soft to medium stiff clay
and uniform sand sites and to a lesser degree for some intermediate
soils such as silty clay or clayey silt and sandy silt. This work also
highlighted the importance of reliable fs measurements. Inaccuracies
in fs measurements can decrease the reliability of the charts.
However there seems to be difficulties with the use of the charts
for characterising peat and organic clay soils. An example for the
Bundoran – Ballyshannon Bypass site, Co. Donegal, Ireland is
shown on Figure 11a (Long, 2005; Long and Phoon, 2004). This site
is underlain by approximately 3 m of peat over calc marl (soft silt)
over, soft sensitive clay. Consistent with the suggestion of Lunne et
al. (1997), Rf values are high in the peat being in the range 4% to
12%. The more fibrous upper peat is clearly distinguished from the
deeper more amorphous peat by the higher qnet and Rf values.
However the underlying calc marl shows similar Rf values to the
peat, albeit with higher u2 or Bq values.
Figure 10 Peat degree of decomposition profiling using Bq for Although the Robertson et al. (1986) chart, shown on Figure
Crockagarron site 11b, accurately classifies the deeper soft silty clay it fails to separate
the peat from the calc marl despite these two strata having
3.4 Use if standard CPTU classification charts for peat significantly different geotechnical properties. They are classified as
Use of the CPTU for classifying soil has now gained world-wide either “organic material” or “clay” on both charts. In addition in
acceptance. A number of well established soil classification or soil many circumstances fibrous peat can have high qt values and the soil
behaviour charts exist. Generally these charts use a combination of behaviour charts will then classify the material in zones 4 to 7, i.e.
corrected cone resistance (qt), sleeve friction (fs) and pore water mixed silt and clay soil.
pressure (u2) data or normalised parameters derived using these
measurements.

Figure 11 Bundoran – Ballyshannon Bypass (a) CPTU and T-bar test resultd and (b) Robertson et al.
(1986) soil behaviour type chart

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Similar findings were made by Long et al. (2010) for the organic
soils at Crayford, east of London and Liew (2008) for a site near
Kuala Lumpur. Misclassification at these sites was due to the
partially drained nature of the penetration, leading to high measured
resistances, the unreliability in the sleeve friction readings and the
influence of the reinforcing fibres.

3.5 Strength of peat from CPT tests

Landva (1986) and Boylan (2008) carried out laboratory tests which
studied the deformation around a half cone penetrated into peat
behind a glass screen. These tests showed that large amounts of
vertical compression were required to mobilise the strength of the
peat, indicating that the peat undergoes considerable consolidation
during CPT penetration. Landva (1986) concluded that the CPT is
“of little use” in determining the engineering properties of peat soils.
A very significant issue is that cone penetration in peat may not
be fully undrained. Pore pressure parameter (Bq) values from CPTU
in Irish peat are generally less than 0.3 (Boylan and Long, 2006a;
Long, 2005). This indicates that the material behaves in a partially Figure 12 Full flow probes Boylan and Long (2006a)
drained to drained manner (Schnaid et al., 2004). Therefore, any
correlations between qnet and su will to be influenced by the level of The T-bar and ball probes are becoming increasingly popular for
drainage which takes place during penetration. It is also worth characterising soft sediments, particularly in offshore environments.
exploring correlations based on u2. Ball probes are often used for deep profiling as they can fit inside
Despite this the standard approach used to determine su for clay casing used for offshore works. T-bars are regularly used for
soils is often applied to peat. A series of empirical bearing capacity shallower studies such as for pipelines. In peat some problems can
factors Nkt, Nke and Nu (Lunne et al., 1997) have been used for this be encountered with the T-bar due to bending effects on the T-bar

qnet qt   v 0
purpose, i.e.:

su  
load cell and some difficulties in the buckling of the driving rods
when it is eccentrically loaded (Long and Gudjonsson, 2004). In
(4) these tests the cone end is removed and is replaced by a either T-bar,
N kt N kt
qt  u2
typically 40 mm in diameter and 250 mm long or a ball of diameter
su 
113 mm (i.e. area = 100 cm2, 10 times at of a conventional cone).
Given the known reliability of pore pressure measurements in
N ke
u
(5) soft clays, pore pressure sensors have been added to both the T-bar
su 
(Peuchen et al., 2005) and the ball (Kelleher and Randolph, 2005),
(Peuchen et al., 2005) and (Boylan et al., 2007). The balls used were
N u (6) developed by Benthic Geotech, Fugro and Lankelma respectively.
There are few published studies which look at the range of Nkt Some balls have recently been introduced which permit the
factors for peat soils. Hanzawa et al. (1994) suggested the use of an measurement of pore pressure at several locations, see Figure 13.
Nkt of 10, based on an empirical relationship with su results from the The UWA piezoball, described by Boylan et al. (2011b) is 60 mm in
direct shear test. However, the CPT penetration profiles used to diameter has 4 small sensors around the equator of the ball and one
develop this relationship were not corrected for out of balance pore at its tip. The In Situ Site Investigations ball is 113 mm in diameter
pressure effects. Long (2005) found good agreement using an Nke = and allows pore pressure measurement at the ball tip, mid face and
9, with the results of in-situ vane tests and unconsolidated undrained equator.
(UU) triaxial tests for a site in Co. Mayo. An example of some data from the In Situ Site Investigations
Due to the large correction required for out of balance pore probe at the Camster site in Scotland is shown on Figure 14. For this
pressure effects in soft soils and peat, Den Haan and Kruse (2007) site it was found that uball data from the mid face position showed
preferred to divide qc directly by a factor to obtain su and suggested highest values and data from the equator was very similar to the in
a value of 7.8 based on triaxial compression tests. They also situ pore pressure values.
emphasised the need for more empirical relations between q c and su Long (2008) reviewed the use of this equipment and found that
to substantiate this relationship. although they produced useful and promising results a significant
Some of the author’s experience of use of these parameters will issue is that there is no standardisation in the design of these
be presented in Section 4.3 together with the full flow probe data. instruments, particularly with respect to the location of the pore
water pressure transducer.
4. FULL FLOW PROBES
4.2 Application of full flow probes to peat - general
4.1 Introduction
Application of full flow probes to peat and organic soils has
Full flow probes including the T-bar and ball (see Figure 12) have
been discussed by Oung et al. (2004), Boylan and Long (2006a),
been introduced in an attempt to overcome the problems associated
Long et al. (Long et al., 2010) and Boylan et al. (2011a). A
with measuring resistances in very soft sediments. Very early work
particular feature of the latter study is that the full flow probe results
in the area was carried out in the late 1930’s at the Swedish
are compared to laboratory testing on high quality Sherbrooke block
Geotechnical Institute (SGI) as reported by Kallstenius (1961) who
samples.
describes the SGI Iskymeter, which is not unlike the T-bar
penetrometer. Flaate (1962) in a discussion of the shearing
resistance of peat, also suggested the iskymeter “may be of some
help”.

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su 
Pore Pressure Standard Diameter qball
(7)
Sensors Load Cell Shaft N ball

uball  u0
su 
N u ball (8)

Given the likely influence of partial drainage on penetration

resistance, care needs to be taken when interpreting penetration tests
in these soils. Dimensional analysis shows that the degree of partial
drainage during continuous penetration is controlled by the
normalised velocity V, defined as (Finnie and Randolph, 1994):
Reduced Shaft Section

V
vd
(9)
cv

where: v is the penetration rate, d is the diameter of the

penetrometer and cv is the coefficient of consolidation of the soil.
For penetration processes, drained conditions exist for V < 0.01,
while for V > 10 undrained conditions exist (House et al., 2001).
The tests conducted with the larger penetrometers will therefore
have a greater normalised velocity (V) than the cone. Depending on
the consolidation properties of the soil it may measure a resistance
that is representative of a lower degree of partial drainage.
Therefore, the use of full flow probes appears beneficial in
increasing the sensitivity of measurements and possibly reducing the
effects of partial drainage on the measured resistance.
For peat sites variable rate penetration tests should be
Figure 13 Piezoballs developed by (a) University of Western undertaken over the widest range of penetration rates available to
provide insight into the drainage conditions during penetration, and
The results of penetration tests using the T-bar and ball show possibly the penetration rate required for undrained penetration. The
that they overcome some of the problems of the CPTU in peat insight that could be gained from variable rate tests in these soils is
namely the scattering due to interaction with fibres. The resistance often limited by the range of penetration rates available on most
profiles are more repeatable and more uniform than those of the commercial penetration rigs.
cone, which may be explained by the larger volume of material This can be seen, for example, for the data from the Camster site
mobilised during penetration and reduced sensitivity to small fibres. on Figure 14b.
This effect can be seen clearly in Figures 7, 11a and 14 for the Available bearing capacity factors derived from the results of
Crockagarron, Bundoran – Ballyshannon and Camster sites CPTU, piezoball tests and laboratory simple shear tests carried out
respectively. at in situ vertical effective stress (Long and Boylan, 2012) are
Resistance profiles from the T-bar and Ball are similar with shown on Figure 15. A summary of the values is given on Table 2.
those from the T-bar tending to be higher than those from the Ball. Nkt and Nball factors show significant scatter. The scatter is
Analytical solutions suggest that Ball resistances should be higher. It greatest for the shallower tests possibly due the effects of partial
is the opinion of the author’s that the end effects of the T-bar and its drainage resulting in relatively higher resistance values. Long and
interaction with the fibres may be the origin of this difference. Gudjonsson (2004), Boylan and Long (2006a) and Boylan et al
The Crockagarron and Bundoran – Ballyshannon examples (2011a) found that computed NT-bar and Nball factors for the full flow
above show that resistance profiles from the CPTU show a tendency probes showed less variance than the Nkt factor for the CPTU. A
to increase with depth at a rate higher than the T-bar and Ball which similar finding is made here with Nkt showing slightly more
has been noted in other soft soils (Chung and Randolph, 2004; Long variation than Nball. Nkt values and are generally higher than typical
and Gudjonsson, 2004). values published for clays (Karlsrud et al., 2005). Note that the work
The pore pressure parameter (BBall) from the ball penetrometer of Karlsrud et al. used su from anisotropically undrained triaxial
test has been shown to be a useful parameter to differentiate the compression tests (CAUC) as reference, whereas DSS tests are used
decomposition of material within peat deposits, similar to CPTU Bq here. For clays su-DSS is typically 0.7 to 0.85 su-CAUC.
described above in Section 3.3. BBall (and Bq) values show a
tendency to increase with peat decomposition. Table 2 Summary of empirical bearing capacity factors
4.3 Undrained strength of peat from full flow probes Item Nkt Nball NΔu Nu-ball
No. of 12 25 18 13
Perhaps the principal objective for engineers carrying out full flow
data points
probes in peat is to determine the undrained shear strength for the
Minimum 8.5 7.2 0.9 1.3
design of infrastructure located on the peat or for the assessment of
Maximum 44.0 37.0 8.2 7.8
slope stability in peatlands.
Similar to the CPTU, described above in Section 3.5, su can be Average 21.2 18.9 3.7 3.7
determined from the piezoball measurements using empirical factors Standard 13.0 8.8 1.9 1.9
Nball and Nu-ball as follows (Boylan et al., 2011a): deviation

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(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 14 - CPTU and full flow probe data - Camster site, Scotland (a) Location 9 and (b) Location 18 and (c) Location 16

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 Geotechnical Engineering Journal of the SEAGS & AGSSEA Vol. 43 No. 4 December 2012 ISSN 0046-5828

NB Karlsrud used
CAUC triaxial as basis
Here DSS is used

Figure 15 – CPTU and piezoball empirical bearing capacity factors as related to su from simple shear tests

Theoretical resistance factors have been derived for the ball These techniques have been also used successfully for many
based on plasticity solutions, e.g. Randolph (2004). Nball was years in Sweden (Carlsten, 1988) and Finland (Saarenketo et al.,
theoretically found to range between 11 and 15.3 for undrained 1992) for the determination of the thickness of both the road
conditions depending on the interface roughness of the pavements and that of the underlying peat. Edil (2001) reported
penetrometer. Nball values presented here are generally higher similar findings for work in the US.
than this range due to particle drainage effects increasing the q ball To date most equipment has involved moving a single
measurement above the value that would have occurred if frequency transmitter over the surface of the peat. For example
undrained conditions were achieved. Trafford (2009) reported on use of a 100 and 250 MHz
Nu and Nu-ball also show significant scatter. Nu values are transmittera for the survey of a large area of peatlands in Central
less than those typically applied to clay soils, again because of Ireland, either by man hauling the antenna or by use of all terrain
partial drainage effects. The range of values as well as average vehicle (Figures 16a and 16b). A variety of challenging
and standard deviation value are similar for Nu-ball and Nu. It is conditions can therefore be dealt with. Trafford (2009) found that
clear that the effects of partial drainage on the measured values the maximum depth of penetration for the 100 MHz transmitter
need to be carefully assessed before applying these factors. in Irish raised bogs was typically 6 m.
Transmitters with varying input frequency have also been
4.4 Summary used. For example for the equipment shown on Figure 16c the
input frequency can be altered by changing the length of the
There would seem to be good evidence to suggest that full flow boom. In Ireland it has been found that a good compromise
penetrometers, particularly the piezoball, can be useful tools in between depth of penetration and resolution of data can possible
profiling peat. The ball should be used in conjunction with be found by combining results from two different frequency
traditional CPTU tools. There seems particular promise in the use inputs, e.g. 80 MHz and 40 MHz.
of the pore pressure measurements for both the CPTU and Some output from the work at Clara raised bog in Central
piezoball for the purposes of profiling peat decomposition. Ireland in shown on Figure 17. Probing (left hand side on Figure
Partial drainage effects need to be carefully assessed prior to 17) revealed approximately 5.6 m of peat over silt and clay. This
application of bearing capacity factors to the test results so as to boundary is clearly identified in the GPR data. In addition GPR is
derive undrained shear strength. The benefit of multi- able to resolve some internal boundaries son the peat for example
measurement tests, such as the CPTU and piezoball, is that there that at about 2.5 m between the sphagnum and underlying fen
additional information available to help assess the drainage peat. Further work in this area is well warrented.
condition. GPR work is now usually linked to an accurate GPS system
The ranges of bearing factors presented in this paper are which allows spatial relocation to GPS co-ordinates as well as
examples and should not be interpreted as recommended values. providing topographic information. These systems are now being
Laboratory tests should be carried out on an adequate range of used regularly in design and risk assessment for infrastructural
samples to determine a site specific bearing factor. works on peatlands. The example on Figure 18a is for a
windfarm site in Co. Donegal, Ireland where the GPR trace
5. USE OF GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES IN PEAT clearly identifies the shallow peat filled valleys in between
5.1 Ground penetrating radar (GPR) competent soils or rock. On Figure 18b the GPR and GPS data
are integrated to produce a useful image of the variation in
Ground penetrating radar (GPR) techniques involve the ground surface and peat bottom for a raised bog at Roosky, Co.
transmisison and reflection measurement of electromagnetic Longford.
waves. The penetration depth achievable depends on the nature
of the peat (especially its electrical conductivity), the location of 5.2 Other geophysical techniques
the water table and on the frequency of the transmitted wave.
Work at Lund University in Sweden (Ulriksen, 1979; Geophysics experts will normally recommend that in any
Ulriksen, 1980; Ulriksen, 1983), (Bjelm and Ulriksen, 1980), application two or more geophysical techniques should be used
(Bjelm, 1980) investigated such factors as the effect of frequency in parallel. Work on peat sites is no exception. For example in
of the transmitted wave, the transmission velocity and the Ireland a combination of GPR, electrical resistivity tomography
technique used for moving the antenna over the peat on the techniques (ERT) and multi channel analysis of surface waves
measured results. This work also showed that not only could the (MASW) is often used to characterise the peat thickness and its
peat thickness be estimated accurately, some information can be engineering properties as well as those of the underlying mineral
obtained on the material beneath the peat. soils and rock.
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6. MEASUREMENT OF IN SITU PORE WATER

(a) PRESSURE IN PEAT
Pore water pressure measurements in peat are important, for
example, for monitoring dike and embankment stability (e.g. the
Netherlands), for assessment of slope stability and for
hydrogeological studies. A major issue with measurement of pore
pressure in peat is the effect of the accumulation of gas bubbles
within the measuring instrument (Baird and Gaffney, 1994;
Greeuw et al., 2003; Waddington et al., 2009).
Greeuw et al. (2003), for example, reported on a number of
long term measurements in the Netherlands where unexpected
increases in measured pore pressure occurred. These authors give
some useful recommendations for the design of piezometers for
peat, for example that a larger filter area than normal is
necessary.

7. OTHER IN SITU TESTING TECHNIQUES

(b) 7.1 Marchetti dilatometer (DMT . SDMT)
A dilatometer test consists of pushing a flat blade located at the
end of a series of rods into the ground (Marchetti, 1980). Once at
the testing depth, a circular steel membrane located on one side
of the blade is expanded horizontally into the soil. The pressure is
recorded at specific moments during the test (p0 on contact and p1
at 1.1 mm expansion). The blade is then advanced to the next test
depth. Various soil parameters can then be derived empirically
from these measurements together with knowledge of the in situ
effective stress and pore water pressure. Recently Marchetti et al.
(2008) have introduced seismic piezocone (SCPTU) technology
into the DMT, by the inclusion of geophones, to form the seismic
dilatometer (SDMT).
(c) Application of the DMT in peat has been reported by Nichols
et al. (1989) and (2006; Mlynarek et al., 2010). The technique
was shown to be simple to use, robust and repeatable. Results
were mixed but there seems to be good scope for developing
local correlations. Edil (2001) also reported that there are a few
examples of the application of DMT tests in peat soils but there
are no available guidelines in the interpretation of such tests. A
significant issue with the test is that the maximum displacement
of the DMT blade is 1.1 mm and this may not be adequate in
highly organic fibrous peat. Rahardjo et al. (2004) described the
DDMT (dual dilatometer), which is a standard Marchetti DMT
with additional thicker blade attached at the top, to produce
larger strains that are postulated to improve sensitivity in soft
soils. The equipment was tested in soft clays and peats at
Pelintung, Sumatera. No clear improvement in interpretation was
Figure 16 (a) Man hauling 250 MHz antenna and evident.
(b) all terrain “quad” with 100 MHz antenna and
(c) variable frequency antenna

Figure 17 Output for 80 and 40 MHz transmitters at Clara bog

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(a)

(b)

Figure 18 (a) 250 MHz GPR trace for windfarm in Co. Donegal, Ireland, (b) image of ground surface and peat bottom
produced by integrating GPT and GPS data for the Roosky raised bog in Co. Longford. Note y-axis reads in mOD

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7.2 Pressuremeter  Some standardisation of full flow probe testing

(especially for pore pressure measurement) would be of
There are also a few examples of the use of the pressuremeter in

great value.
the literature, see for example Nichols et al. (1989). The test
Vane testing in peat will often give misleading results
suffers from similar problems to the DMT, i.e. disturbance on

and should only be used with great caution.
penetration, lack of sufficient strain and no published guidelines
on carrying out the tests and interpretation of the results. Landva Pore pressure measurements in peat can be problematic


et al. (1986) stated that the test is not recommended for work in due to the presence of gas in the deposits.
peat. Many other standard geotechnical tests have been tried
in peat but only seem useful if they are used in
7.3 Plate load tests conjunction with locally developed empirical
correlations.
Landva (1986) and Landva (2007) gave some detailed analyses
of plate load tests on peat. It was found that the results of plate ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
load tests could not easily be applied to peat either for studies of
compression or failure. This is because the test is not The authors are very grateful to Darren Ward of In Situ Site
representative of the mode of deformation of real structures on Investigations Ltd. and to the staff of Lankelma UK Ltd for
peatland and is therefore “of little geotechnical significance”. An assistance with the CPTU and full flow probe work. Andy
exception was found to be the study of very concentrated loads, Trafford of APEX Geoservices and Michael Sheehy and Jim
e.g. from vehicles. Hodgson of the Geological Survey of Ireland provided equipment
and input on the GPR testing. The co-operation of François
Mathijssen of TU Delft / Royal Boskalis on the work at the
7.4 Other in situ tests Dutch research sites is also gratefully acknowledged.
Kramer et al. (1990) evaluated the strength of peat based on the
results of full-scale lateral load tests on 8 inch diameter steel pipe LIST OF SYMBOLS
piles. Undrained strength backanalysed from the trial was about Bq = CPTU pore pressure parameter
twice that obtained from field vane tests and UU triaxial tests. cv = coefficient of consolidation
d = instrument diameter
8. CONCLUSIONS fs = CPTU sleeve resistance
This paper has provided a review and an update on some recent H = degree of decomposition
developments on in situ testing of peat for civil engineering N = bearing capacity factors
purposes. It was found that: qt / qnet = CPTU corrected and net end resistance
Rf = CPTU friction ratio
 Geophysical techniques, particularly ground su = undrained shear strength (su-DSS from direct simple shear
penetrating radar, are very useful for profiling peat test, su-FV from field vane, su-CAUC from triaxial
compression test)

deposits rapidly and economically.
CPTU testing can also be useful for profiling these u = pore water pressure
materials. However due to the lack of homogeneity in v = penetration rate
the material and the very low measured values, the tests V = normalised velocity
need to be carried out carefully to well established wL = liquid limit
guidelines. The influence of partially drained μ FV-C = field vane correction factor
penetration and the reinforcing effects of fibres need to σv / σv' = total / effective vertical stress ('v0 = in situ)


be thoroughly assessed.
Full flow probe testing is a useful compliment to the
CPTU. In particular the uball and u2 measurements may
be very useful for both assessment of peat shear
strength and assessment of the degree of decomposition
of the peat. Further work is required to develop these
methods and engineers should develop site specific
correlations based on tests using high quality samples
to determine the range bearing capacity factors to be
used.

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