PALAWAN STATE UNIVERSITY

College of Sciences

BIO 101/L:
GENERAL ZOOLOGY

Animal
Classification and
Organization

Hierarchal Classification
Patterns of Organization
Invertebrate and Vertebrate Animals
Module 2
 Table of Contents

Content Page
Title Page……………………………………………………………………... 1
Table of Contents…………………………………………………………….. 2
Learning Objectives………………………………………………………….. 3
Overview……………………………………………………………………. .. 4
Initial Activity………………………………………………………………….. 5
Discussion (Hierarchical Classification Of The Animal Kingdom ………. 6
Learning Check 4.1……………………………………………………... 13
Discussion (Patterns Of Organizations)………………………………….. 14
Learning Check 4.2…………………………………………………….. 20
Discussion (Vertebrate vs. Invertebrate Animals)……………………….. 21
Learning Check 4.3…………………………………………………….. 23
Evaluation………………….………………..………………. . . . . . .. . . . . 24
Rubrics………………………………………………………………………... 25
Reflection……………………………………………………………….......... 26
References……………………………………………………………… . .… 27

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 Learning Objectives

After going through this module, you should be able to:

✓ Identify the hierarchical classification of the animal kingdom;

✓ Describe the patterns of organizations;
✓ Describe the unique characteristics of vertebrates and invertebrates

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 Overview

Evolution has produced a great diversity of species in the animal kingdom.

Zoologists have named more than 1.5 million species of animals, and thousands
more are described each year. Some zoologists estimate that species named so far
constitute less than 20% of all living animals and less than 1% of all those that have
existed.

Humans, cattle, birds, and horses are distinct groups of animals, yet they do
share some important features, including vertebrae and homeothermy, that separates
them from even more dissimilar forms such as insects and flatworms.

In this Module, you will learn the hierarchal classifications and organization of
animals and how it relates in identifying the animals. Lastly, you will learn also how to
differentiate vertebrate from invertebrate animals.

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 Initial Activity
Before we proceed to the different activities of this module, let us first check your
prior knowledge on this topic. This activity is designed to know your prior knowledge
about the lesson.

Think of at least ten (10) animals, write their common english name in the first
column of the table (to the right) and try to list down also the scientific names (to the
middle). Lastly, classify each animal whether it falls under invertebrate or vertebrate
animals (to the left).

English Name Scientific Name Classification

Ex. Chicken Gallus gallus domesticus Vertebrate
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
5

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 Discussion

I. Hierarchical Classification Of The Animal Kingdom

All human cultures classify familiar animals according to patterns in animal

diversity. These classifications have many purposes. Biologists organize animal
diversity in a nested hierarchy of groups within groups according to evolutionary
relationships as revealed by ordered patterns in their sharing of homologous
features. This ordering is called a “natural system” because it reflects relationships
that exist among animals in nature, outside the context of human activity. A
systematic zoologist has three major goals: to discover all species of animals, to
reconstruct their evolutionary relationships, and to communicate those relationships
by constructing an informative taxonomic system.

A.1. Principle of Taxonomy

Darwin’s theory of common descent is the underlying principle that guides

our search for order in the diversity of animal life. Our science of taxonomy
(“arrangement law”) produces a formal system for naming and grouping species to
communicate this order. The study of the kinds and diversity of organisms and of the
evolutionary relationships among them is called systematics (Gr. systema, system +
ikos, body of facts) or taxonomy (Gr. taxis, arrangement + L. nominalis, belonging to
a name). These studies result in the description of new species and the organization
of animals into groups (taxa) based on degree of evolutionary relatedness. The work
of taxonomists results in a phylogeny for a group of animals. A phylogeny (Gr.
phylon, race + geneia, origin) is a description of the evolutionary history of a group of
organisms
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 Discussion

A.2. Linnaeus and Taxonomy

The Greek philosopher and biologist Aristotle (384 to 332 BC) was the
first to group organisms according to their structural similarities. A unified
taxonomic system for all animals and plants appeared for the first time more
than two millennia later, in the work of Karl von Linne (Carolus Linnaeus). He
produced an extensive system of taxonomy for both plants and animals. This
scheme, published in his great work, Systema Naturae, used morphology (the
comparative study of organismal form) for arranging specimens in collections.

Linnaeus’s scheme of arranging organisms into an ascending series of

groups of ever-increasing inclusiveness is a hierarchical system of taxonomy.
Each major grouping of organisms, called a taxon (pl., taxa), took one of several
standard taxonomic ranks to indicate the general degree of inclusiveness of the
group. The hierarchy of taxonomic ranks has been expanded considerably since
Linnaeus’s time. It now includes eight mandatory ranks for the animal kingdom
(see Table 1), in descending series: domain, kingdom, phylum, “class,” order,
family, genus, and species. Taxonomists have the option of subdividing these
ranks (e.g., subphylum, superclass, and infraclass) to express relationships
between any two ranks. For very large and complex groups, such as fishes and
insects, these additional ranks are needed to express different degrees of
evolutionary divergence.

Table 1. Taxonomic Classification of Human and Domesticated Dog

Taxon Human Domestic Dog

7
Domain Eukarya Eukarya
Kingdom Animalia Animalia
Phylum Chordata Chordata
Class Mammalia Mammalia
Order Primates Carnivora
Family Homonidae Canidae
Genus Homo Canis
Species sapiens lupis

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 Discussion

A.3. Binomial Nomenclature

Linnaeus’s system for naming species is called binomial nomenclature. The

binomial system of nomenclature is universal and clearly indicates the level of
classification involved in any description. No two kinds of animals have the same
binomial name, and every animal has only one correct name, as required by the
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, thereby avoiding the confusion that
common names cause. Each species has a Latinized name composed of two words
(see Table 1) printed in italics (or underlined if handwritten or typed). The first word
names the genus, which is capitalized; the second word is the species epithet, which
identifies the species within the genus and is written in lowercase. They are used
consistently by scientists in all countries and languages.

A.4. Animal Systematics

To arrange animals into groups that reflect evolutionary relationships is the

goal of animal systematics. The monophyletic group should include the most recent
ancestral species and all of its descendants. Polyphyletic groups do not contain the
most recent common ancestor of all members of the group. Members of a
polyphyletic group have at least two phylogenetic origins. Since it is impossible for a
group to have more than one most recent ancestor, a polyphyletic group reflects
insufficient knowledge of the group. A paraphyletic group includes some, but not all,
descendants of a most recent common ancestor. Paraphyletic groups may also result
when knowledge of the group is insufficient, and the relationships need clarification in
genetic and evolutionary contexts.
8
Taxonomists look for attributes called characters that indicate relatedness,
in making decisions regarding how to group animals. A character is virtually anything
that has a genetic basis and can be measured from an anatomical feature to a
sequence of nitrogenous bases in DNA or RNA. There are two kinds of characters
homologous and analogous. Homologous characters are characters that are
related through common descent. Vertebrate legs and wings of birds are homologous
characters. Analogous characters are resemblances that result from animals
adapting under similar evolutionary pressures. The latter process is sometimes called
convergent evolution. Homoplasy is a term applied to analogous resemblances. The
similarity between the wings of birds and insects is a homoplasy. Homologies are
useful in classifying animals, homoplasies are not.

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 Discussion
A.5. Phylogenetic Systematics or Cladistics

Phylogenetic systematics (cladistics) is one approach to animal

systematics. The goal of cladistics is the generation of hypotheses of
genealogical relationships among monophyletic groups of organisms. Attributes
of species that are old and have been retained from a common ancestor are
referred to as ancestral character states or plesiomorphies. These ancestral
character states are common to all members of a group and indicate a shared
ancestry. These common characters are called symplesiomorphies. Because
they are common to all members of a group, they cannot be used to describe
relationships within the group. Characters that have arisen since common
ancestry with the outgroup are called derived character states or apomorphies.
Derived characters shared by members of a group are called synapomorphies.
Derived character states vary within study groups; therefore, they are useful in
describing relationships within the group. In deciding what character is ancestral
for a group of organisms, cladists look for a related group of organisms, called
an outgroup, that is not included in the study group. The outgroup is used to
determine whether a character is ancestral or has arisen within the study group.

Cladograms depict a sequence in the origin of derived character

states. Branch points, or nodes, represent points of divergence between groups
(See Figure 5). A cladogram is interpreted as a family tree depicting a
hypothesis regarding a monophyletic lineage. A related subset within a
cladogram is called a clade. Two taxa are sister groups if they share a most
recent common ancestor. Knowing that two taxa form a sister group ensures that
one is considering a monophyletic clade. The grouping of organisms by derived
characters results in a hierarchical nesting.
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 Discussion
Zoology / Stephen A. Miller, College of the
Ozarks, John P. Harley, Eastern Kentucky
University.—Tenth edition

10
Figure 1. Cladogram Showing Vertebrate Phylogeny

Notice that this diagram shows the birds and crocodilians sharing a common
branch, and that these two groups are more closely related to each other than either is
to any other group of animals. Brackets at the top of the cladogram illustrate
hierarchical nesting. Each higher bracket includes the brackets below it.

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 Discussion
A.6. Evolutionary Systematics

A second approach to animal systematics is evolutionary systematics (See

Figure 2). It is an older, more traditional, approach to systematics, but evolutionary
systematists have been relentless in integrating modern evolutionary and genetic
theories into their approach to taxonomy. Two criteria used by evolutionary
systematists in their work are recency of common descent and amount and
nature of evolutionary change between branch points. Evolutionary systematists
recognize and use pleisomorphic (ancestral) and apomorphic (derived) character
states in a fashion like how phylogenetic systematists use character states. Unlike
phylogenetic systematists, however, evolutionary systematists weigh some derived
characters more heavily than other derived characters.
Zoology / Stephen A. Miller, College of the Ozarks, John P. Harley,
Eastern Kentucky University.—Tenth edition

11

Figure 2. Phylogenetic Tree Showing Vertebrate Phylogeny

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 Discussion
The work of evolutionary systematists, like that of cladists, is represented by
tree diagrams. Unlike cladograms, these diagrams are often integrated with
information from the fossil record to depict time periods and relative abundance of
taxa within a lineage (See Figure 2). Note that Figure 2 shows the birds (Aves) as
being closely related to the reptiles (Reptilia), and both groups as having class-level
status.

Learning Enrichment: To enrich your knowledge on the Hierarchal Classification of

Animals you may read the following:

1. Hickman, C.P., Jr., Keen, S.L., Eisenhour, D.J., Larson, L. & I ‘Anson, H.
(2017). Integrated Principles of Zoology, Seventeenth Edition. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill Education.

2. Miller, S. A. & Harley, J.P. (2016). Zoology, Tenth Edition. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill Education.

12

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 Learning Check 4.1

1. What is the great communicative value of Latin species names? Explain why
the system for naming species that originated with Linnaeus is “binomial”?
(Questions adapted from Hickman, 2017)

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2. Compare the evolutionary systematics and phylogenetic systematics in
terms of their efficiency in showing the taxonomical classification of an
animal?
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3. Complete the table below by identifying the Taxonomic Classification of the
following animals:
Rhinocerus Domestic
Taxon Lady Beetle Land Snail Milk Fish
Iguana Horse
Kingdom Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia 13
Phylum Chordata Chordata
Class Insecta Reptilia Mammalia
Order Pulmonata
Family Coccinellidae Chanidae Equidae
Genus Cyclura
Species convergens profunda caballus

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 Discussion
B. Patterns Of Organizations

One of the most strikingly ordered series of changes in evolution is reflected

in body plans in the animal kingdom and the protists. Evolutionary changes in animal
body plans might be likened to a road map through a mountain range. What is most
easily depicted are the starting and ending points and a few of the “attractions” along
the route. Evolution frequently results in backtracking, in failed experiments, and in
inefficient or useless structures. Evolution results in frequent dead ends, even
though the route to that dead end may be filled with grandeur. The account that
follows is a look at patterns of animal organization. As far as evolutionary pathways
are concerned, this account is an inexplicit road map through the animal kingdom.
On a grand scale, it portrays evolutionary trends, but it does not depict an
evolutionary sequence.

B.1. Animal Symmetry

The bodies of animals and protists are organized into almost infinitely
diverse forms. Within this diversity, however, are certain patterns of organization.
The concept of symmetry is fundamental to understanding animal organization.
Symmetry describes how the parts of an animal are arranged around a point or an
axis. Asymmetry, which is the absence of a central point or axis around which body
parts are equally distributed, characterizes most protists and many sponges.
Asymmetry cannot be said to be an adaptation to anything or advantageous to an
organism. Asymmetrical organisms do not develop complex communication,
sensory, or locomotor functions (see Figure 3).
Zoology / Stephen A. Miller, College of the
Ozarks, John P. Harley, Eastern Kentucky

14

Figure 3. Asymmetry. Sponges

display a cell-aggregate organization,
University.—Tenth edition

and as this red encrusting sponge

(Monochora barbadensis) shows,
many are asymmetrical.

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 Discussion
Radial symmetry is the arrangement of body parts such that any plane
passing through the central oralaboral axis divides the animal into mirror images.
Radial symmetry is often modified by the arrangement of some structures in pairs,
or in other combinations, around the central oral-aboral axis (see Figure 4). The
paired arrangement of some structures in radially symmetrical animals is called
biradial symmetry. The arrangement of structures in fives around a radial animal
is called pentaradial symmetry.

Bilateral symmetry is the arrangement of body parts such that a single

plane, passing between the upper and lower surfaces and through the longitudinal
axis of an animal, divides the animal into right and left mirror images (see Figure
5). Bilateral symmetry is characteristic of active, crawling, or swimming animals.
Because bilateral animals move primarily in one direction, one end of the animal is
continually encountering the environment. The end that meets the environment is
usually where complex sensory, nervous, and feeding structures evolve and
develop. Other important terms of direction and terms describing body planes and
sections apply to bilateral animals. These terms are for locating body parts relative
to a point of reference or an imaginary plane passing through the body.
Zoology / Stephen A. Miller, College of
Zoology / Stephen A. Miller, College of

the Ozarks, John P. Harley, Eastern

Kentucky University.—Tenth edition
the Ozarks, John P. Harley, Eastern
Kentucky University.—Tenth edition

15

Figure 4. Radial Symmetry. Tube Figure 5. Bilateral Symmetry. Planes

coral polyp (Tubastraea sp.), and terms of direction useful in locating
divided radially into equal halves. parts of a bilateral animal.

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 Discussion

B.2. Grades of Organization in Organismal Complexity

The patterns described in this section concern the organization of animal

bodies based on tissue layers and body cavities. Among the different unicellular
and metazoan groups, we recognize five major grades of organization. Each
grade is more complex than the one preceding and builds on it in a hierarchical
manner.

1) The unicellular groups are the simplest eukaryotic organisms and

represent the protoplasmic grade of organization. They are
nonetheless complete organisms that perform all functions of life seen in
more complex animals. Within the confines of their cell, they show
remarkable organization and division of labor, possessing distinct
supportive structures, locomotor devices, and simple sensory structures.
The diversity observed among unicellular organisms is achieved by
varying the architectural patterns of subcellular structures, organelles,
and the cell.

2) The multicellular animals evolved greater structural complexity by

combining cells into larger units. An animal cell is a specialized part of the
whole organism, and, unlike a unicellular organism, it is not capable of
independent existence. Cells of a multicellular organism are specialized
for performing the various tasks accomplished by subcellular elements in
unicellular forms. The simplest metazoans show the cellular grade of
organization, in which cells demonstrate division of labor but are not 16
strongly associated to perform a specific collective function.

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Discussion

3) In the more complex cell-tissue grade of organization, cells are

grouped together and perform their common functions as a highly
coordinated unit called a tissue. Animals at or beyond the cell-tissue
grade of organization are termed eumetazoans.

4) In animals of the tissue-organ grade of organization, tissues are

assembled into still larger functional units called organs. Usually, one
type of tissue performs an organ’s chief function, as muscle tissue
does in the heart; other tissues—epithelial and connective—perform
supportive roles. The chief functional cells of an organ are called
parenchyma (pa-ren′ka-ma; Gr. para, besides, + enchyma, infusion).
The supportive tissues are its stroma (Gr. bedding). For instance, in
the vertebrate pancreas, the secreting cells are the parenchyma;
capsule and connective tissues represent stroma.

5) Most animals have an additional level of complexity in which different

organs operate together as organ systems. Eleven different kinds of
organ systems are described in metazoans: skeletal, muscular,
integumentary, digestive, respiratory, circulatory, excretory, nervous,
endocrine, immune, and reproductive.

Other Patterns of Organization

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Other patterns of organization in animal bodies based on tissue layers
and body cavities.

a) Unicellular (Cytoplasmic) Level of Organization. Organisms whose

bodies consist of single cells or cellular aggregates display the
unicellular level of organization. Example: protists.

b) Diploblastic Organization. This is the simplest tissue-level

organization. Body parts are organized into layers derived from two
embryonic tissue layers. Ectoderm gives rise to the epidermis, the
outer layer of the body wall. Endoderm gives rise to the gastrodermis,
the tissue that lines the gut cavity.

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 Discussion
c. Triploblastic Organization. These are animals wherein their tissues are
derived from three embryological layers. As with diploblastic animals,
ectoderm forms the outer layer of the body wall, and endoderm lines the
gut. A third embryological layer is sandwiched between the ectoderm
and endoderm. This layer is mesoderm, which gives rise to supportive,
contractile, and blood cells. Most triploblastic animals have an organ-
system level of organization. Triploblastic animals are organized into
several subgroups based on the presence or absence of a body cavity
and, for those that possess one, the kind of body cavity present (See
Figure 6). A body cavity is a fluid-filled space in which the internal organs
can be suspended and separated from the body wall.

i. The Triploblastic Acoelomate Pattern. Animals whose mesodermally

derived tissues form a relatively solid mass of cells are called
acoelomate.

ii.The Triploblastic Pseudocoelomate Pattern. Apseudocoelom is a body

cavity not entirely lined by mesoderm.

iii.The Triploblastic Coelomate Pattern. A coelom is a body cavity

completely surrounded by mesoderm.
Zoology / Stephen A. Miller, College of
the Ozarks, John P. Harley, Eastern
Kentucky University.—Tenth edition

18

Figure 6. Triploblastic Body Plans. (a) Triploblastic acoelomate pattern.

(b) Triploblastic pseudocoelomate pattern (c) Triploblastic coelomate pattern.

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 Discussion
Learning Enrichment: To enrich your knowledge on the Patterns of Organization
you may read the following:

1. Hickman, C.P., Jr., Keen, S.L., Eisenhour, D.J., Larson, L. & I ‘Anson, H.
(2017). Integrated Principles of Zoology, Seventeenth Edition. New York,
NY: McGraw-Hill Education.

2. Miller, S. A. & Harley, J.P. (2016). Zoology, Tenth Edition. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill Education.

19

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 Learning Check 4.2

1. Name the five grades of organization in organismal complexity and explain

how each successive grade is more complex than the one preceding it.
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2. Distinguish spherical, radial, biradial, and bilateral symmetry.

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3. Discuss the difference of the patterns of organization in animal bodies based
on tissue layers and body cavitie.
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______________________________________________________________
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Questions adapted from Hickman, 2017

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 Discussion
C. Vertebrate vs. Invertebrate Animals

All the animals present on earth are classified in two categories only, which are
Invertebrates or Vertebrates. Vertebrates have the most advanced system of their
body, which make them suitable to survive in a different environment. First and
foremost, vertebrates have well defined internal skeleton system consisting of
numerous bones and are meant to functions differently. This skeletons system can
be bony or cartilaginous. Vertebrates have other organs like respiratory system
(gills and lungs), sensory organ and advanced nervous system too. They have the
systematic digestive system which includes parts from mouth to rectum; the
Circulatory system is a closed one with heart located ventrally.

Table 2. Differences of Invertebrates and Vertebrates

Basis for
Invertebrates Vertebrates
Comparison
Animals without the Animals with the backbone; their internal
Meaning
backbone. structure is made up of numerous bone.
1. No cell walls. 1. Presence of backbone.
2. Reproduce sexually. 2. Cell walls present.
3. Multicellular. 3. Multicellular.
Characteristics
4. No backbone. 4. Advanced nervous system.
5. Heterotrophic or 5. Well-developed internal skeleton.
Parasitic. 6. The outer covering of protective skin.
Size Small and slow moving. Vary in size from big to small.
Body
Radial or bilateral. Only bilateral.
Symmetry
Simple and unorganised Complexed and highly specified organs
Body structure.
nervous system. and their functions. 21
They have only one layer of Two layers of skin, outer one in known is
Layers of skin
skin. epidermis and beneath is dermis.
Usually, compound eyes
No compound eyes found, and eyes are
Type of Eyes are present, and which are
the outgrowth of the brain.
not outgrowth of the brain.
Kingdom Animalia. Animalia.
Phylum Chordata Chordata
Classified into five groups: fish,
Classification 30 phyla
amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.

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 Discussion

Invertebrates do not have the backbone and proper skeleton and

nervous system. Invertebrates are small, and they covered around 98% of the
total animal kingdom and rest 2% is covered by vertebrates. They can be found
easily in water, desert, caves, soil and mountains. Invertebrates lack the
developed organs and skeleton system due to which they don’t have a rigid
structure of a body.

The feature uniting all chordates (all vertebrates and some invertebrates)
is that at some stage in their lives, all have a flexible supporting rod, a
notochord that runs through the length of their bodies. In most chordates, the
notochord is replaced by a series of interlocking bones, vertebrae, during early
development. This presence of these bones is what determines whether an animal
is a vertebrate (has vertebrae) or invertebrate (does not have vertebrae).

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 Learning Check 4.3

Now that you have already learned the differences of vertebrate and invertebrate
animals, classify again the animals that you have mentioned in your initial activity
and describe the characteristics of each animal which will attest that it really
belongs to invertebrate or vertebrate animals.

Animal Name Classification Characteristics

1.

2.

3.

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 Reflection

Write a brief reflection on what you have learned in Module 4.

Leave a message here to your teacher if you have questions:

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 References
1. Hickman, C.P., Jr., Keen, S.L., Eisenhour, D.J., Larson, L. & I ‘Anson, H. (2017).
Integrated Principles of Zoology, Seventeenth Edition. New York, NY: McGraw-
Hill Education.

2. Miller, S. A. & Harley, J.P. (2016). Zoology, Tenth Edition. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill Education.

Online Sources/Retrieved Resources from the Internet

a. Difference Between Invertebrates and Vertebrates (with Comparison Chart)

from https://byjus.com/biology/invertebrate-and-vertebrate-difference

b. Invertebrate vs Vertebrate - Difference and Comparison from

https://www.diffen.com/difference/Invertebrate_vs_Vertebrate

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