ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING & SAFETY 1

Mahima alekh
Notes on

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING & SAFETY

Prepared by

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

GIET MAIN CAMPUS AUTONOMOUS
GUNUPUR-765022, DIST-RAYAGADA, ODISHA, INDIA

Prepared By Department of Chemical Engineering, GIET MAIN CAMPUS AUTONOMOUS, Gunupur

 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING & SAFETY 2

Subject code course title L T P C QP

BMGHS3061 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING & SAFETY 3 0 0 3
Pre -Requisite:
Course Educational Objective
CEO1:The course introduces the students to the environmental consequences of industries
CEO2: CEO2: To provide minimization of their impacts through technology and legal systems.
Course Outcome
CO1 Students will understand the ecological system of environment.
CO2 They will learn about treatment of water/waste water
CO3 Students should know about cause and remedies of environment pollution and
technological approaches
CO4 They will understand the importance of environmental safety.
UNIT:1 (10 Hours)
Ecological Concepts: Biotic components, Ecosystem Process: Energy, Food Chain, Water cycle, Oxygen
cycle, Nitrogen cycle etc., Environmental gradients, Tolerance levels of environment factor, EU, US and
Indian Environmental Law. Chemistry in Environmental Engineering: Atmospheric chemistry, Soil
chemistry. Noise pollution- Noise standards, measurement and control. Water Treatment: water quality
standards and parameters, Ground water. Water treatment processes, Pre-treatment of water,
Conventional process, Advanced water treatment process.
UNIT:2 (12 Hours)
Waste Water Treatment: DO and BOD of Waste water treatment process, pretreatment, primary and
secondary treatment of waste water, Activated sludge treatment: Anaerobicdigestion,Reactor
configurations and methane production. Air Pollution: Air pollution and pollutants, criteria pollutants, Acid
deposition, Global climate change –greenhouse gases, non-criteria pollutants, Air pollution meteorology,
Atmospheric dispersion. Industrial Air Emission Control. Flue gas desulphurization, NOxremoval,Fugitive
emissions.
UNIT:3 (10 Hours)
Solid waste, Hazardous waste management, Solid Waste Management, Source classificationand
composition of MSW: Separation, storage and transportation, Reuse and recycling, WasteMinimization
Techniques. Hazardous Waste Management, Hazardous waste and theirgeneration, Transportation and
treatment: Incinerators, Inorganic waste treatment. E.I.A.,Environmental auditing.
UNIT:4 (10 Hours)
OccuptionalSafety and Health Acts, Safety procedures, Type of Accidents, Chemical and Heat Burns,
Prevention of Accidents involving Hazardous substances, Human error. Hazard Control Measures in steel
industry, Petroleum Refinery, Pharmaceutical industry. Fire Prevention -Detection, Extinguishing Fire,
Safety Management- Safety Handling and Storage of Hazardous Materials, Corrosive Substances, Hydro
Carbons Wastes. Personal Protective Equipments.
Teaching Methods: Chalk& Board/ PPT/Video Lectures/Lecture by Industry Expert/MOOCS
Text Books 1. Environmental Engineering, Irwin/ McGraw Hill International Edition, 1997, G.
Kiely,
.Environmental Engineering by Prof B.K. Mohapatra, Seven Seas Publication,
Cuttack
3. Environmental Engineering and Safety ,Raut&Sen Scientific Publishers.
Ref. Books 1. Environmental Engineering by Arcadio P. Sincero&Gergoria A. Sincero PHI
Publication
2 Environmental Science, Curringham&Saigo, TMH

Prepared By Department of Chemical Engineering, GIET MAIN CAMPUS AUTONOMOUS, Gunupur

 ENVIROMENTAL ENGINEERING & SAFETY
Module -I

ENVIRONMENT
 Derived from an old French word “ENVIRON” means encircle. So everything that
affects an organism during its life time is collectively known as its environment.
 Environmental science is the study of how various species interact with one
another and with non living environment (matter and energy
Objective of Env. Education:
Environmental education (EE) refers to organized efforts to teach about how natural
environments function and, particularly, how human beings can manage their behavior
and ecosystems in order to live sustainable
Environmental education is a learning process that increases people's knowledge and
awareness about the environment and associated challenges, develops the necessary skills
and expertise to address the challenges, and fosters attitudes, motivations, and
commitments to make informed decisions and take responsible action (UNESCO, Tbilisi
Declaration, 1978).
Ecology:
 Ecology was coined by Ernest Haeckel
 Ecology consists of two Greek words “Oikos” means house or place and
“Logos” means study.
 This is the scientific study of the interrelationship of living organisms with each
other and their surrounding environment
Ecosystem:
 The term “Ecosystem” was coined by A.G.Tansley.
 He defined “Ecosystem” as the system resulting from the integration of all living
and non living factors of the environment.
 The ecosystem is the basic functional unit of “Ecology” since it includes both
organism (biotic) and abiotic environment.
Ex: Pond, lake, desert, grassland, forest etc

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Ecosystem Process:
-
1 2
Community of Hydrosphere
Living organisms (water)

Lithosphere Atmosphere
(solid earth, soil) (air)

4 3

 1Biotic
 2, 3, 4 : Abiotic

Ecosystem

Abiotic Biotic
Atmosphere
(air) Living
organisms
(Viruses, bacteria,
fungi,
Lithosphere
Plants & animals)
(Solid earth, soils)

Hydrosphere
(Oceans, lakes, Dead
rivers) organisms
(Dead organisms &
Dead products)

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Abiotic components:
The non living factors or the physical environment in an ecosystem form the abiotic
components include air, water, soil, temperature, wind, source of energy (usually sun)
Biotic components:
The living organisms including plants, animals and microorganisms (Bacteria and fungi)
that are present in an environment form the boitic component.
The Biotic components are classified into three categories.
 Producers/Autotrophs
 Consumers/Heterotrophs
 Decomposers/Reducers
Producers:
The green plants having chlorophyll manufactures their own food with the help of solar
energy.
Consumer:
The animals lacks chlorophyll for which they are unable to synthesis their own food.
They depends on producers for their own food. Need to eat food that autotrophs have
produced. These are of three different types, i.e.,
• Herbivores that are animals that only eat plants,
• Carnivores(.Carnivores are animals that eat meat. Carnivores will also eat
animals that eat plants) &
• . Omnivores (Omnivores will eat both plants and animals.Some animals eat
both plants and meat. People are omnivores
Decomposer:
Bacteria and fungi belongs to this category. They break down the dead organism material
of producer and consumer for their food and release in organic and organic substances to
their environment

Properties of an ecosystem:
• Ecosystem exists independently of specific components
• The components of an ecosystem are interdependent.
• An ecosystem has a function.

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Kinds of ecosystem:
• Natural ecosystem
(i) Terrestrial ecosystem
(a) Grass land
(b) Forest
(c) Desert
(ii) Aquatic ecosystem
(a) Fresh water ecosystem
(b) Marine ecosystem
• Artificial ecosystem(e.g,Aquarium)

Productivity of an ecosystem:
The productivity of an ecosystem refers to the rate of production i.e. amount of organic
matter accumulated in unit time. It follows the following steps.
• Primary productivity
(a) Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)
(b) Net Primary Productivity (NPP)
• Secondary Productivity
• Net Productivity
Primary productivity
• It is defined as the rate at which radiant energy is stored by photosynthetic activity
of producers.
(i) GPP: It refers to total rate of photosynthesis including the organic matter used up
in respiration. The rate of primary productivity is expressed in terms of
photosynthetic number i.e. amount of CO2 fixed/gm of chlorophyll/hour
(ii) NPP: It is the rate of storage of organic matter in the plant tissue in excess of the
respiratory utilization of the plant
Secondary Productivity
It is the rate of energy stored in the consumer levels
Net Productivity
It is the rate of storage of organic matter not used by the consumer.

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Net productivity = NPP – Secondary productivity
Extra note
Primary & secondary productivity
 The total amount of chemical energy fixed by an ecosystem per unit area per unit
time is reflected to as the gross primary production (GPP).
 Green plants in synthesizing organic must perform metabolic work and the energy
for this is derived from the oxidation / breakdown of own organic substances.
 This process is known as respiration (R) and chemically the reverse of
photosynthesis.
C6H12O6+6O2=6CO2+6H2O+Heat
 Gross primary production less that used in respiration is called Net primary
productivity (NPP).
GPP = NPP+R
 The energy of net primary productivity is stored in new living plant tissue or plant
biomass which may be either directly consumed by animals on may die and
accumulate as dead organic matter on detritus.

Sun

Producers Herbivores carnivores

Nutrient pool Decomposers

A simplified model of energy and nutrient movement in Ecosystem

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Food chain:
 The energy stored by plants is passed along through the ecosystem in a series of
steps of eating and being eaten known as food chain.
 Food chain are destructive, they consist of a series of arrows, each pointing from
one species to another, for which it is a source of food.
 Food chain are directional and single chain system

Autotrophs Herbivores Primary carnivores

(Algae, Green plants) (Zooplankton) (fish)

Top carnivals Secondary carnivores

(Whale) (squid)

Within any ecosystem there are two major food chains

a. The grazing food chain
b. Detritus food chain
Grazing food chain-
 This type of food chain starts from the living green plants goes to grazing
herbivores and on to the carnivores.
 Directly depends on influx of solar radiation.
Ex: Grass Rabbit Fox Lion
Detritus food chain-
 The organic wastes, deed matter derived from the grazing food chain are
generally termed as detritus.
 The detritus food chain starts from dead organic matter into microorganism and
then to organism feeding on detritus and their predators.
 Less dependent on direct solar energy
Significance of food chain:

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  It helps to understand the feeding relationship and the interaction between the
organism in an ecosystem.
 They also help us to appreciate the energy flow mechanism and matter circulation
in ecosystem.
Food web:
 Various food chains are often inter-linked at different tropic levels to form a
complex interaction between different species from the point of view of food.
This network like interaction is called the food web.
 If any of the intermediate stage of the food-chain is removed, the succeeding links
of the food web will be affected.
 The food web provides more than one alternatives of food to most of the
organisms in an ecosystem and therefore increases their chance of survival.
There are five linear food chains in the food web of a grass land

Grassho Lizard
pper

Grass Rabbit Hawk

Snake
Mouse

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Energy flow in Ecosystem: The behavior of energy in an ecosystem can be termed
as energy flow due to unidirectional flow of energy. In an ecosystem, the following
aspects are essential in understanding the ecological energetic.
 The efficiency of the producers in absorption and conversion of solar energy.
 The use of this converted form of chemical energy by the consumer.
 The total input of energy as food and its efficiency of assimilation.
 The energy lost through respiration, heat, excretion etc at each tropic level.
 Gross production and net production.

Solar
radiation
118,872
Decomposition Decomposition
3.0 0.5 Decomposition
trace

Autotrophs
Herbivores Carnivores
Gross production Not utilized
G.P G.P
G.P 1.2
15.0 3.0
111.0

Not utilized
Not utilized 7.0 Respiration
70.0 1.8

Respiration Respiration
23.0 4.5

 Out of the total incoming solar radiation (118,872 gcal/cm2/yr), 118,761

gcal/cm2/yr remain unutilized.
 Thus gross production by the autotrophs is 111.0 gcal/cm2/yr with an efficiency
of energy capture of 0.1%.
 21% of this energy or 23 gcal/ cm2/ yr is consumed in metabolic reactions of
autotrophs for their growth, development, maintenance and production.

S.K.Bindhani Page 8
  Herbivores consume 15 gcal/ cm2/ yr which amount to 17% of net autotroph
production.
 Decomposition 3 gcal/cm2/yr accounts for about 3.4% of net production.
 The remainder of the plant material, 70 gcal/cm2/yr or 79.5% of net production is
not utilized at all.
 Of the total energy incorporated at the herbivores level i.e. 15 gcal/cm2/yr, 30%
or 4.5 gcal/cm2/yr is used in the metabolic reactions.
 Thus, there is considerable energy loss via respiration by herbivores (30%) where
as by autotrophs it is 21%.
 At the carnivores level, about 60% of the energy intake is consumed in metabolic
activity and a remainder becomes a part of the not utilized sediments
From the energy flow diagram it is clear that
 There is one-way street along which energy moves. (unidirectional flow of
energy)
 The energy that is captured by the autotrophs does not revert back to solar input
as it moves progressive through the various tropic levels, it is no longer available
to previous level.
 Thus, due to one-way of energy, the system would collapse if the primary source,
the sun, were cut off.
 Nutrients, unlike energy are recycled in the ecosystem
Photosynthesis:
 The plant materials which have chlorophyll in their cells can build up complex
organic substances such as carbohydrates from simple organic and inorganic
substances such as ‘C’, ‘H’ and ‘O’ in the form of CO2 and H2O by using
sunlight.
 This process is known as primary biological productivity or photosynthesis.
6CO2+6H2O+light Energy = C6H12O6 (sugar) + 6O2
Photosynthesis release O2, to atmosphere. Glucose produced is stored as an energy rich
substances in the form of starch or be combined with other sugar molecules to form
carbohydrates like cellulose, used in plant cell and tissue construction.
Water cycle:

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 The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle or H2O cycle, describes the
continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. Water can
change states among liquid, vapor, and ice at various places in the water cycle

Description
Water vapor goes to air by
• The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in oceans and seas. Water evaporates
as water vapor into the air.
• Ice and snow can sublimate directly into water vapor.
• Evapotranspiration which is the water transpired from plants and evaporated from the
soil.
Rising air currents take the vapor up into the atmosphere where cooler temperatures
cause it to condense into clouds. Air currents move water vapor around the globe, cloud
particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as precipitation. Some precipitation falls as
snow or hail, and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water
S.K.Bindhani Page 10
for thousands of years. Snow packs can thaw and melt, and the melted water flows over
land as snowmelt. Most water falls back into the oceans or onto land as rain, where the
water flows over the ground as surface runoff.
A portion of runoff enters rivers in valleys in the landscape, with stream flow
moving water towards the oceans. Runoff and groundwater are stored as freshwater in
lakes. Not all runoff flows into rivers, much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration.
Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers, which store
freshwater for long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and
can seep back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater discharge. Some
groundwater finds openings in the land surface and comes out as freshwater springs. Over
time, the water returns to the ocean, where our water cycle started.

Clouds Loss to land Gain to land

over clouds clouds Clouds
ocean over Land
39 39
Evaporation from Precipitation to Precipitation to Evaporation over
Ocean Ocean Land land

424 385 100 61

424 385 100 61

Precipitation to Precipitation to Evaporation over
Ocean Land land
39 39 Land
Oceans
Inflow Runoff

Oxygen Cycle
The Oxygen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of oxygen
within its three main reservoirs: the atmosphere (air), the total content of biological
matter within the biosphere (the global sum of all ecosystems), and the lithosphere
(Earth's crust). The main driving factor of the oxygen cycle is photosynthesis, which is
responsible for the modern Earth's atmosphere and life.

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Almost all living things need oxygen. They use this oxygen during the process of
creating energy in living cells.

Production of oxygen to atmosphere is carried out by

1. Photosynthesis process: The Plants mark the beginning of the oxygen cycle.
Plants are able to use the energy of sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water
into carbohydrates and oxygen in a process called photosynthesis.
Photosynthesizing organisms include the plant life of the land areas as well as the
phytoplankton of the oceans
CO2+H2O+Energy Carbohydrate+O2

2. Photolysis: An additional source of atmospheric oxygen comes from photolysis,

whereby high energy ultraviolet radiation breaks down atmospheric water and
nitrous oxide into component atoms. The free H and N atoms escape into space
leaving O2 in the atmosphere:

2H2O + energy → 4H + O2
2N2O + energy → 4N + O2
Loss of oxygen from the atmosphere is carried out by
1. Respiration and decay, mechanisms in which animal life and bacteria consume
oxygen and release carbon dioxide.
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This means that plants "breathe" in carbon dioxide and "breathe" out oxygen. Animals
form the other half of the oxygen cycle. We breathe in oxygen which we use to break
carbohydrates down into energy in a process called respiration.

2. Lithospheric minerals are oxidized in oxygen, chemical weathering of exposed

rocks also consumes oxygen. An example of surface weathering chemistry is
formation of iron-oxides (rust):

4FeO + O2 → 2Fe2O3
Oxygen is also cycled between the biosphere and lithosphere. Marine organisms in the
biosphere create calcium carbonate shell material (CaCO3) that is rich in oxygen. When
the organism dies its shell is deposited on the shallow sea floor and buried over time to
create the limestone rock of the lithosphere. Weathering processes initiated by organisms
can also free oxygen from the lithosphere. Plants and animals extract nutrient minerals
from rocks and release oxygen in the process.

Oxygen calculation:

Gains

Photosynthesis (land) 16,500

Photosynthesis (ocean) 13,500
Photolysis of N2O 1.3
Photolysis of H2O 0.03

Total Gains ~ 30,000

Losses - Respiration and Decay

Aerobic Respiration 23,000

Microbial Oxidation 5,100
Combustion of Fossil Fuel (anthropogenic) 1,200
Photochemical Oxidation 600

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Fixation of N2 by Lightning 12
Fixation of N2 by Industry (anthropogenic) 10
Oxidation of Volcanic Gases 5

Losses - Weathering

Chemical Weathering 50
Surface Reaction of O3 12

Total Losses ~ 30,000

The Nitrogen Cycle

 All life requires nitrogen-compounds, e.g., proteins and nucleic acids.

 Air, which is 79% nitrogen gas (N2), is the major reservoir of nitrogen.
 But most organisms cannot use nitrogen in this form.
 Plants must secure their nitrogen in "fixed" form, i.e., incorporated in compounds
such as:
o nitrate ions (NO3−)
o ammonia (NH3)
o urea (NH2)2CO
 Animals secure their nitrogen (and all other) compounds from plants (or animals
that have fed on plants).

Four processes participate in the cycling of nitrogen through the biosphere:

 nitrogen fixation
 decay
 nitrification
 denitrification

Microorganisms play major roles in all four of these

S.K.Bindhani Page 14
 1. Nitrogen Fixation
The nitrogen molecule (N2) is quite inert. To break it apart so that its atoms can combine
with other atoms requires the input of substantial amounts of energy.
Three processes are responsible for most of the nitrogen fixation in the biosphere:

 atmospheric fixation by lightning

 biological fixation by certain microbes — alone or in a symbiotic relationship
with some plants and animals
 industrial fixation

Atmospheric Fixation

The enormous energy of lightning breaks nitrogen molecules and enables their atoms to
combine with oxygen in the air forming nitrogen oxides. These dissolve in rain, forming
nitrates, which are carried to the earth.

Atmospheric nitrogen fixation probably contributes some 5– 8% of the total nitrogen

fixed.
Industrial Fixation

Under great pressure, at a temperature of 600°C, and with the use of a catalyst,
atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen (usually derived from natural gas or petroleum) can

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be combined to form ammonia (NH3). Ammonia can be used directly as fertilizer, but
most of it is further processed to urea and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3).

Biological Fixation
The ability to fix nitrogen is found only in certain bacteria and archaea.

 Some live in a symbiotic relationship with plants of the legume family (e.g.,
soybeans, alfalfa).
 Some establish symbiotic relationships with plants other than legumes (e.g.,
alders).
 Some establish symbiotic relationships with animals, e.g., termites and
"shipworms" (wood-eating bivalves).
 Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria live free in the soil.
 Nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria are essential to maintaining the fertility of semi-
aquatic environments like rice paddies.

Biological nitrogen fixation requires a complex set of enzymes and a huge expenditure of
ATP.

Although the first stable product of the process is ammonia, this is quickly incorporated
into protein and other organic nitrogen compounds.
2. Decay
The proteins made by plants enter and pass through food webs just as carbohydrates do.
At each tropic level, their metabolism produces organic nitrogen compounds that return
to the environment, chiefly in excretions. The final beneficiaries of these materials are
microorganisms of decay. They break down the molecules in excretions and dead
organisms into ammonia.
3. Nitrification
Ammonia can be taken up directly by plants — usually through their roots. However,
most of the ammonia produced by decay is converted into nitrates. This is accomplished
in two steps:

 Bacteria of the genus Nitrosomonas oxidize NH3 to nitrites (NO2−).

S.K.Bindhani Page 16
  Bacteria of the genus Nitrobacter oxidize the nitrites to nitrates (NO3−).

These two groups of autotrophic bacteria are called nitrifying bacteria. Through their
activities (which supply them with all their energy needs), nitrogen is made available to
the roots of plants.

Both soil and the ocean contain archaeal microbes, assigned to the Crenarchaeota, that
convert ammonia to nitrites. They are more abundant than the nitrifying bacteria and may
turn out to play an important role in the nitrogen cycle.

Many legumes, in addition to fixing atmospheric nitrogen, also perform nitrification —

converting some of their organic nitrogen to nitrites and nitrates. These reach the soil
when they shed their leaves.

Denitrification

The three processes above remove nitrogen from the atmosphere and pass it through
ecosystems. Denitrification reduces nitrates to nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria, thus
replenishing the atmosphere.

Denitrifying bacteria are the agents. They live deep in soil and in aquatic sediments
where conditions are anaerobic. They use nitrates as an alternative to oxygen for the final
electron acceptor in their respiration.

Thus they close the nitrogen cycle.

Agriculture may now be responsible for one-half of the nitrogen fixation on earth through

 the use of fertilizers produced by industrial fixation

 the growing of legumes like soybeans and alfalfa.

This is a remarkable influence on a natural cycle.

S.K.Bindhani Page 17
Environmental gradients:
 An environmental gradient is a gradual and continuous change in abiotic factors
through time or space
 The gradients may be related to environmental factors such as altitude,
temperature and moisture supply.
 The different factors that affect the survival and reproduction of the organisms are
called as environmental gradients.
 These include
(a) Physical and chemical factors like light, temperature and PH, known as
Conditions.
(b) Factors the organisms actually uses like food, water, shelter etc.,
known as Resources.
(c) The presence of other organisms like predators and competitors with
which organisms interact.
The levels of most environmental factors varies over some limited range, with a gradient
between the extreames;high to low, large to small.
Example: - If we examine temperature, there is a global gradient from the towards the
north and south, a regional gradient with altitude, a local gradient with vegetation (from
top to bottom).Temporal gradients in temperature also occur over historical time with ice
ages, over decades of the sun spot activity, through the year with seasons and also on a
daily cycle.

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Environmental gradients:
 An environmental gradient is a gradual and continuous change in abiotic factors
through time or space
 The gradients may be related to environmental factors such as altitude,
temperature and moisture supply.
 The different factors that affect the survival and reproduction of the organisms are
called as environmental gradients.
 These include
(a) Physical and chemical factors like light, temperature and PH, known as
Conditions.
(b) Factors the organisms actually uses like food, water, shelter etc.,
known as Resources.
(c) The presence of other organisms like predators and competitors with
which organisms interact.
The levels of most environmental factors varies over some limited range, with a gradient
between the extreames;high to low, large to small.
Example: - If we examine temperature, there is a global gradient from the towards the
north and south, a regional gradient with altitude, a local gradient with vegetation (from
top to bottom).Temporal gradients in temperature also occur over historical time with ice
ages, over decades of the sun spot activity, through the year with seasons and also on a
daily cycle.

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Hazard control measures in integrated steel industry
 Hazard control in Petroleum refinery

The most significant occupational health and safety hazards occur during the operational phase
of a petroleum refining facility and primarily include:
 Process Safety
 Oxygen-deficient atmosphere
 Chemical hazards
 Fire and explosions
Process Safety
Process safety programs should be implemented, due to industry-specific characteristics,
including complex chemical reactions, use of hazardous materials (e.g. toxic, reactive,
flammable or explosive compounds), and multi-step reactions. Process safety management
includes the following actions:
 Physical hazard testing of materials and reactions;
 Hazard analysis studies to review the process chemistry and engineering practices,
including thermodynamics and kinetics;
 Examination of preventive maintenance and mechanical integrity of the process
equipment and utilities;
 Worker training; and
 Development of operating instructions and emergency response procedures.

Oxygen-Deficient Atmosphere

The potential release and accumulation of nitrogen gas into work areas may result in the creation
of asphyxiating conditions due to the displacement of oxygen. Prevention and control measures
to reduce risks of asphyxiant gas release include:
 Design and placement of nitrogen venting systems according to industry standards;
 Installation of an automatic Emergency Shutdown System that can detect and warn of the
uncontrolled release of nitrogen (including the presence of oxygen deficient atmospheres
in working areas), initiate forced ventilation, and minimize the duration of releases;
 Implementation of confined space entry procedures with consideration of facility-specific
hazards.
Chemical Hazards
Releases of hydrofluoric acid, carbon monoxide, methanol and hydrogen sulfide may present
occupational exposure hazards. Hydrogen sulfide leakage may occur from amine regeneration in
amine treatment units and sulfur recovery units. Carbon monoxide leakage may occur from Fluid
and Residue Catalytic Cracking Units and from the syngas (is the name given to a gas mixture that
contains varying amounts of carbon monoxide and hydrogen) production section of the Hydrogen Plant.
Carbon monoxide / air mixtures are explosive and spontaneous / explosive re-ignition may occur.
Hydrogen sulfide poses an immediate fire hazard when mixed with air. Workers may be exposed
to potential inhalation hazards (e.g. hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide, VOCs, polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) during routine plant operations. Dermal hazards may include
contact with acids, steam, and hot surfaces.
Chemical hazards should be managed based on the results of a job safety analysis and
industrial hygiene survey and according to the occupational health and safety guidance.
Protection measures include worker training, work permit systems, use of personal
protective equipment (PPE), and toxic gas detection systems with alarms.
Fire and Explosions
Fire and explosion hazards generated by process operations include the accidental release of
syngas (containing carbon monoxide and hydrogen), oxygen, methanol, and refinery
gases. Refinery gas releases may cause ‘jet fires’, if ignited in the release section, or give rise to
a vapor cloud explosion (VCE), fireball or flash fire, depending on the quantity of flammable
material involved and the degree of confinement of the cloud. Methane, hydrogen, carbon
monoxide, and hydrogen sulfide may ignite even in the absence of ignition sources, if their
temperature is higher than their auto ignition temperatures of 580°C, 500°C, 609°C, and 260°C,
respectively. Flammable liquid spills present in petroleum refining facilities may cause pool
fires. Explosive hazards may also be associated with accumulation of vapors in storage tanks
(e.g. sulfuric acid and bitumen).
Recommended measures to prevent and control fire and explosion risks from process
operations include the following:
 Designing, constructing, and operating petroleum refineries according to international
standards10 for the prevention and control of fire and explosion hazards, including
provisions for segregation of process, storage, utility, and safe areas. Safety distances
 can be derived from specific safety analyses for the facility, and through application of
internationally recognized fire safety standards;11
 Providing early release detection, such as pressure monitoring of gas and liquid
conveyance systems, in addition to smoke and heat detection for fires;
 Evaluation of potential for vapor accumulation in storage tanks and implementation of
prevention and control techniques (e.g. nitrogen blanketing for sulfuric acid and bitumen
storage);
 Avoiding potential sources of ignition (e.g. by configuring the layout of piping to avoid
spills over high temperature piping, equipment, and / or rotating machines);
 Providing passive fire protection measures within the modeled fire zone that are capable
of withstanding the fire temperature for a time sufficient to allow the operator to
implement the appropriate fire mitigation strategy;

Hazards and its control in the Pharmaceutical Industry

The production of medicinals demands a carefully maintained and sterile working environment
and the white lab coats worn by workers add to the illusion of safety. Producing drugs and other
medicinals may involve exposure to toxic industrial chemicals. And while the finished products
may be lifesaving medications for sick people, they can be dangerous to healthy workers who are
inhaling or absorbing them during the production process.

Some General Health Hazards

General health hazards in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals include: dust and noise exposures,
repetitive motion disorders, exposure to formaldehyde, and exposure to ultraviolet radiation.
Dust becomes airborne during manufacture and is a problem for operators; in addition, filling
and packaging of the finished product may pose an allergic hazard from dust.
Ensuring sterility of the product often involves exposure to formaldehyde and ultraviolet
radiation. Formaldehyde may cause lung cancer, Hodgkin’s disease (a type of lymphoma,
which is a cancer originating from white blood cells called lymphocytes,) and prostate cancer.
Acute exposures can cause pulmonary edema (lungs fill with fluid, making breathing impossible)
and pneumonia leading to death. Formaldehyde also causes allergic dermatitis. Ultra-violet
radiation is dangerous and can cause skin cancer. The first sign of overexposure is dry, inelastic,
and wrinkled skin.
The constant repetitive motion associated with packaging and filling could lead to carpal
tunnel syndrome or tendinitis. Tendinitis is most commonly caused by repetitive and twisting
hand motions. Tendinitis symptoms usually are pain and tenderness in the affected area - hand,
wrist, or forearm.
Some Specific Health Hazards
Health impairment due to pharmaceuticals has been described and observed mainly in hormone
and antibiotics production workers
Hormones
For male workers, exposure to estrogens may give rise to breast development; for female
workers, there may be menstrual disorders, abnormal overgrowth of the endometrium and
excessive bleeding during menopause. Exposure of male workers to progestogen may bring
about a lack of sexual drive and testicular pain. On the other hand, exposure of female workers to
androgens is known to cause menstrual and ovarian function disorders, diminished fertility,
increased frequency of spontaneous abortions, and symptoms of masculinity.
Antibiotics
The effects of occupational exposure to antibiotics can include:
Allergic reactions, Vitamin deficiency, Fungal infections, Toxic effects

Suggestions for Controlling Exposures

Dust.
The best long-term solution to overexposure is to improve the ventilation and replace machinery
so that drug dust does not get into the air. In the short term, you can do the following:
1. Use a respirator with a high-efficiency (HEPA) filter. All respirators should be checked to
make sure they fit well enough to really protect you.
2. Wear gloves that will protect your skin from contact.
3. Wear long sleeves to keep the drug from getting on your arms.
4. Wash your hands whenever you leave your work area.
Noise. Exposure to noise can be alleviated by acoustic enclosures of high-noise sections of
packaging lines. Also, programmed job rotation for the personnel working on manufacturing and
packaging lines may be useful in reducing monotony and limiting exposure to noise.
Standards for Exposure Prevention
There are no OSHA standards regulating exposure to pharmaceuticals.Now and then threshold
limits are recommended for pharmaceuticals by research workers, mostly in the former USSR.
The almost complete absence of official data shows that it is necessary to reduce exposures to the
lowest possible levels.
Mechanical hazards. Appropriate devices doing away with, or guarding against, possible "hand
traps" should be installed.
An Action Plan for Locals
All pharmaceutical groups should carefully study the chemical bargaining language on health
and safety with an aim towards negotiating this language into pharmaceutical contracts. The
language provides for accident investigation, provision of death and illness statistics by the
company, rate retention for any worker removed from a job as a result of abnormal medical test
results, and also calls for health and safety training paid for by the company..
Drug locals should find out what kind of medical examinations are provided for maintenance
workers to ensure that there is surveillance for early signs of asbestosis and that the chest x-rays
given are read by a physician certified to detect asbestos-linked disease. For all workers,
OCAW's policy on medical exams should be instituted.
 FIRE
A process in which substances combine chemically with oxygen from the air and typically give
out bright light, heat, and smoke; combustion or burning is known as fire.
Types of Fire
Class A - fires involving solid materials such as wood, paper or textiles.
Class B - fires involving flammable liquids such as petrol, diesel or oils.
Class C - fires involving gases.
Class D - fires involving metals.
Class E - fires involving live electrical apparatus.
Class K- Kitchen fire

Fire Triangle
The Fire Triangle or Combustion Triangle or ″Fire Diamond ″ are simple models for
understanding the necessary ingredients for most fires.

The triangle illustrates the three elements a fire

needs to ignite: heat, fuel, and an oxidizing agent
(usually oxygen). A fire naturally occurs when
the elements are present and combined in the
right mixture, meaning that fire is actually an
event rather than a thing. A fire can be prevented
or extinguished by removing any one of the
elements in the fire triangle.

Fire tetrahedron

The tetrahedron illustrates the four elements a

fire needs to ignite: heat, fuel, and an oxidizing
agent (usually oxygen) and chemical chain
reaction. Once a fire has started, the resulting
exothermic chain reaction sustains the fire and
allows it to continue until or unless at least one of
the elements of the fire is blocked.
Fire prevention
It is a function of many fire departments. The goal of fire prevention is to educate the public to
take precautions to prevent potentially harmful fires, and be educated about surviving them. It is
a proactive method of reducing emergencies and the damage caused by them.
Fire prevention relates to the goal of educating members of workplaces and the public in taking
proactive steps to prevent fires from starting and to reduce the harmful impact of fires. Fire
prevention education encompasses the following key messages:
Stop, Drop, and Roll technique-This is the most effective way to smother flames if your
clothes catch on fire.
Install a smoke detector. They reduce the chance of mortality by 50 percent.
Regularly maintain smoke detectors. The most common cause of non-working detectors
is missing or faulty batteries. Batteries should be changed twice per year.
Install a wet pipe sprinkler system. It will get the water to the fire quicker than any other
method.

Fire Detection
Fire detectors sense one or more of the products or phenomena resulting from fire, such as
smoke, heat, infrared and/or ultraviolet light radiation, or gas.
In dwellings, smoke detectors are often stand-alone devices. In non-domestic buildings, fire
detection will typically take the form of a fire alarm system, incorporating one or more of the
following automatic devices:
1. Heat detector
2. Smoke detector
3. Flame detector
4. Fire gas detector
1. Heat Detector:
A heat detector is a fire alarm device designed to respond when the convected thermal energy of
a fire increases the temperature of a heat sensitive element. The thermal mass and conductivity of
the element regulate the rate flow of heat into the element. All heat detectors have this thermal
lag. Heat detectors have two main classifications of operation, "rate-of-rise" and "fixed
temperature". The heat detector is used to help in the reduction of damaged property. It is
triggered when temperature increases.
Fixed temperature heat detector: Fixed temperature detectors operate when the heat
sensitive eutectic alloy reaches the eutectic point changing state from a solid to a liquid.
Rate-of-rise heat detector: Rate-of-Rise (ROR) heat detectors operate on a rapid rise in
element temperature of 12° to 15°F (6.7° to 8.3°C) increase per minute, irrespective of the
starting temperature.
2. Smoke detector
A smoke detector is a device that detects smoke, typically as an indicator of fire. Commercial,
industrial, and mass residential devices issue a signal to a fire alarm system, while household
detectors, known as smoke alarms, generally issue a local audible and/or visual alarm from the
detector itself.
3. Flame Detector
A flame detector is a sensor designed to detect and respond to the presence of a flame or fire.
Responses to a detected flame depend on the installation, but can include sounding an alarm,
deactivating a fuel line (such as a propane or a natural gas line), and activating a fire suppression
system.
4. Fire gas detector
Ex-Carbon monoxide: CO detectors are designed to measure CO levels over time and sound an
alarm before dangerous levels of CO accumulate in an environment, giving people adequate
warning to safely ventilate the area or evacuate.

Fire Extinguisher
A fire extinguisher is an active fire protection device used to extinguish or control small fires,
often in emergency situations. It is not intended for use on an out-of-control fire. Typically, a fire
extinguisher consists of a hand-held cylindrical pressure vessel containing an agent which can be
discharged to extinguish a fire.
Six types of fire extinguishers are found in the market depending on their contents. They are
used for different applications.
Water: solid fire
Foam (aqueous film forming foam (AFFF)): solid and liquid fires
 Carbon dioxide (CO2): solid, liquid, gas, oil, fat and electric fires
Dry chemical powder: solid, liquid, gas, oil, fat and electric fires
Wet chemical: solid, oil and fat fires
Vaporizing liquid: solid, liquid, gas and electric fires

1. Water: Cools burning material.

APW (Air pressurized water) cools burning material by absorbing heat from burning
material. Effective on Class A fires, it has the advantage of being inexpensive, harmless,
and relatively easy to clean up.
Water Mist uses a fine misting nozzle to break up a stream of deionized water to the
point of not conducting electricity back to the operator. Class A and C rated. It is used
widely in hospitals for the reason that, unlike other clean-agent suppressants, it is
harmless and non-contaminant.
2. Foams
Applied to fuel fires as either an aspirated (mixed & expanded with air in a branch pipe) or
non aspirated form to form a frothy blanket or seal over the fuel, preventing oxygen reaching
it. Some of the fire extinguishing foams are

AFFF (aqueous film forming foam), used on A and B fires and for vapor suppression.

AR-AFFF (Alcohol-resistant aqueous film forming foams), used on fuel fires containing
alcohol. Forms a membrane between the fuel and the foam preventing the alcohol from
breaking down the foam blanket.
FFFP (film forming fluoroprotein) contains naturally occurring proteins from animal by-
products and synthetic film-forming agents to create a foam blanket that is more heat
resistant than the strictly synthetic AFFF foams. FFFP works well on alcohol-based
liquids and is used widely in motor sports.
CAFS (compressed air foam system) Any APW style extinguisher that is charged with a
foam solution and pressurized with compressed air. Generally used to extend a water
supply in wild land operations. Used on class A fires and with very dry foam on class B
for vapor suppression.
Arctic Fire is a liquid fire extinguishing agent that emulsifies and cools heated materials
more quickly than water or ordinary foam. It is used extensively in the steel industry.
Effective on classes A, B, and D.
 Fire Ade, a foaming agent that emulsifies burning liquids and renders them non-
flammable. It is able to cool heated material and surfaces similar to CAFS. Used on A
and B.
3. Clean agents and carbon dioxide
Agent displaces oxygen (CO2 or inert gases), removes heat from the combustion zone
(Halotron, FE-36) or inhibits chemical chain reaction (Halons).

CO2, a clean gaseous agent which displaces oxygen.

Compressed CO2 sprinkler is another design used to fight the electric fires

4. Dry Chemical Powder

Powder based agent that extinguishes by separating the four parts of the fire
tetrahedron. It prevents the chemical reaction between heat, fuel and oxygen and halts the
production of fire sustaining "free-radicals", thus extinguishing the fire. Here chemicals
used are
Monoammonium phosphatelo, also known as "tri-class", "multipurpose" or "ABC" dry
chemical, used on class A, B, and C fires.
Sodium bicarbonate,. It interrupts the fire's chemical reaction, and was very common in
commercial kitchens before the advent of wet chemical agents,
Potassium bicarbonate (aka Purple-K), used on class B and C fires. About two times as
effective on class B fires as sodium bicarbonate, it is the preferred dry chemical agent of
the oil and gas industry.
Potassium bicarbonate & Urea Complex (aka Monnex/Powerex), used on Class B and
C fires. More effective than all other powders due to its ability to decrepitate (where the
powder breaks up into smaller particles) in the flame zone creating a larger surface area
for free radical inhibition.
Potassium
high Chloride,
efficiency, or Super-K
protein-foam dry chemical
compatible was developed in an effort to create a
dry chemical.
Foam-Compatible, which is a sodium bicarbonate (BC) based dry chemical, was
developed for use with protein foams for fighting class B fires. Most dry chemicals
contain metal stearates to waterproof them, but these will tend to destroy the foam
blanket created by protein (animal) based foams. Foam compatible type uses silicone as a
waterproofing agent, which does not harm foam.
 MET-L-KYL / PYROKYL is a specialty variation of sodium bicarbonate for fighting
pyrophoric liquid fires (ignite on contact with air). In addition to sodium bicarbonate, it
also contains silica gel particles. The sodium bicarbonate interrupts the chain reaction of
the fuel and the silica soaks up any unburned fuel, preventing contact with air. It is
effective on other class B fuels as well. Blue/Red in color.
5. Wet chemical and water additives

Wet Chemical (potassium acetate, carbonate, or citrate) extinguishes the fire by forming a
soapy foam blanket over the burning oil and by cooling the oil below its ignition
temperature.
Wetting Agents Detergent based additives used to break the surface tension of water and
improve penetration of Class A fires.
Antifreeze Chemicals added to water to lower its freezing point to about -40 degrees
Fahrenheit. Has no appreciable effect on extinguishing performance.
Fire Extinguishing Ball
Several modern ball or "grenade" style extinguishers are on the market. They are manually
operated by rolling or throwing into a fire. The modern version of the ball will self destruct once
in contact with flame, dispersing a cloud of ABC dry chemical powder over the fire which
extinguishes the flame. The coverage area is about 5 square meters. One benefit of this type is
that it may be used for passive suppression. The ball can be placed in a fire prone area and will
deploy automatically if a fire develops, being triggered by heat. Most modern extinguishers of
this type are designed to make a loud noise upon deployment.

How to Extinguish a Fire at the Initial Stages

General rule:
1. If a fire has taken hold, (spread to other areas or structures or the smoke has is at head height),
all occupants of that building must be evacuated. Note to all: Do not fight a fire not worth
fighting, evacuate the building, personal safety comes first.
2. Electrical Fires: The first thing you must do to stop or smother a electrical fault or short circuit
fire.
3 Turn off all power to the fire, usually done by turning off the main power. This step alone is
usually enough to stop most fires in the initial stages
4 Use a safety blanket to smother the fire (Remember: If you do not turn off the power supply,
electric shock is likely to occur.). Not only is this very effective in the early stages but does
not damage surrounding area or objects
5.Use water (more than two liters at a time) to extinguish the fire, throw the water at the base or
seat of the fire
6. Liquid fires: To stop a liquid fire (e.g gasoline, petrol it is recommended to call the fire
brigade at any time where there is an oil fire threat.
7. Never throw water on a liquid fire. This is due to water and oils properties. If the water is
thrown on the fire, the following will occur.
8. Water does not mix with the oil, and thus goes underneath it (oil and water don't mix; when
they are together oil is on top water on bottom). It will then boil and become steam very
quickly this quick boil is dangerous. Since the water is on the bottom of the oil, as it
evaporates it sprays hot, burning oil in every direction. This then spreads the fire and usually
leaves you unconscious
9. Use a safety blanket and smother the fire, this is particularly useful at home. Use this only if
the fire is small enough for you to cover
10. Use a fire extinguisher.. If the extinguisher instructs you to not use it on a liquid or chemical
fire, do not use it. Call the fire brigade and evacuate the building
11. Organic fires: Stop an organic fire in its initial stages (e.g. wood, paper).

SAFETY MANAGEMENT
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Storage:Safety
 Hazardous materials must be stored based on their compatibility, not simply in
alphabetical order. Store materials of the same hazard together i.e. flammables with
flammables and oxidizers with oxidizers.
 Hazardous substances should be stored in an orderly manner with older products most
accessible and the newer products least accessible.
 Good housekeeping must be practiced in areas where hazardous products are stored.
 All hazardous materials must be properly labeled including their exact contents,
hazardous properties, date of receipt, and if appropriate, date of expiration.
  Hazardous substances should be stored in original containers in which they were
packaged at the manufacturing plant. If this is not practical, these products should be
transferred according to manufacturers' recommendations into containers that are
constructed to withstand the effects of the product over the maximum storage time.
 Incompatible materials must not be stored such that they may come in contact with each
other.If incompatible materials are allowed to mix dangerous conditions will result.
Combining these materials may result in the following:
 heat or pressure;
 fire or explosion;
 violent reaction;
 toxic dusts, mists, vapors, or gases;
 flammable vapors or gases.
Handling Hazardous Materials-Protective Measures
1. Whenever it is feasible, engineering controls must be used to reduce employee exposures
to hazardous materials.
2. The two most common engineering controls are the use of local exhaust and general
ventilation. These measures limit an employee's exposure to airborne contaminants.
3. When engineering controls are not available, or they fail to adequately reduce hazards,
other personal protective equipment is required. Examples of personal protective
equipment include: safety glasses, hearing protection, gloves, respirators, etc.
4. Personal protection devices must be provided and worn in accordance with the
manufacturer's recommendations indicated on the label of the product or as stated in the
Material Safety Data Sheet for the product.

CORROSIVE SUBSTANCES
Acids and alkalis, oxidants and solvents are corrosive substances and their contact with human
body causes severe burns and irritation. Safety steps during storage and handling of corrosive
substances are given bellow:
1. Corrosive substances may be stored in plastic carboys in small quantities. Metallic
containers made of metals which do not react with the corrosive substance
2. The storage area should be tiled with acid-resistant tiles and have a drainage arrangement
with a suitable slope, water tap and emergency floor shower-cum-eye wash fountain.
3. Only the minimum required quantity should be stored.
4. A hazard warning board should be displayed prominently in the storage area.
5. Containers should be suitably marked for the content or have information about the content
pasted on them.
6. Chemical splash goggles, face shields, PVC gloves, rubber / PVC gum boots and rubber /
PVC aprons must be used by everyone handling / using corrosive substance.
7. To dilute acid, it must be slowly added to water while stirring. Never add water to acid or
alkali.
8. In case of accidental contact with a corrosive substance, the affected area must be
thoroughly washed with water for 15-20 minutes.
9. In case of a corrosive substance accidentally splashing into the eyes, they should be
thoroughly washed with water. While washing, the eyes should be kept wide open.
Washing should continue for 15-20 minutes.
10. In case of a corrosive substance splashing on the floor, it should be washed with water.
11. Compressed air should not be used in loading, unloading and cleaning / splashing the
corrosive substance.

HYDROCARBONS
Hydrocarbons (petroleum products) can be classified into three categories.
Class-A – Flash Point < 230 Celsius
Class-B – Flash Point > 230 but < 650 Celsius
Class-C – Flash Point > 650 but <950 Celsius
Safety aspects with regard to storage / handling of hydrocarbons depends on the class of
hydrocarbon.
Class – A (Several thinners, petrol, xylene etc)
Safety Precautions
1. More than 30 litres of Class-A hydrocarbon should not be stored on the shop floor.
2. Receptacles / carboys in which they are stored should have airtight lids and never be
filled full. About 10% of the container volume should be left unfilled.
3. Storage exceeding 300 litres in carboys, barrels or in bulk needs a permission / licence
under the petroleum rules.
4. The storage area should be a non-smoking zone, well ventilated, segregated and electric
switches, lights etc. in the area should be flameproof.
5. Wherever a Class-A hydrocarbon is used, handled or stored, care should be taken to
ensure that no possibility of ignition exists including static electricity.
6. DCP or CO2 fire extinguishers should be available in the area where the Class-A
hydrocarbon is stored / used / handled.
7. If stored in bulk in a tank, the tank should be segregated by fencing, earthed at two
places, should have a vent and should have an inlet pipe going right down to the bottom
of the tank. The vent outlet should be bent so that rain water does not enter the tank and it
should be provided with a muffler. The dip stick and its stopper should be made of non-
sparking metal. The bulk storage facility should be regularly monitored for safety.
8. Accumulation of combustible material, e.g., cotton waste, rags, wood etc. in the vicinity
of storage must not be allowed.
Classes – B and C (Diesel, kerosene, L.D.O. etc.)
Safety Precautions
1. Storage of more than 2,500 litres of Class-B and 45,000 litres of Class-C petroleum
requires a licence under the Petroleum Rules.
2. The storage area should be a non-smoking zone and preferably segregated from the main
work area.
3. The minimum quantity (maximum up to one day consumption) may be stored on the shop
floor or main work area.
4. DCP, CO2 or foam fire extinguishers should be available in the area where the
hydrocarbon is stored / used / handled.
5. If stored in bulk in a tank (surface tank or underground tank), the following precautions
must be taken.
(a) The tank should be earthed at least at two places (even underground).
(b) The area around the tank should be segregated by fencing and accumulation of
combustible materials in the area must not be allowed.
(c) A dyke wall around the tank to contain spillage (if any) is a must.
 (d) The tank must have a vent and level indicator (electronic indicator, gauge glass or dip
stick). It is advisable not to fill the tank up to its maximum but leave about 5% of its
volume unfilled.
(e) The bulk storage facility should be regularly monitored for safety.
6. Barrels / carboys containing Class-B or C hydrocarbons should be stored in specified
places only and not in the general work area / shop floor.
.
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENTS(PPE)
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) provides additional protection to workers exposed to
workplace hazards in conjunction with other facility controls and safety systems. PPE is
considered to be a last resort that is above and beyond the other facility controls and provides the
worker with an extra level of personal protection. The table given bellow presents general
examples of occupational hazards and types of PPE available for different purposes.
Recommended measures for use of PPE in the workplace include:
 Active use of PPE if alternative technologies, work plans or procedures cannot eliminate,
or sufficiently reduce, a hazard or exposure
 Identification and provision of appropriate PPE that offers adequate protection to the
worker, co-workers, and occasional visitors, without incurring unnecessary
inconvenience to the individual
 Proper maintenance of PPE, including cleaning when dirty and replacement when
damaged or worn out. Proper use of PPE should be part of the recurrent training
programs for employees.
 Selection of PPE should be based on the hazard and risk ranking and selected according
to criteria on performance and testing established by recognized organizations.
Recommended Personal protective equipment according to hazard
Objective Workplace Hazards Suggested PPE
Eye and face Flying particles, molten metal, liquid Safety Glasses with side-shields,
protection chemicals, gases or vapors, light protective shades, etc.
radiation
Head Falling objects, inadequate height Plastic Helmets with top and side impact
protection clearance, and overhead power cords protection.
Hearing Noise, ultra-sound Hearing protectors (ear plugs or
protection ear muffs).
Foot Falling or rolling objects, pointed Safety shoes and boots for protection
protection objects. Corrosive or hot liquids. against moving & falling objects, liquids
and chemicals
Hand Hazardous materials, cuts or Gloves made of rubber or synthetic
protection lacerations, vibrations, extrem401e materials (Neoprene), leather, steel,
temperatures insulating materials, etc
Respiratory Dust, fogs, fumes, mists, gases, Facemasks with appropriate filters for
protection smokes, vapors dust removal and air purification
(chemicals, mists, vapors and gases).
Single or multi-gas personal monitors, if
available.
Oxygen deficiency Portable or supplied air (fixed lines).
On-site rescue equipment
Body/leg Extreme temperatures, hazardous Insulating clothing, body suits, aprons
protection materials, biological agents, cutting etc. of appropriate materials.
and laceration.