SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – I – SLOPE AND DEFLECTION OF BEAMS – SCIA1401

1
 INTRODUCTION
SLOPE OF A BEAM:
✓ slope at any section in a deflected beam is defined as the angle in radians which the tangent at
the section makes with the original axis of the beam.

✓ slope of that deflection is the angle between the initial position and the deflected position.

DEFLECTION OF A BEAM:
✓ The deflection at any point on the axis of the beam is the distance between its position before
and after loading.
✓ When a structural is loaded may it be Beam or Slab, due the effect of loads acting
upon it bends from its initial position that is before the load was applied. It means
the beam is deflected from its original position it is called as Deflection.

BASIC DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION:

2
 Consider a beam AB which is initially straight and horizontal when unloaded. If under
the action of loads the beam deflect to a position A'B' under load or infact we say that
the axis of the beam bends to a shape A'B'. It is customary to call A'B' the curved axis
of the beam as the elastic line or deflection curve.

In the case of a beam bent by transverse loads acting in a plane of symmetry, the
bending moment M varies along the length of the beam and we represent the
variation of bending moment in B.M diagram. Futher, it is assumed that the simple
bending theory equation holdsgood.

If we look at the elastic line or the deflection curve, this is obvious that the curvature
at every point is different; hence the slope is different at different points.
To express the deflected shape of the beam in rectangular co-ordinates let us take two
axes x andy, x-axis coincide with the original straight axis of the beam and the y – axis
shows the deflection.

Further, let us consider an element ds of the deflected beam. At the ends of this
element let us construct the normal which intersect at point O denoting the angle
between these two normal be di.

But for the deflected shape of the beam the slope i at any point C is defined,

This is the differential equation of the elastic line for a beam subjected to bending in the
plane of symmetry.

3
METHODS FOR FINDING THE SLOPE AND DEFLECTION OF BEAMS:

➢ Double integration method

➢ Moment area method
➢ Macaulay’s method
➢ Conjugate beam method
➢ Strain energy method

DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD:

✓ The double integration method is a powerful tool in solving deflection and slope of a beam at
any point because we will be able to get the equation of the elastic curve.
✓ This method entails obtaining the deflection of a beam by integrating the differential equation
of the elastic curve of a beam twice and using boundary conditions to determine the constants
of integration.
✓ The first integration yields the slope, and the second integration gives the deflection.

4
CONJUGATE BEAM:
✓ Conjugate beam is defined as the imaginary beam with the same dimensions (length) as that
of the original beam but load at any point on the conjugate beam is equal to the bending
moment atthat point divided by EI.
✓ Slope on real beam = Shear on conjugate beam
✓ Deflection on real beam = Moment on conjugate beam

PROPERTIES OF CONJUGATE BEAM:

✓ The length of a conjugate beam is always equal to the length of the actual beam.
✓ The load on the conjugate beam is the M/EI diagram of the loads on the actual beam.
✓ A simple support for the real beam remains simple support for the conjugate beam.
✓ A fixed end for the real beam becomes free end for the conjugate beam.
✓ The point of zero shear for the conjugate beam corresponds to a point of zero slope for
the real beam.
✓ The point of maximum moment for the conjugate beam corresponds to a point of
maximum deflection for the real beam.
SLOPE AND DEFLECTION FOR A SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM WITH CENTRAL
POINT LOAD:

5
6
PROBLEMS:
1.A beam 6 m long, simply supported at its ends, is carrying a point load of 50 KN at its centre.
The moment of inertia of the beam is 78 x 106 mm4. If E for the material of the beam = 2.1 X
105 N/mm2. calculate deflection at the centre of the beam and slope at the supports.
GIVEN DATA:
L =6m
W = 50 KN = 50 X 103 N
I = 78 X 10 mm4
E = 2.1 X 105 N/mm2
SOLUTION:
1. DEFLECTION AT THE CENTRE OF THE BEAM,
yc = WL3 / 48 EI
= 50000 X 60003 / ( 48 X 2.1 X 105 X 78 X 106 )
= 13.736 mm.
2. SLOPE AT THE SUPPORTS,
7
 ϴA = ϴB = - WL2 / 16 EI
= 50000 X 60002 / (16 X 2.1 X 105 X 78 X 106 )
= 0.06868 radians.
2. A beam carries 4 m long simply supported at its ends, carries a point load W at its centre. If
the slope at the ends of the beam is not to exceed 1° , find the deflection at the centre of the
beam.
GIVEN DATA:
L =4m
ϴA = ϴB = 1° = 1° X (π /180) = 0.01745 radians.
SOLUTION:
1. DEFLECTION AT THE CENTRE OF THE BEAM,
ϴA = ϴB = - WL2 / 16 EI
0.01745 = WL2 / 16 EI
yc = WL3 / 48 EI
= WL2 / 16 EI X (L/3)
= 0.01745 X (4000/3)
= 23.26 mm.
3. A beam 3 m long, simply supported at its ends, is carrying a point load W at the centre. If
the slope at the ends of the beam should not exceed 1° , find the deflection at the centre of the
beam.
GIVEN DATA:
L =3m
ϴA = ϴB = 1° = 1 X (π /180) = 0.01745 radians.
SOLUTION:
1.DEFLECTION AT THE CENTRE OF THE BEAM,
ϴA = ϴB = - WL2 / 16 EI
0.01745 = WL2 / 16 EI
yc = WL3 / 48 EI
= WL2 / 16 EI X (L/3)
= 0.01745 X (3000/3)
= 17.45 mm.

8
SLOPE AND DEFLECTION FOR A SIMPLY SUPPORTED WITH A UNIFORMLY
DISTRIBUTED LOAD:
✓ A simply supported beam AB of length L and carrying a uniformly distributed load of w per
unit length over the entire length is shown in fig.
✓ The reactions at A and B will be equal.
✓ Also, the maximum deflection will be at the centre of the beam.
✓ Each vertical reaction = (w X L)/2

9
10
4. A beam of uniform rectangular section 200 mm wide and 300 mm deep is simply supported
at its ends. It carries a uniformly distributed load of 9 KN/m run over the entire span of 5 m. if
the value of E for the beam material is 1 X 104 N/mm2 , find the slope at the supports and
maximum deflection.
GIVEN DATA:
L =5m = 5 X 103 mm
w = 9 KN/m = 9000 N/m
E = 1 X 104 N/mm2
b = 200 mm
d = 300 mm
SOLUTION:
1. SLOPE AT THE SUPPORTS,
ϴA = - WL2 / 24 EI W = w.L = 9000 X 5 = 45000 N
= 45000 X 50002 I = bd3/12 = 200 X 3003 / 12
24 X 1 X 104 X 4.5 X 108 = 4.5 X 108 mm4
= 0.0104 radians.
11
2. MAXIMUM DEFLECTION,
y = 5 W L3
384 E I
= 5 X 45000 X 50003
384 X 1 X 104 X 4.5 X 108
= 16.27 mm.
5. A beam of length 5 m and of uniform rectangular section is simply supported at its ends. It
carries a uniformly distributed load of 9 KN/m run over the entire length. Calculate the width
and depth of the beam if permissible bending stress is 7 N/mm2 and central deflection is not to
exceed 1 cm.
GIVEN DATA:
L = 5 m = 5 X 103 mm, w = 9 KN/m = 9000 N/m

12
SLOPE AND DEFLECTION FOR A SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM WITH AN
ECCENTRIC POINT LOAD
➢ SLOPE AT THE LEFT SUPPORT,

➢ MAXIMUM DEFLECTION,

13
 ➢ DEFLECTION UNDER THE POINT LOAD,

6. Determine slope at the left support, deflection under the load and maximum deflection of a
simply supported beam of length 5 m, which is carrying a point load of 5 KN at a distance of 3
m from the left end. Take E = 2 X 105 N/mm2 and I = 1 X 108 mm4.
GIVEN DATA:
L = 5 m = 5 X 103 mm
W = 5 KN = 5 X 103 N
I = 1 X 108 mm4.
E = 2 X 105 N/mm2
a =3m
b = L – a = 5 – 3 = 2 m = 2 X 103 mm
SOLUTION:
1. SLOPE AT THE LEFT SUPPORT,

= 0.00035 radians.
2. DEFLECTION UNDER THE POINT LOAD,

= 0.6 mm.
3. MAXIMUM DEFLECTION,

14
 = 0.6173 mm.

15
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17
MOMENT AREA METHOD:
✓ MOHR’S THEOREM – I:
The change of slope between any two points is equal to the net area of the B.M. diagram between
these points divided by EI.
✓ MOHR’S THEOREM – II:
The total deflection between any two points is equal to the moment of the area of B.M. diagram
between the two points about the last point divided by EI.
MOHR’S THEOREMS IS USED FOR FOLLOWING CASES:
✓ Problems on Cantilevers
✓ Simply supported beams carrying symmetrical loading
✓ Fixed beams

SLOPE AND DEFLECTION FOR A SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM WITH CENTRAL

POINT LOAD:

18
SLOPE AND DEFLECTION FOR A SIMPLY SUPPORTED WITH A UNIFORMLY
DISTRIBUTED LOAD:

CONJUGATE BEAM METHOD:

➢ CONJUGATE BEAM:
✓ Conjugate beam is an imaginary beam of length equal to that of the original beam but for
which the load diagram is the M/EI diagram.
▪ NOTE 1 :
✓ The slope at any section of the given beam is equal to the shear force at the corresponding
section of the conjugate beam.
▪ NOTE 2 :
✓ The deflection at any section for the given beam is equal to the bending moment at the
corresponding section of the conjugate beam.
SLOPE AND DEFLECTION FOR A SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM WITH CENTRAL
POINT LOAD:

✓ A simply supported beam AB of length L carrying a point load W at the centre C.

✓ The B.M at A and B is zero and at the centre B.M will be WL/4.
✓ Now the conjugate beam AB can be constructed.
19
 ✓ The load on the conjugate beam will be obtained by dividing the B.M at that point by EI.
✓ The shape of the loading on the conjugate beam will be same as of B.M diagram.
✓ The ordinate of loading on conjugate beam will be equal to M/EI = WL/4EI.

20
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22
23
24
PROBLEMS:
1.A cantilever of length 3 m is carrying a point load of 25 KN at the free end. If I = 108 mm4
and E = 2.1 X 105 N/mm2, find the slope and deflection at the free end.
GIVEN DATA:
L = 3 m = 3000 mm
W = 25 KN = 25000 N
I = 108 mm4
E = 2.1 X 105 N/mm2
SOLUTION:
1. SLOPE AT THE FREE END,
ϴB = WL2 / 2 EI = 25000 X 30002
2 X 2.1 X 105 X 108
= 0.005357 radians.
2. DEFLECTION AT THE FREE END,
yB = W L3/ 3 EI = 25000 X 30003
3 X 2.1 X 105 X 108
= 10.71 mm

25
2. A cantilever of length 3 m is carrying a point load of 50 KN at a distance of 2 m from the
fixed end. If I = 108 mm4 and E = 2 X 105 N/mm2, find the slope and deflection at the free end.
GIVEN DATA:
L = 3 m = 3000 mm
W = 50 KN = 50000 N
I = 108 mm4
E = 2 X 105 N/mm2
SOLUTION:
1. SLOPE AT THE FREE END,
ϴB = Wa2 / 2 EI
= 50000 X 2000
2 x 2 X 105 x 108
= 0.005 radians
2. DEFLECTION AT THE FREE END,
yB = W a3/ 3 EI + W a2/ 2 EI (L – a)
= 50000 X 20003 + 50000 X 20003 ( 3000 – 2000 )
3 X 2 X 105 X 108 3 X 2 X 105 X 108
= 6.67 + 5
= 11.67 mm.
CANTILEVER BEAM WITH A UDL:
➢ A cantilever beam AB of length L fixed at the point A and free at the point B and carrying a
UDL of w per unit length over the whole length.
➢ Consider a section X, at a distance x from the fixed end A.
➢ The bending moment at this section is given by,
Mx = - w ( L – x ) ( L – x )
2

26
27
PROBLEMS:
3. A cantilever of length 2.5 m carries a uniformly distributed load of 16.4 KN per metre
length. If I = 7.95 X 107 mm4 and E = 2 X 105 N/mm2, determine the deflection at the free end.
GIVEN DATA:
L = 2.5 m = 2500 mm
w = 16.4 KN/m, W = w X L = 16.4 X 2.5 = 41000 N
I = 7.95 X 107 mm4
E = 2 X 105 N/mm2
SOLUTION:
1. DEFLECTION AT THE FREE END,
yB = WL3/8EI = 41000 X 25003
8 X 2 X 105 X 7.95 X 107
= 5.036 mm.
4. A cantilever of length 3 m carries a uniformly distributed load over the entire length. If the
deflection at the free end is 40 mm, find the slope at the free end.
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GIVEN DATA:
L = 3 m = 3000 mm
yB = 40 mm
SOLUTION:
1. SLOPE AT THE FREE END,
yB = WL3/8EI
40 = WL2 X L = WL2 X 3000
8 EI 8 EI
WL2 = 40 X 8
EI 3000
Slope at the free end,
ϴB = WL2 / 6 EI = WL2 / EI X (1/6)
= 40 X 8 X (1/6)
3000
= 0.01777 rad.
5. A cantilever 120 mm wide and 200 mm deep is 2.5 m long. What is the uniformly distributed
load which the beam can carry in order to produce a deflection of 5 mm at the free end? Take
E = 200 GN/m2.
GIVEN DATA:
L = 2.5 m = 2500 mm
E = 200 GN/m2 = 2 X 105 N/mm2
b = 120 mm I = bd3/12 = 120 X 2003 / 12
d = 200 mm = 8 X 107 mm4
yB = 5 mm
SOLUTION:
1. UDL,
W = w X L = 2.5 X w = 2.5 w N.
y = WL3/8EI
5 = 2.5 w X 25003
8 X 2 X 105 X 8 X 107

29
30
31
32
REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. Bansal R.K., “Strength of Materials”, 5th Edition, Laxmi Publications, 2013.

2. Ramamrutham R., “Strength of Materials”,14th Edition, Dhanpat Rai Publications,

2011.
3. Punmia B.C., “Strength of Materials”, Laxmi Publications, 2011.
4. Subramanian R., “Strength of Materials - Theory and Problems”, Oxford University
Press, 2010.
5. Rajput R.K., “Strength of Materials”, S. Chand and Company Ltd., New Delhi,
2007.
6. Timoshenko S.P. and Gere J.M., “Mechanics of Materials”, 6th Edition, Tata
McGraw Hill.

33
QUESTION BANK:

1. What are the methods used for determining slope and deflection?
2. What is the slope and deflection equation for simply supported beam carrying
UDL through out the length?
3. What is a Macaulay’s method?
4. What is moment area method?
5. Define : Conjugate beam.
6. Find the slope and deflection of a simply supported beam carrying a point load
at the centre using moment area method.
7. Distinguish between actual beam and conjugate beam.
8. A beam 4m long, simply supported at its ends, carries a point load W at its
centre. If the slope at the ends of the beam is not to exceed 1⁰, find the
deflection at the centre of the beam.
9. A cantilever of length 2 m carries a point load of 30 KN at the free end and
another load of 30 KN at its centre. If EI = 1013 N.mm2 for the cantilever then
determine slope and deflection at the free end by moment area method.
10.Determine slope at the left support, deflection under the load and maximum
deflection of a simply supported beam of length 10 m, which is carrying a point
load of 10 kN at a distance of 6 m from the left end. Take E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
and I = 1 x 108 mm4.
11.A cantilever of length 3 m is carrying a point load of 25 KN at the free end. If I
= 108 mm4 and E = 2.1 X 105 N/mm2, then determine slope and deflection of
the cantilever using conjugate beam method.
12.A simply supported beam of length 5 m carries a point load of 5 kN at a
distance of 3m from the left end. If E = 2 x 105 N/mm2 and I = 108 mm4,
determine the slope at the left support and deflection under the point load using
conjugate beam method.

34
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – II – STRAIN ENERGY – SCIA1401

1
 INTRODUCTION

STRAIN ENERGY:

✓ Strain energy is defined as the energy stored in a body due to deformation.

✓ Strain energy is one of fundamental concepts in mechanics and its principles are
widely used in practical applications to determine the response of a structure to
loads.
✓ strain energy is equal to the work done by the point load.
✓ The unit of strain energy is N-m or Joules.
RESILIENCE:

PROOF RESILIENCE:
✓ Proof resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed up to
the elastic limit, without creating a permanent distortion.

MODULUS OF RESILIENCE:
✓ The modulus of resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be
absorbed per unit volume without creating a permanent distortion.
STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO GRADUALLY APPLIED LOAD

2
3
PROBLEMS:

1.A tensile load of 60 KN is gradually applied to a circular bar of 4 cm diameter

and 5 m long. If the value of E = 2 X 105 N/mm2. Determine stretch in the rod,
stress in the rod and strain energy absorbed by the rod.

GIVEN DATA:

Gradually Load, P = 60 KN = 60 X 1000 N

Diameter, d = 4 cm = 40 mm.

Length, L = 5 m = 5000 mm

E = 2 X 105 N/mm2

SOLUTION:

1.STRESS IN THE ROD,

σ = P/A = 60000 / 400π A = (π X 402) /4 = 400π mm2

4
 = 47.746 N/ mm2

2. STRETCH IN THE ROD,

x = (σ/E) X L = ( 47.746/ 2 X 105 )/ 5000

= 1.19 mm.

3. STRAIN ENERGY ABSORBED BY THE ROD,

U = σ2 X V = 47.7462 X 2 X 106 π V = A X L = 400π X 5000

2E 2 X 2 X 105 = 2 X 106 π mm3

= 35810 N.mm = 35.81 N.m

STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO SUDDENLY APPLIED LOAD

5
2.Calculate instantaneous stress produced in a bar 10 cm2 in area and 3 m long
by the sudden application of a tensile load of unknown magnitude, if the
extension of the bar due to suddenly applied load is 1.5 mm. Also determine the
suddenly applied load. Take E = 2 X 105 N/mm2

GIVEN DATA:

Area, A = 10 cm2 = 1000 mm2

Length, L = 3 m = 3000 mm

Extension, x = 1.5 mm

E = 2 X 105 N/mm2

SOLUTION:

1.STRESS IN THE ROD,

x = (σ/E) X L

1.5 = (σ / 2 X 105 )/ 3000

6
 σ = 1.5 X 2 X 105

3000

= 100 N/mm2

2. SUDDENLY APPLIED LOAD,

σ = 2 x P/A

100 = 2 x (P/1000)

P = 100 x 1000

= 50000 N = 50 KN.

3. A steel rod is 2 m long and 50 mm in diameter. An axial pull of 100 KN is

suddenly applied to the rod. Calculate the instantaneous stress induced and also
the instantaneous elongation produced in the rod. Take E = 200 GN/m2

GIVEN DATA:

Diameter, d = 50 mm

Length, L = 2 m = 2000 mm

Pull, P = 100 KN = 100 X 1000 N

E = 200 GN/m2 = 2 X 105 N/mm2

SOLUTION:

1. INSTANTANEOUS STRESS INDUCED,

σ = 2 x P/A A = (π X 502) /4 = 625 π mm2

= 2 X (100 X 1000/ 625 π)

= 101.86 N/mm2

7
2. INSTANTANEOUS ELONGATION PRODUCED IN THE ROD,

δL = σ X L

= 101.86 X 2000

2 X 105

= 1.0186 mm.

8
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10
STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO IMPACT LOAD

11
12
STRESS DUE TO IMPACT LOAD

13
14
15
16
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18
19
20
21
STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO SHEAR STRESS

22
STRAIN ENERGY IN SOLID SHAFT DUE TO TORSION

23
STRAIN ENERGY IN HOLLOW SHAFT DUE TO TORSION

PROBLEMS:

24
25
26
27
CASTIGLIANO'S FIRST THEOREM:

✓ Castigliano's first theorem states that the partial derivative of the total strain
energy in a structure with respect to a load is equal to the deflection of the point
where the load is acting, the deflection being measured in the direction of the
load.
✓ dU = Δi , dU = ϴj

dPi dMj

Where, U = Total strain energy

Pi & Mj = Loads

Δi & ϴj = Deflections.

THEOREM USED IN THE FOLLOWING CASES:

✓ To determine the displacements of complicated structures.

✓ To find the deflection of beams due to shearing or bending if the total strain
energy due to shearing forces or bending moments is known.
✓ To find the deflections of curved beams, springs etc.

BETTI'S THEOREM:

✓ Betti's theorem, also known as Maxwell–Betti reciprocal work theorem,

discovered by Enrico Betti in 1872, states that for a linear elastic structure
subject to two sets of forces {Pi} i=1,2,...,n and {Qj}, j=1,2,...,n, the work done
by the set P through the displacements produced by the set Q is equal to the
work done by the set Q through the displacements produced by the set P.

MAXWELL’S LAW OF RECIPROCAL DEFLECTION:

✓ The beam is not just deflected at the centre but all along its length.
✓ Let the deflection at a point D be δDC.
✓ Maxwell's reciprocal theorem says that the deflection at D due to a unit load at
C is the same as the deflection at C if a unit load were applied at D.

In our notation, δCD = δDC.

28
REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. Bansal R.K., “Strength of Materials”, 5th Edition, Laxmi Publications, 2013.

2. Ramamrutham R., “Strength of Materials”,14th Edition, Dhanpat Rai Publications,

2011.
3. Punmia B.C., “Strength of Materials”, Laxmi Publications, 2011.
4. Subramanian R., “Strength of Materials - Theory and Problems”, Oxford University
Press, 2010.
5. Rajput R.K., “Strength of Materials”, S. Chand and Company Ltd., New Delhi,
2007.
6. Timoshenko S.P. and Gere J.M., “Mechanics of Materials”, 6th Edition, Tata
McGraw Hill.

29
QUESTION BANK:
1. Define: strain energy.
2. Define the terms: Resilience & Modulus of Resilience.
3. Define: Proof resilience.
4. What are the different types of loads?
5. Define: Castigliano’s theorem.
6. Define: maxwell's reciprocal theorem.
7. A steel rod is 2 m long and 50 mm in diameter. An axial pull of 100 KN is
suddenly applied to the rod. Find the instantaneous stress induced. Take E = 200
GN/m2
8. The shear stress in a material at a point is given as 50 N/mm2. Find the strain
energy per unit volume stored in the material due to shear stress. Take C = 8 X
104 N/mm2.
9. Define: Betties theorem.
10.A tensile load of 50 KN is gradually applied to a circular bar of 5 cm diameter
and 4 m long. If E = 2 X 105 N/mm2, determine stretch in the rod, stress in the
rod and strain energy absorbed by the rod.
11.A tension bar 5 m long is made up of two parts, 3 m of its length has a cross
sectional area of 10 cm2 while the remaining 2 m has a cross sectional ara of 20
cm2. An axial load of 80 KN is gradually applied. Find the total strain energy
produced in the bar and compare this value with that obtained in a uniform bar
of the same length and having the same volume when under the same load.
Take E = 2 X 105 N/mm2.
12.A load of 200 N falls through a height of 2.5 cm on to a collar rigidly attached
to the lower end of a vertical bar 2 m long and of 3 cm2 cross sectional area.
The upper end of the vertical bar is fixed. Determine maximum instantaneous
stress induced in the vertical bar, maximum instantaneous elongation and strain
energy stored in the vertical rod. Take E = 2 X 105 N/mm2
13.A rod 12.5 mm in diameter is stretched 3.2 mm under a steady load of 10 KN.
Determine the stress would be produced in the bar by a weight of 700 N, falling
through 75 mm before commencing to stretch, the rod being initially
unstressed? Take E = 2.1 X 105 N/mm2.
14.The maximum instantaneous elongation produced by an unknown falling
weight through a height of 4 cm in a vertical bar of length 5 m and of cross-
sectional area 5 cm2 is 1.8 mm. Determine the instantaneous stress induced in
the vertical bar and the values of unknown weight. Take E = 2 X 106 Kgf/cm2.

30
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – III – THEORY OF COLUMNS – SCIA1401

1
 INTRODUCTION

Any member subjected to axial compressive load is called a column or Strut.

A vertical member subjected to axial compressive load – COLUMN. (Eg: Pillars of a

building)

An inclined member subjected to axial compressive load – STRUT.

A strut may also be a horizontal member.

Critical or Crippling or Buckling load – Load at which buckling starts.

CLASSIFICATION OF COLUMNS:

According to nature of failure – short, medium and long columns.

Short column – whose length is so related to its c/s area that failure occurs mainly due
to direct compressive stress only and the role of bending stress is negligible.

Medium Column - whose length is so related to its c/s area that failure occurs by a
combination of direct compressive stress and bending stress.

Long Column - whose length is so related to its c/s area that failure occurs mainly due
to bending stress and the role of direct compressive stress is negligible.

2
ASSUMPTIONS IN EULER’S COLUMN THEORY:

3
LIMITATIONS OF EULER’S FORMULA:

The general expression of bucking load for the long column as per Euler’s theory is given as,

P = Π 2 E I / L2

σ = Π 2E / (Le / k) 2

We know that, Le / k = slenderness ratio.

LIMITATION 1:

The above formula is applied only for long columns

LIMITATION 2:

As the slenderness ratio decreases the crippling stress increases.

Consequently, if the slenderness ratio reaches to zero, then the crippling stress reaches infinity,
practically which is not possible.

LIMITATION 3:

If the slenderness ratio is less than certain limit, then crippling stress is greater than crushing stress,
which is not possible practically.

4
Therefore, up to limiting extent Euler’s formula is applicable with crippling stress equal to crushing
stress.

Euler’s formula is applicable when the slenderness ratio is greater than or equal to 80.

Euler’s formula is applicable only for long column.

Euler’s formula is thus unsuitable when the slenderness ratio is less than a certain value.

SLENDERNESS RATIO:

Slenderness ratio is the ratio of the actual length of a column and the least radius of gyration of its
cross section.

Slenderness Ratio = l/k.

EFFECTIVE LENGTH:

The effective length (Le) of a column is defined as the distance between successive inflection points
or points of zero moment.

Effective length is also called equivalent length.

Crippling load for any type of end condition is given by,

P = π2 EI

Le2

CRIPPLING STRESS IN TERMS OF EFFECTIVE LENGTH AND RADIUS OF

GYRATION:

P = π2 EI = π2 E X A k2

Le2 Le2

= π2 E X A = π2 E X A

Le2 / k2 (Le/ k)2

Crippling stress = Crippling load

Area

= π2 E X A = π2 E

A (Le/ k)2 (Le/ k)2

5
END CONDITIONS FOR COLUMNS:

✓ Both ends are hinged or pinned.

✓ One end is free and the other end is fixed.
✓ Both ends are fixed.
✓ One end is fixed and the other end is pinned.

PROBLEMS:

1. A solid round bar 3 m long and 5 cm in diameter is used as a strut. Determine the
crippling load for all the end conditions. Take E = 2 X 105 N/mm2.

GIVEN DATA:

Length, L= 3 m = 3000 mm

Diameter, d = 5 cm = 50 mm I = π X d4 /64 = π X 504 /64

E = 2 X 105 N/mm2. = 30.68 X 104 mm4.

SOLUTION:

1. Crippling load for both ends hinged,

P = π2 EI = π2 X 2 X 105 X 30.68 X 104 = 67288 N = 67.288 KN.

l2 30002

6
2. Crippling load when one end is fixed and other end is free,

P = π2 EI = π2 X 2 X 105 X 30.68 X 104

4l2 4 X 30002

= 16822 N = 16.822 KN.

3. Crippling load when both the ends are fixed,

P = 4π2 EI = 4 X π2 X 2 X 105 X 30.68 X 104

l2 30002

= 269152 N = 269.152 KN.

2. Crippling load when one end is fixed and other end is hinged,

P = 2π2 EI = 2 X π2 X 2 X 105 X 30.68 X 104

l2 30002

= 134576 N = 134.576 KN.

2. A column of timber section 15 cm X 20 cm is 6 m long both ends being fixed. If E for

timber = 17.5 KN/mm2, determine crippling load and safe load for the column if factor
of safety = 3.

GIVEN DATA:

Length, L= 6 m = 6000 mm

Dimension of section, = 15 cm X 20 cm

E = 17.5 KN/mm2.

Factor of safety = 3.

SOLUTION:

IXX = 15 X 203 = 10000 cm4 = 10000 X 104 mm4.

12

IYY = 20 X 153 = 5625 cm4 = 5625 X 104 mm4.

12

Value of I will be the least value of the two moment of inertia.

7
 I = IYY = 5625 cm4 = 5625 X 104 mm4.

1. Crippling load for both ends fixed,

P = 4π2 EI = 4 X π2 X 17.5 X 103 X 5625 X 104

l2 60002

= 1079480 N = 1079.480 KN.

2. Safe load for the column,

Safe load = Crippling load / Factor of safety

= 1079.480 / 3

= 359.8 KN.

3. A hollow mild steel tube 6 m long 4 cm internal diameter and 5 mm thick is used as a strut
with both ends hinged. Find the crippling load and safe load taking factor of safety as 3. Take
E = 2 X 105 N/mm2.

GIVEN DATA:

Length, L= 6 m = 6000 mm

Internal diameter, d = 4 cm = 40 mm.

Thickness, t = 5 mm.

External diameter, D = d + 2t = 40 + 2 X 5 = 50 mm.

E = 2 X 105 N/mm2.

Factor of safety = 3.

SOLUTION:

IXX = I = π X (D4 - d4) = π X (504 – 404) = 18.11 X 104 mm4.

64 64

1. Crippling load for both ends hinged,

P = π2 EI = π2 X 2 X 105 X 18.11 X 104

l2 60002

= 9929.9 N = 9930 N
8
2. Safe load for the column,

Safe load = Crippling load / Factor of safety

= 9930 / 3

= 3310 N.

4. A simply supported beam of length 4 m is subjected to a uniformly distributed load of 30

KN/m over the whole span and deflects 15 mm at the centre. Determine the crippling loads
when this beam is used as a column with the following conditions:

One end fixed and other end hinged.

Both the ends pin jointed.

GIVEN DATA:

Length, L= 4 m = 4000 mm

Uniformly distributed load, w = 30 KN/m = 30 N/mm.

Deflection at the centre, δ= 15 mm.

SOLUTION:

For a simply supported beam, carrying UDL over the whole span, the deflection at the centre is given
by,

δ = 5 w L4

384 EI

15 = 5 X30 X 40004

384 X EI

EI = 0.66 X 1013 N.mm2

1. Crippling load when one end is fixed and other end is hinged,

P = 2π2 EI = 2 X π2 X 0.66 X 1013

l2 40002

= 8224.5 KN.

2. Crippling load for both ends hinged,

9
 P = π2 EI = π2 X 0.66 X 1013

l2 40002

= 4112.25 KN.

5. A solid round bar 4 m long and 5 cm in diameter was found to extend 4.6 mm under a tensile
load of 50 KN. This bar is used as a strut with both ends hinged. Determine the buckling load
for the bar and also the safe load taking factor of safety as 4.

GIVEN DATA:

Length, L= 4 m = 4000

Diameter, d = 5 cm = 50 mm.

Extension of bar, δL= 4.6 mm.

Tensile load, W = 50 KN.

SOLUTION:

A = π X d2 /4 = π X 502/4 = 625 π mm2.

I = π X d4 /64 = π X 504/64 = 30.68 X 104 mm4.

Young’s Modulus, E = Tensile Stress/Tensile Strain

= Tensile Load/Area

Change in length of bar/Original length of bar

= W/A =WXL

δL/L A X δL

= 50000 X 4000 = 2.214 X 104 N/mm2.

625 π X 4.6

1. Crippling load for both ends hinged,

P = π2 EI = π2 X 2.214 X 104 X 30.68 X 104

l2 40002

= 4189.99 N = 4190 N

2. Safe load,
10
Safe load = Crippling load / Factor of safety

= 4190 / 4

= 1047.5 N.

6. A hollow alloy tube 5 m long with external diameter and internal diameters 40 mm and 25
mm respectively was found to extend 6.4 mm under a tensile load of 60 KN. Find the buckling
load for the tube when used as a column with both ends pinned. Also find the safe load for the
tube, taking a factor of safety = 4.

GIVEN DATA:

Length, L= 5 m = 5000 mm

External diameter, D = 40 mm.

Internal diameter, d = 25 mm.

Extension of bar, δL= 6.4 mm.

Tensile load, W = 60 KN.

Factor of safety = 4.

SOLUTION:

A = π X (D2 – d2) = π X (402 – 252) = 766 mm2.

4 4

IXX = I = π X (D4 - d4) = π X (404 – 254) = 106500 mm4.

64 64

Young’s Modulus, E = Tensile Stress/Tensile Strain

= Tensile Load/Area

Change in length of bar/Original length of bar

= W/A =WXL

δL/L A X δL

= 60000 X 5000 = 6.11945 X 104 N/mm2.

766 6.4

11
1. Crippling load for both ends pinned,

P = π2 EI = π2 X 6.11945 X 104 X 106500

l2 50002

= 2573 N

2. Safe load,

Safe load = Crippling load / Factor of safety

= 2573 / 4

= 643.2 N.

7. Calculate the safe compressive load on a hollow cast iron column (one end fixed and other
hinged) of 15 cm external diameter, 10 cm internal diameter and 10 m in length. Use Euler’s
formula with a factor of safety of 5 and E = 95 KN/mm2.

GIVEN DATA:

Length, L= 10 m = 10000 mm

External diameter, D = 15 cm = 150 mm

Internal diameter, d = 10 cm = 100 mm

Factor of safety = 5

E = 95 KN/mm2

SOLUTION:

I = π X (D4 - d4) = π X (1504 – 1004) = 1994.175 X 104 mm4.

64 64

1. Crippling load for one end fixed and other hinged,

P = 2π2 EI = 2 X π2 X 95 X 103 X 1994.175 X 104

l2 100002

= 373950 N = 373.95 KN.

2. Safe load,

Safe load = Crippling load / Factor of safety

12
 = 373.95 / 5

= 74.79 KN.

8. Determine Euler’s crippling load for an I-section joist 40 cm X 20 cm X 1 cm and 5 m long

which is used as a strut with both ends fixed. Take E = 2.1 X 105 N/mm2.

GIVEN DATA:

Dimension of I-section = 40 cm X 20 cm X 1 cm

Length, l = 5 m = 5000 mm

E = 2.1 X 105 N/mm2.

SOLUTION:

Ixx = M.O.I of rectangle (20 X 40) – M.O.I of rectangle [(20 – 1) X (40 – 1 – 1)]

= b d3 - b1 d13 = 20 X 403 – 19 X 383

12 12 12 12

= 19786 cm4

IYY = M.O.I of rectangle (38 X 1) – M.O.I of 2 rectangles (1 X 20)

= d b3 - d1 b13 = 38 X 13 – 2 X 1 X 203

12 12 12 12

= 1336.5 cm4

13
Least value of the moment of inertia is about YY axis.

I = IYY = 1336.5 cm4 = 1336.5 X 104 mm4

1.Euler’s crippling load for both ends fixed,

P = 4π2 EI = 4 X π2 X 2.1 X 105 X 1336.5 X 104

l2 30002

= 4432080 N = 4432.08 KN.

9. Using Euler’s formula, calculate the critical stresses for a series of struts having slenderness
ratio of 40,80,120,160 and 200 under the following conditions:

Both ends hinged

Both ends fixed. Take E = 2.05 X 105 N/mm2.

GIVEN DATA:

slenderness ratio, l/k = 40,80,120,160 and 200

E = 2.05 X 105 N/mm2.

SOLUTION:

1. Critical stress for both ends hinged,

Critical stress = π2 E = π2 E

(Le/k)2 ( l/k)2

When l/k = 40, critical stress = π2 E = π2 X 2.05 X 105

( l/k)2 402

= 1264.54 N/mm2.

When l/k = 80, critical stress = π2 E = π2 X 2.05 X 105

( l/k)2 802

= 316.135 N/mm2.

When l/k = 120, critical stress = π2 E = π2 X 2.05 X 105

( l/k)2 1202

14
 = 140.5 N/mm2.

When l/k = 160, critical stress = π2 E = π2 X 2.05 X 105

( l/k)2 1602

= 79.03 N/mm2.

When l/k = 200, critical stress = π2 E = π2 X 2.05 X 105

( l/k)2 2002

= 50.58 N/mm2.

2. Critical stress for both ends fixed,

Critical stress = π2 E = π2 E = 4 π2 E

(Le/k)2 [ (l/2)/k]2 (l/k)2

When l/k = 40, critical stress = π2 E = 4 x π2 X 2.05 X 105

( l/k)2 402

= 5058.16 N/mm2.

When l/k = 80, critical stress = π2 E = 4 X π2 X 2.05 X 105

( l/k)2 802

= 1264.54 N/mm2.

When l/k = 120, critical stress = π2 E = 4 X π2 X 2.05 X 105

( l/k)2 1202

= 562.02 N/mm2.

When l/k = 160, critical stress = π2 E = 4 X π2 X 2.05 X 105

( l/k)2 1602

= 316.135 N/mm2.

When l/k = 200, critical stress = π2 E = 4 X π2 X 2.05 X 105

( l/k)2 2002

= 202.32 N/mm2.
15
RANKINE’S FORMULA:

P= σC X A

1 + a (Le/ k)2

Where, σC = Ultimate crushing stress

A = Area of cross section

a = Rankine’s constant.

Le = Effective length

k = Least radius of gyration.

10. The external and internal diameter of a hollow cast iron column are 5 cm and 4 cm
respectively. If the length of this column is 3 m and both of its ends are fixed, determine the
crippling load using Rankine’s formula. Take σC = 550 N/mm2 and a = 1/1600.

GIVEN DATA:

Length, L= 3 m = 3000 mm

External diameter, D = 5 cm = 50 mm.

Internal diameter, d = 4 cm = 40 mm.

Ultimate crushing stress, σC = 550 N/mm2

Rankine’s constant, a = 1/1600.

16
SOLUTION:

1.Cripling load for both ends fixed,

A = π X (D2 – d2) = π X (502 – 402) = 225 π mm2.

4 4

IXX = I = π X (D4 - d4) = π X (504 – 404) = 57656 π mm4.

64 64

Least radius of gyration, k = I/A = 57656 π / 225 π = 16.007 mm.

For both the ends are fixed, L = l/2 = 3000/2 = 1500 mm.

P= σC X A = 550 X 225 π

1 + a (Le/ k)2 1 + 1/1600 (1500/16.007)2

= 59918.3 N.

11. A hollow cylindrical cast iron column is 4 m long with both ends fixed. Determine the
minimum diameter of the column if it has to carry a safe load of 250 KN with a factor of safety
of 5. Take the internal diameter as 0.8 times the external diameter. Take σC = 550 N/mm2 and a
= 1/1600.

GIVEN DATA:

Length, L= 4 m = 4000 mm

Internal diameter, d = 0.8 X D

Safe load = 250 KN

Ultimate crushing stress, σC = 550 N/mm2

Rankine’s constant, a = 1/1600, Factor of safety = 5.

SOLUTION:

Safe load = Crippling load / Factor of safety

Crippling load = Safe load X Factor of safety = 250 X 5 = 1250 KN.

17
18
12. A 1.5 m long column has a circular cross section of 5 cm diameter. One of the ends of the
column is fixed in direction and position and other end is free. Taking factor of safety as 3,
calculate the safe load using, Rankine’s formula, take σC = 560 N/mm2 and a = 1/1600, Euler’s
formula, E = 1.2 X 105 N/mm2.

GIVEN DATA:

Length, L= 1.5 m = 1500 mm

Diameter, d = 5 cm

Ultimate crushing stress, σC = 560 N/mm2

Rankine’s constant, a = 1/1600.

E = 1.2 X 105 N/mm2.

Factor of safety = 3

SOLUTION:

A = π X d2 /4 = π X 502/4 = 1963.5 mm2.

I = π X d4 /64 = π X 504/64 = 30.7 X 104 mm4.

Least radius of gyration, k = I/A = 30.7 X 104 / 1963.5 = 12.5 mm.

Le = 2 l = 2 X 1500 = 3000 mm

1. Safe load using Rankine’s formula,

P= σC X A = 560 X 1963.5

1 + a (Le/ k)2 1 + 1/1600 (3000/12.5)2

= 29717.8 N.

Safe load = Crippling load / Factor of safety

= 29717.8 / 3

= 9905.9 N.

2. Safe load using Euler’s formula,

P = π2 EI = π2 X 1.2 X 105 X 30.7 X 104

4l2 4 X 15002

19
 = 40399.5 N

Safe load = Crippling load / Factor of safety

= 40399.5 / 3

= 13466.5 N.

13. A hollow cast iron column 200 mm outside diameter and 150 mm inside diameter, 8 m long
has both ends fixed. It is subjected to an axial compressive load. Taking a factor of safety as 6,
σC = 560 N/mm2 and a = 1/1600. Determine the safe Rankine load.

GIVEN DATA:

Length, L= 8 m = 8000 mm, Le = l/2 = 8000/2 = 4000 mm.

External diameter, D = 200 mm

Internal diameter, d = 150 mm

Ultimate crushing stress, σC = 560 N/mm2

Rankine’s constant, a = 1/1600

Factor of safety = 6

SOLUTION:

1.Safe Rankine’s load,

A = π X (D2 – d2) = π X (2002 – 1502) = 13744 mm2.

4 4

IXX = I = π X (D4 - d4) = π X (2004 – 1504) = 53689000 mm4.

64 64

Least radius of gyration, k = I/A = 53689000/ 13744 = 62.5 mm.

P= σC X A = 560 X 13744

1 + a (Le/ k)2 1 + 1/1600 (4000/62.5)2

= 2161977 N = 2161.977 KN.

Safe load = Crippling load / Factor of safety

= 2161.977 / 6
20
 = 360.3295 KN.

14. A hollow C.I column whose outside diameter is 200 mm has a thickness of 20 mm. It is 4.5
m long and is fixed at both ends. Calculate the safe load by Rankine’s formula using a factor of
safety of 4. Calculate the slenderness ration and the ratio of Euler’s and Rankine’s critical
loads. Take σC = 550 N/mm2 and a = 1/1600 and E = 9.4 X 104 N/mm2.

GIVEN DATA:

Length, L= 4.5 m = 4500 mm, Le = l/2 = 4500/2 = 2250 mm.

External diameter, D = 200 mm, Thickness, t = 20 mm.

Internal diameter, d = D – 2 X t = 200 – 2 X 20 = 160 mm

Ultimate crushing stress, σC = 550 N/mm2

Rankine’s constant, a = 1/1600

Factor of safety = 4

E = 9.4 X 104 N/mm2.

SOLUTION:

A = π X (D2 – d2) = π X (2002 – 1602) = 11310 mm2.

4 4

IXX = I = π X (D4 - d4) = π X (2004 – 1604) = 46370000 mm4.

64 64

Least radius of gyration, k = I/A = 46370000 / 11310 = 64 mm.

1.Slenderness ratio,

Slenderness ratio = l/k = 4500/64 = 70.30

2. Safe load by Rankine’s formula,

P= σC X A = 550 X 11310

1 + a (Le/ k)2 1 + 1/1600 (2250/64)2

= 3511000 N.

Safe load = Crippling load / Factor of safety

21
 = 3511000 / 4

= 877750 N.

3. Ratio of Euler’s and Rankine’s critical loads,

Euler’s critical load, P = 4π2 EI = 4 X π2 X 9.4 X 104 X 46370000

l2 45002

= 8497700 N.

Euler’s critical load = 8497700 = 2.42

Rankine’s critical load 3511000

I.S CODE FORMULA

22
15. Determine the safe load by I.S. code for a hollow cylindrical mild steel tube of 4 cm external
diameter and 3 cm internal diameter when the tube is used as a column of length 2.5 m long
with both ends hinged.

GIVEN DATA:

External diameter – 4 cm = 40 mm

Internal diameter – 3 cm = 30 mm

Length – 2.5 m = 2500 mm

SOLUTION:

1.Safe load by I.S. CODE formula,

A = π X (D2 – d2) = π X (402 – 302) = 549.77 mm2.

4 4

IXX = I = π X (D4 - d4) = π X (404 – 304) = 85902.92 mm4.

64 64

To determine the safe load by I.S. code formula, first find the value of slenderness ratio. Then
according to slenderness ratio, obtain the safe compressive stress from the table.

Now, slenderness ratio = l/k

k = I/A = 85902.92 / 549.77 = 12.5 mm.

slenderness ratio = 2500/12.5 = 200.

From table, corresponding to slenderness ratio of 200, the allowable compressive stress is 27 N/
mm2.

σC = 27 N/ mm2.

Safe load for the column = σC X A

= 27 X 549.77

= 14843.79 N.

23
SECANT FORMULA

24
COLUMNS WITH ECCENTRIC LOADING

25
26
27
REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. Bansal R.K., “Strength of Materials”, 5th Edition, Laxmi Publications, 2013.

2. Ramamrutham R., “Strength of Materials”,14th Edition, Dhanpat Rai Publications,

2011.
3. Punmia B.C., “Strength of Materials”, Laxmi Publications, 2011.
4. Subramanian R., “Strength of Materials - Theory and Problems”, Oxford University
Press, 2010.
5. Rajput R.K., “Strength of Materials”, S. Chand and Company Ltd., New Delhi,
2007.
6. Timoshenko S.P. and Gere J.M., “Mechanics of Materials”, 6th Edition, Tata
McGraw Hill.

28
QUESTION BANK:

1. Distinguish columns & struts.

2. List the assumptions made in Euler’s column theory.
3. What are the different end conditions of a column?
4. Define: slenderness ratio.
5. List the limitations of Euler's formula.
6. Define: Crippling load.
7. What is Equivalent length of a column?
8. What is a Rankine's constant? What is the approximate value of Rankine's
constant for cast iron column?
9. Define: Safe load.
10.A column of timber section 10 cm X 15 cm is 5 m long both ends being fixed. If
the young's modulus for timber = 17.5 KN/mm2. Determine crippling load and
safe load for the column if factor of safety = 3.
11.A hollow mild steel tube 5 m long, 4 cm internal diameter and 5 mm thick is
used as a strut with both ends hinged. Determine the crippling load and safe
load taking factor of safety as 3.0. Take E = 2 X 105 N/mm2.
12.Determine Euler's crippling load for an I - section joist 30 cm X 15 cm X 2 cm
and 5 m long which is used as a strut with both ends fixed. Take E = 2 X 105
N/mm2.
13.Determine the crippling load for a T - section of dimensions 12 cm X 12 cm X 2
cm and of length 6 cm when it is used as a strut with both of its ends hinged.
Take E = 2 X 105 N/mm2.
14.Determine the ratio of buckling strengths of two columns one hollow and the
other solid. Both are made of the same material and have the same length, cross
sectional area and end conditions. The internal diameter of hollow column is
2/3rd of its external diameter.
15.A 2 m long column has a circular cross section of 6 cm diameter. One of the
ends of the column is fixed in direction and position and other end is free.
Taking factor of safety as 3, determine the safe load using
i) Rankine's formula taking yield stress = 550 N/mm2 and a = 1/1600 for pinned
ends.
29
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – IV – THIN CYLINDERS AND SPHERES, THICK CYLINDERS – SCIA1401

1
 INTRODUCTION

THIN CYLINDER:

✓ The cylinder which have thickness is less than 1/10 to 1/20 of its Diameter,
that cylinder is called as thin cylinder.
✓ Thin cylinder is only resist to the internal Pressure.
✓ Thin cylinder failure due to internal fluid pressure by the formation of
circumferential stress and longitudinal stress.
✓ The internal pressure which is acting radially inside the thin cylinder is known
as radial pressure in thin cylinder.

STRESSES IN A THIN CYLINDRICAL SHELL:

There will be two types of stresses, which will be developed in the wall of thin
cylindrical shell and these stresses are as mentioned here.

CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS OR HOOP STRESS:

Stress acting along the circumference of thin cylinder will be termed as

circumferential stress or hoop stress.

If fluid is stored under pressure inside the cylindrical shell, pressure will be acting
vertically upward and downward over the cylindrical wall.

2
LONGITUDINAL STRESS:

✓ Stress acting along the length of thin cylinder will be termed as longitudinal
stress.
✓ If fluid is stored under pressure inside the cylindrical shell, pressure force will
be acting along the length of the cylindrical shell at its two ends.

EXPRESSION FOR CIRCUMFERENTIAL or HOOP STRESS:

σ1 = p d

2t

Where, p – Internal fluid pressure

d – Internal diameter if the cylinder

t – Thickness of the wall of the cylinder

σ1 – Circumferential or hoop stress in the material.

EXPRESSION FOR LONGITUDINAL STRESS:

σ2 = p d

4t
3
 σ2 - Longitudinal stress in the material

Longitudinal stress= Half of the circumferential stress.

PROBLEMS

1.A cylindrical pipe of diameter 1.5 m and thickness 1.5 cm is subjected to an internal fluid
pressure of 1.2 N/mm2. Determine the longitudinal stress developed in the pipe and
circumferential stress developed in the pipe.

GIVEN DATA:

Diameter - 1.5 m

Thickness - 1.5 cm = 0.015 m

Internal fluid pressure of 1.2 N/mm2

SOLUTION:

1. LONGITUDINAL STRESS,

σ2 = p d = 1.2 X 1.5 = 30 N/mm2

4t 4 X 0.015

2. CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS,

σ1 = p d = 1.2 X 1.5 = 60 N/mm2

2t 2 X 0.015

2. A cylinder of internal diameter 2.5 m and of thickness 5 cm contains a gas. If the tensile
stress in the material is not to exceed 80 N/mm2, determine the internal pressure of the gas.

GIVEN DATA:

Internal diameter - 2.5 m

Thickness - 5 cm = 0.05 m

Tensile stress - 80 N/mm2

As tensile stress is given, hence this should be equal to circumferential stress (σ1), σ1 = 80 N/mm2

SOLUTION:

1.INTERNAL PRESSURE OF THE GAS,

4
σ1 = p d

2t

p = σ1 X 2 t = 80 X 2 X 0.05 = 3.2 N/mm2

d 2.5

3. A cylinder of internal diameter 0.5 m contains air at a pressure of 7 N/mm 2. If the maximum
permissible stress induced in the material is 80 N/mm2, find the thickness of the cylinder.

GIVEN DATA:

Internal diameter - 0.5 m

Pressure - 7 N/mm2

Maximum permissible stress - 80 N/mm2

As maximum permissible stress is given, hence this should be equal to circumferential stress (σ1).

σ1 - 80 N/mm2

SOLUTION:

1.THICKNESS OF THE CYLINDER,

σ1 = p d

2t

t= pd = 7 X 0.5

2 X σ1 2 X 80

t = 0.021875 m or 2.18 cm.

4. A thin cylinder of internal diameter 1.25 m contains a fluid at an internal pressure of 2

N/mm2. Determine the maximum thickness of the cylinder if i) longitudinal stress is not to
exceed 30 N/mm2 ii) circumferential stress is not to exceed 45 N/mm2.

GIVEN DATA:

Internal diameter, d - 1.25 m

Internal fluid pressure, p - 2 N/mm2

Longitudinal stress, σ2 = 30 N/mm2

5
circumferential stress, σ1 = 45 N/mm2.

SOLUTION:

1.MAXIMUM THICKNESS OF THE CYLINDER if σ1 = 45 N/mm2,

σ1 = p d

2t

t= pd = 2 X 1.25

2 X σ1 2 X 45

t = 0.0277 m or 2.77 cm.

2. MAXIMUM THICKNESS OF THE CYLINDER if σ2 = 30 N/mm2,

σ2 = p d

4t

t= pd = 2 X 1.25

4 X σ1 4 X 30

t = 0.0208 m or 2.08 cm.

The longitudinal or circumferential stresses induced in the material are inversely proportional to the
thickness of the cylinder. Hence the stress induced will be less if the value of ‘t’ is more. Hence take
the maximum value of ‘t’.

t = 2.77 cm.

5. A water main 80 cm diameter contains water at a pressure head of 100 m. If the weight
density of water is 9810 N/m3, find the thickness of the metal required for the water main.
Given the permissible stress as 20 N/mm2.

GIVEN DATA:

Diameter of main, d - 1.25 m

Pressure head of water, h = 100 m

Permissible stress, σ1 = 20 N/mm2

SOLUTION:

1.THICKNESS OF THE METAL,

6
Pressure of water inside the water main, P = w X h = 9810 X 100

= 981000 N/m2 = 0.981 N/mm2.

σ1 = p d

2t

t = pd = 0.981 X 80 = 2 cm.

2 X σ1 2 X 20

EFFICIENCY OF A JOINT

The cylindrical shells such as boilers are having two types of joints namely longitudinal joint and
circumferential joint.

Ƞl - Efficiency of a longitudinal joint and

Ƞc - Efficiency of a circumferential joint.

Circumferential stress, σ1 = p d

2 t X Ƞl

Longitudinal stress, σ2 = p d

4 t X Ƞc

Efficiency of a joint means the efficiency of a longitudinal joint.

6. A boiler is subjected to an internal steam pressure of 2 N/mm 2. The thickness of boiler plate
is 2 cm and permissible tensile stress is 120 N/mm2. Find out the maximum diameter, when
efficiency of longitudinal joint is 90 % and that of circumferential joint is 40 %.

GIVEN DATA:

Internal steam pressure, p = 2 N/mm2

Thickness of boiler plate, t = 2 cm

Permissible tensile stress = 120 N/mm2

Ƞl = 90 %

Ƞc = 40 %.

SOLUTION:

7
In case of a joint, the permissible stress may be circumferential stress or longitudinal stress.

1.MAXIMUM DIAMETER FOR CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS,

σ1 = p d

2 t X Ƞl

120 = 2Xd

2 X 0.90 X 2

d = 120 X 2 X 0.90 X 2 = 216 cm.

2. MAXIMUM DIAMETER FOR LONGITUDINAL STRESS,

σ2 = p d

4 t X Ƞc

120 = 2Xd

4 X 0.40 X 2

d = 120 X 4 X 0.40 X 2 = 192 cm.

The longitudinal or circumferential stresses induced in the material are directly proportional to
diameter. Hence the stress induced will be less if the value of ‘d’ is less. Hence take the minimum
value of d.

Maximum diameter of the boiler is equal to the minimum value of diameter.

Hence maximum diameter, d = 192 cm.

If d = 216 cm, σ2 will be more than the given permissible stress.

σ2 = p d = 2 X 216 = 135 N/mm2

4 t X Ƞc 4 X 2 X 0.4

7. A cylinder of thickness 1.5 cm has to withstand maximum internal pressure of 1.5 N/mm2. If
the ultimate tensile stress in the material of the cylinder is 300 N/mm2, factor of safety 3 and
joint efficiency 80 %, determine the diameter of the cylinder.

GIVEN DATA:
8
Thickness of cylinder, t = 1.5 cm

Internal pressure, p = 1.5 N/mm2

Ultimate tensile stress = 300 N/mm2

Factor of safety = 3

Ƞ = 80 %

Joint efficiency means the longitudinal joint efficiency, Ƞl = 80 %

SOLUTION:

Working stress, σ1 = Ultimate tensile stress = 300 = 100 N/mm2

Factor of safety 3

σ1 = p d

2 t X Ƞl

100 = 1.5 X d

2 X 0.80 X 1.5

d = 100 X 2 X 0.80 X 1.5 = 160 cm or 1.6 m.

1.5

EFFECT OF INTERNAL PRESSURE ON THE DIMENSIONS OF A THIN CYLINDRICAL

SHELL:

Change in diameter, δd = pd2 1- μ

2tE 2

Change in length, δL = pd L 1 - μ

2tE 2

Volumetric Strain, δV = pd 5 - 2μ

V 2tE 2

Change in volume, δV = V [ 2 e1 + e2]

9
Change in volume, δV = V 2 δd + δL

d L

8. Calculate the change in diameter, change in length and change in volume of a thin
cylindrical shell 100 cm diameter, 1 cm thick and 5 m long when subjected to internal pressure
of 3 N/mm2. Take the value of E = 2 X 105 N/mm2 and poisson’s ratio, μ = 0.3.

GIVEN DATA:

Diameter of shell, d = 100 cm

Thickness of shell, t = 1 cm

Length of shell, L = 5 m = 500 cm

Internal pressure, p = 3 N/mm2

Young’s modulus, E = 2 X 105 N/mm2

Poisson’s ratio, μ = 0.3.

SOLUTION:

Change in diameter, δd = pd2 1 - μ

2tE 2

= 3 X 1002 1 – 0.3

2 X 1 X 2 X 105 2

= 0.06375 cm.

Change in length, δL = pd L 1 - μ

2tE 2

= 3 X 100 X 500 1 - 0.3

2 X 1 X 2 X 105 2

= 0.075 cm.

Change in volume, δV = V 2 δd + δL

d L

V = (π d2/4) X L = (π X 1002 /4) X 500 = 3926990.817 cm3

10
 δV = 3926990.817 X 2 X 0.06375 + 0.075

100 500

= 5595.96 cm3

9. A cylindrical thin drum 80 cm in diameter and 3 m long has a shell thickness of 1 cm. If the
drum is subjected to an internal pressure of 2.5 N/mm2. Determine the change in diameter,
change in length and change in volume. Take the value of E = 2 X 105 N/mm2 and poisson’s
ratio, μ = 0.25.

GIVEN DATA:

Diameter of drum, d = 80 cm

Thickness of shell, t = 1 cm

Length of shell, L = 3 m = 300 cm

Internal pressure, p = 2.5 N/mm2

Young’s modulus, E = 2 X 105 N/mm2

Poisson’s ratio, μ = 0.25.

SOLUTION:

Change in diameter, δd = pd2 1 - μ

2tE 2

= 2.5 X 802 1 – 0.25

2 X 1 X 2 X 105 2

= 0.035 cm.

Change in length, δL = pd L 1 - μ

2tE 2

= 2.5 X 80 X 300 1 - 0.25

2 X 1 X 2 X 105 2

= 0.0375 cm.

11
Change in volume, δV = V 2 δd + δL

d L

V = (π d2/4) X L = (π X 802 /4) X 300 = 1507964.473 cm3

δV = 1507964.473 X 2 X 0.035 + 0.0375

80 300

= 1507.96 cm3

10. A cylindrical vessel whose ends are closed by means of rigid flange plates is made of steel
plate 3 mm thick. The length and the internal diameter of the vessel are 50 cm and 25 cm
respectively. Determine the longitudinal and circumferential stresses in the cylindrical shell
due to an internal fluid pressure of 3 N/mm2. Also calculate the increase in length, diameter
and volume of the vessel. Take the value of E = 2 X 105 N/mm2 and poisson’s ratio, μ = 0.3.

GIVEN DATA:

Thickness, t = 3 mm = 0.3 cm

Length of cylindrical vessel, L = 50 cm

Internal diameter, d = 25 cm

Internal fluid pressure, p = 3 N/mm2

Young’s modulus, E = 2 X 105 N/mm2

Poisson’s ratio, μ = 0.25.

SOLUTION:

1.CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS,

σ1 = p d = 3 x 25 = 125 N/mm2

2t 2 x 0.3

2. LONGITUDINAL STRESS,

σ2 = p d = 3 x 25 = 62.5 N/mm2

4t 4 x 0.3

Change in diameter, δd = pd2 1 - μ

2tE 2
12
 = 3 X 252 1 – 0.3

2 X 0.3 X 2 X 105 2

= 0.0133 cm.

Change in length, δL = pd L 1 - μ

2tE 2

= 3 X 25 X 50 1 - 0.3

2 X 0.3 X 2 X 105 2

= 0.00625 cm.

Change in volume, δV = V 2 δd + δL

d L

V = (π d2/4) X L = (π X 252 /4) X 50 = 24543.69 cm3

δV = 24543.69 X 2 X 0.0133 + 0.00625

25 50

= 29.18 cm3

11. A cylindrical vessel is 1.5 m diameter and 4 m long is closed at ends by rigid plates. It is
subjected to an internal pressure of 3 N/mm2. If the maximum principal stress is not to exceed
150 N/mm2, find the thickness of the shell. Assume E = 2 X 105 N/mm2 and poisson’s ratio, μ =
0.25. Find the changes in diameter, length and volume of the shell.

GIVEN DATA:

Diameter of vessel, d = 1.5 m = 1500 mm

Length of cylindrical vessel, L = 4 m = 4000 mm

Internal pressure, p = 3 N/mm2

Maximum principal stress = 150 N/mm2

Young’s modulus, E = 2 X 105 N/mm2

Poisson’s ratio, μ = 0.25.

SOLUTION:

13
1.THICKNESS OF THE SHELL,

Maximum principal stress means circumferential stress.

σ1 = 150 N/mm2

σ1 = p d

2t

t= pd = 3 X 1500

2 X σ1 2 X 150

t = 15 mm.

2. CHANGES IN DIAMETER, LENGTH & VOLUME,

Change in diameter, δd = pd2 1 - μ

2tE 2

= 3 X 15002 1 – 0.25

2 X 15 X 2 X 105 2

= 0.984 mm.

Change in length, δL = pd L 1 - μ

2tE 2

= 3 X 1500 X 4000 1 - 0.25

2 X 15 X 2 X 105 2

= 0.75 mm.

Volumetric Strain, δV = pd 5 - 2μ

V 2tE 2

Change in volume, δV = pd 5 - 2μ XV

2tE 2

= 3 X 1500 5 - 2 X 0.25 X V

2 X 2 X 105 X 15 2
14
V = (π d2/4) X L = (π X 15002 /4) X 4000 = 7.0685 X 109 mm3

δV = 3 X 1500 5 - 2 X 0.25 X 7.0685 X 109

2 X 2 X 105 X 15 2

= 10602875 mm3

WIRE WINDING OF THIN CYLINDERS:

➢ We know that the hoop stress is two times the longitudinal stress in a thin
cylinder, when the cylinder is subjected to internal fluid pressure.
➢ Hence the failure of a thin cylinder will be due to hoop stress.
➢ Also, the hoop stress which is tensile in nature is directly proportional to the
fluid pressure inside the cylinder.
➢ In case of cylinders which have to carry high internal fluid pressures, some
methods of reducing the hoop stresses have to be devised.
➢ One method is to wind strong steel wire under tension on the walls of the
cylinder.
➢ The effect of the wire is to put the cylinder wall under an initial compressive
stress.

THIN SPHERICAL SHELLS:

➢ A thin spherical shell of internal diameter ‘d’ and thickness ‘t’ is subjected to an
internal fluid pressure ‘p’.
➢ The fluid inside the shell has the tendency to split the shell into two hemi
spheres along x-x axis.
➢ The force P which has a tendency to split the shell.

= p X (π X d2/4)

The area resisting this force, A = π X d X t

Hoop stress induced in the material of the shell is given by,

σ1 = Force (P)

Area resisting this force (A)

σ1 = p X (π X d2/4) = p d

πXdXt 4t

15
PROBLEMS:

1.A vessel in the shape of a spherical shell of 1.2 m internal diameter and 12 mm shell thickness
is subjected to pressure of 1.6 N/mm2 . Determine the stress induced in the material of the
vessel.

GIVEN DATA:

Internal diameter of shell, d = 1.2 m = 1200 mm

Thickness of shell, t = 12 mm

Pressure, p = 1.6 N/mm2

SOLUTION:

1. STRESS INDUCED IN THE MATERIAL OF THE VESSEL,

σ1 = p d = 1.6 X 1200 = 40 N/mm2

4t 4 X 12

2.A spherical vessel 1.5 m diameter is subjected to an internal pressure of 2 N/mm 2. Find the
thickness of the plate required if maximum stress is not to exceed 150 N/mm2 and joint
efficiency is 75 %.

GIVEN DATA:

Diameter of spherical vessel, d = 1.5 m = 1500 mm

Internal pressure = 2 N/mm2

16
Maximum stress, σ1 = 150 N/mm2

Joint efficiency, Ƞ = 75 %.

SOLUTION:

σ1 = pd

4tXȠ

t = 2 X 1500 = 6.67 mm

4 X 150 X 0.75

CHANGE IN DIMENSIONS OF A THIN SPHERICAL SHELL DUE TO AN INTERNAL

PRESSURE:

Strain, δd = pd (1 – μ)

d 4tE

Change in diameter, δd = pd (1 – μ) X d

4tE

Volumetric strain, δV = 3 X pd (1 – μ)

V 4tE

Change in volume, δV = 3 X pd (1 – μ) X V

4tE

3.A spherical shell of internal diameter 0.9 m and of thickness 10 mm is subjected to an

internal pressure of 1.4 N/mm2. Determine the increase in diameter and increase in volume.
Take E = 2 X 105 N/mm2 and poisson’s ratio, μ = 1/3.

GIVEN DATA:

Internal diameter of spherical shell, d = 0.9 m = 900 mm

Thickness, t = 10 mm

Internal pressure, p = 1.4 N/mm2

E = 2 X 105 N/mm2

Poisson’s ratio, μ = 1/3.

17
SOLUTION:

1. INCREASE IN DIAMETER,

Increase in diameter, δd = pd (1 – μ) X d

4tE

Increase in diameter, δd = 1.4 X 900 (1 – (1/3)) X 900

4 X 10 X 2 X 105

= 0.0945 mm.

2. INCREASE IN VOLUME,

Change in volume, δV = 3 X pd (1 – μ) X V

4tE

Volume, V = πX d3/6 = πX 9003/6 = 381.7 mm3.

Change in volume, δV = 3 X 1.4 X 900 (1 – (1/3)) X 381.7

4 X 10 X 2 X 105

= 12028.5 mm3.

THICK CYLINDER:

➢ The cylinder which have Thickness is more than 1/20 of its diameter
that Cylinder is called as thick Cylinder.
➢ If the ratio of thickness to internal diameter is more than 1/20, then cylindrical
shell is known as thick cylinders.

STRESSES PRODUCED DUE TO INTERNAL FLUID PRESSURE:

✓ Radial pressure p (Compressive)

✓ Circumferential stress or Hoop stress σ1 (Tensile)
✓ Longitudinal stress σ2 (Tensile)

Radial Pressure: px = b - a …………….(1)

x2
Hoop Stress: σx = b + a ………………..(2)

x2
18
Above 2 equations are called Lame’s equations.

The constants ‘a’ and ‘b’ are obtained from boundary conditions.

1. At x = r1, px = p0 or the pressure of fluid inside the cylinder.

2. At x = r2, px = 0 or atmospheric pressure.

PROBLEMS:

1.Determine the maximum and minimum stress across the section of a pipe of 400
mm internal diameter and 100 mm thick, when the pipe contains a fluid at a
pressure of 8 N/mm2. Also sketch the radial pressure distribution and hoop stress
distribution across the section.

GIVEN DATA:

Internal diameter, d1 = 400 mm

Internal radius, r1 = 400/2 = 200 mm

External diameter, d2 = 400 + 2 X 100 = 600 mm

External radius, r2 = 600/2 = 300 mm

Fluid pressure, p0 = 8 N/mm2

SOLUTION:

1. MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM STRESS,

The radial pressure px = b - a …………….(1)

x2

Now apply the boundary conditions to the above equation.

The boundary conditions are:

1. At x = r1 = 200 mm, px = p0 = 8 N/mm2

2. At x = r2 = 300 mm, px = 0.

Substituting these boundary conditions in equation (1), we get

8= b - a = b - a ………….(2)

2002 40000
19
 0= b - a = b - a …………..(3)

3002 90000

Subtracting equation 3 from equation 2, we get

8–0= b - a - b + a

40000 90000

8 = 9b – 4b = 5b

360000 360000

b = 360000 X 8 = 576000

Substituting this value in equation (3), we get

0 = 576000 – a

90000

a = 576000/90000 = 6.4

The values of ‘a’ and ‘b’ are substituted in the hoop stress.

Hoop Stress: σx = b + a = 576000 + 6.4

x2 x2

At x = 200 mm, σ200 = 576000 + 6.4 = 20.8 N/mm2

2002

At x = 300 mm, σ300 = 576000 + 6.4 = 12.8 N/mm2

3002

20
21
REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. Bansal R.K., “Strength of Materials”, 5th Edition, Laxmi Publications, 2013.

2. Ramamrutham R., “Strength of Materials”,14th Edition, Dhanpat Rai Publications,

2011.
3. Punmia B.C., “Strength of Materials”, Laxmi Publications, 2011.
4. Subramanian R., “Strength of Materials - Theory and Problems”, Oxford University
Press, 2010.
5. Rajput R.K., “Strength of Materials”, S. Chand and Company Ltd., New Delhi,
2007.
6. Timoshenko S.P. and Gere J.M., “Mechanics of Materials”, 6th Edition, Tata
McGraw Hill.

22
QUESTION BANK:

1. Distinguish thin and thick cylinder.

2. Name the stresses set up in a thin cylinder subjected to internal fluid pressure.
3. What are circumferential and longitudinal stresses?
4. What do you mean by Lame's equation?
5. Name the stresses set up in a thick cylinder subjected to internal fluid pressure.
6. A cylinder of internal diameter 2.5 m and of thickness 5 cm contains a gas. If
the tensile stress in the material is not to exceed 80 N/mm2, find the internal
pressure of the gas.
7. A vessel in the shape of a spherical shell of 1.2 m internal diameter and 12 mm
shell thickness is subjected to pressure of 1.6 N/mm2. Find the stress induced in
the material of the vessel.
8. A spherical vessel 1.5 m diameter is subjected to an internal pressure of 2
N/mm2. Find the thickness of the plate required if maximum stress is not to
exceed 150 N/mm2 and joint efficiency is 75 %.
9. A cylinder pipe of diameter 2 m and thickness 2 cm is subjected to an internal
fluid pressure of 1.5 N/mm2, find the longitudinal and circumferential stress
developed in the pipe material.
10. A thin cylinder of internal diameter 2 m contains a fluid at an internal pressure
of 3 N/mm2. Determine the maximum thickness of the cylinder if
i)longitudinal stress is not to exceed 30 N/mm2 ii)circumferential stress is not to
exceed 40 N/mm2.
11. A thin cylindrical shell of 120 cm diameter, 1.5 cm thick and 6 m long is
subjected to internal fluid pressure of 2.5 N/mm2.If E = 2 X105 N/mm2 and
poisson's ratio = 0.3, determine i) Change in diameter ii) change in length iii)
change in volume.
12. Determine the thickness of metal necessary for a cylindrical shell of internal
diameter 150 mm to withstand an internal pressure of 50 N/mm2. The
maximum hoop stress in the section is not to exceeed 150 N/mm2.

23
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – V – THEORIES OF FAILURE – SCIA1401

1
 INTRODUCTION

Theories of failure are those theories which help us to determine the safe dimensions
of a machine component when it is subjected to combined stresses due to various
loads acting on it during its functionality.

IMPORTANT THEORIES OF FAILURE:

Maximum principal stress theory (Rankine's theory)

Maximum principal strain theory (St. Venant's theory)

Maximum shear stress theory (Coulomb, Tresca and Guest's theory)

Maximum strain energy theory (Haigh's theory)

Maximum shear strain energy theory or Distortion energy theory (Huber von Mises
and Hencky's theory)
MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRESS THEORY (RANKINE'S THEORY)

According to this theory, the failure of a material will occur when the maximum
principal tensile stress (σ1) in the complex system reaches the value of the maximum
stress at the elastic limit in simple tension or the minimum principal stress (maximum
principal compressive stress) reaches the value of the maximum stress at the elastic
limit in simple compression.

Let in a complex three-dimensional stress system,

σ1 ,σ2 and σ3 = principal stresses at a point in three perpendicular directions.

The stresses σ1 and σ2 are tensile and σ3 is compressive.

Also, σ1 is more than σ2

σt* = tensile stress at elastic limit in simple tension.

σc* = compressive stress at elastic limit in simple compression.

σ1 > σt* in simple tension.

σ3 > σc*in simple compression.

This is the simplest and oldest theory of failure and is known as Rankine’s theory.
2
If the maximum principal stress σ1 is the design criterion, then maximum principal
stress must not exceed the permissible stress σt for the given material.

Hence, σ1 = σt

Where, σt = permissible stress and is given by

σt = σt* / factor of safety.

PROBLEMS:

1.The principal stresses at a point in an elastic material are 100 N/mm 2 (tensile),
80 N/mm2 (tensile) and 50 N/mm2 (compressive). If the stress at the elastic limit in
simple tension is 200 N/mm2 , determine whether the failure of material will
occur according to maximum principal stress theory. If not, then determine the
factor of safety.

GIVEN DATA:

σ1 = 100 N/mm2

σ2 = 80 N/mm2

σ3 = 50 N/mm2 = - 50 N/mm2

σt* = 200 N/mm2

SOLUTION:

1.TO DETERMINE WHETHER FAILURE OF MATERIAL WILL OCCUR OR NOT:

From the three given stresses, the maximum principal tensile stress is σ1 = 100 N/mm2

And the stress at elastic limit in simple tension is σt* = 200 N/mm2

As σ1 is less than σt*, the failure will not occur according to maximum principal
stress theory.

2.FACTOR OF SAFETY:

Using equation, σ1 = σt σt = 100 N/mm2

σt = σt* / factor of safety

Factor of safety = σt* / σt = 200/100 = 2.

3
MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRAIN THEORY (ST. VENANT'S THEORY)

According to this theory, the failure of a material will occur when the maximum
principal strain reaches strain due to yield stress in simple tension or when the
minimum principal strain (maximum compressive strain) reaches the strain due to
yield stress in simple compression.

Yield stress is the maximum stress at elastic limit.

Consider a three-dimensional stress system.

4
2.The principal stresses at a point in an elastic material are 200 N/mm2 (tensile),
100 N/mm2 (tensile) and 50 N/mm2 (compressive). If the stress at the elastic limit
in simple tension is 200 N/mm2 , determine whether the failure of material will
occur according to maximum principal strain theory. Take Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.

GIVEN DATA:

σ1 = 200 N/mm2

σ2 = 100 N/mm2

σ3 = 50 N/mm2 = - 50 N/mm2

σt* = 200 N/mm2

Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.

SOLUTION:

1.TO DETERMINE WHETHER FAILURE OF MATERIAL WILL OCCUR OR NOT:

3. Determine the diameter of a bolt which is subjected to an axial pull of 9 KN

together with a transverse shear force of 4.5 KN using, i) Maximum principal
stress theory and ii) maximum principal strain theory. Given the elastic limit in
tension = 225 N/mm2 , factor of safety = 3 and Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.
5
GIVEN DATA:

Axial pull, P = 9 KN = 9000 N

Transverse shear force, F = 4.5 KN = 4500 N

σt* = 225 N/mm2

Factor of safety = 3

Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.

SOLUTION:

The permissible stress in tension is given by,

σt = σt* / factor of safety = 225/3 = 75 N/mm2

The axial pull will produce tensile stress whereas transvers shear force will produce
shear stress in the bolt.

Let us calculate these stresses.

Now, tensile stress, σ = P = P = 4P

A πd2/4 πd2

= 4 X 9000 = 11459 N/mm2

πd2 d2

Now, shear stress, τ = F = 4F = 4 X 4500 = 5729.5 N/mm2

πd2/4 πd2 πd2 d2

6
1.DIAMETER OF BOLT ACCORDING TO MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRESS THEORY:

Here diameter of the bolt is to be calculated.

This becomes the case of design.

For the purpose of design, according to maximum principal stress theory, the
maximum principal stress should not exceed the permissible stress σt in tension.

Here, the maximum principal stress is σ1

7
8
MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS THEORY (GUEST'S THEORY)

According to this theory, the failure of a material will occur when the maximum shear
stress in a material reaches the value of maximum shear stress in simple tension at the
elastic limit.

The maximum shear stress in the material is equal to half the difference between
maximum and minimum principal stress.

If σ1 ,σ2 and σ3 are principal stresses at a point in a material for which σt* is the
principal stress in simple tension at elastic limit, then

Maximum shear stress in the material = Half of difference of maximum and minimum
principal stresses.

= 1 [σ1 - σ3]

In case of simple tension, at the elastic limit the principal stresses are σt*, 0, 0.

[In simple tension, the stress is existing in one direction only]

➢ Maximum shear stress in simple tension at elastic limit = Half of difference of

maximum and minimum principal stresses.

= 1 [σt* - 0] = 1 σt*

2 2

For the failure of material,

1 [σ1 - σ3] = 1 σt* OR [σ1 - σ3] > σt*

2 2

For actual design instead of σt*, the allowable stress σt in simple tension should be
considered.

σt = σt* / factor of safety

9
Hence for design purpose, the following equation should be used.

(σ1 - σ3 ) = σt

4.The principal stresses at a point in an elastic material are 200 N/mm2 (tensile),
100 N/mm2 (tensile) and 50 N/mm2 (compressive). If the stress at the elastic limit
in simple tension is 200 N/mm2 , determine whether the failure of material will
occur according to maximum shear stress theory.

GIVEN DATA:

σ1 = 200 N/mm2

σ2 = 100 N/mm2

σ3 = 50 N/mm2 = - 50 N/mm2

σt* = 200 N/mm2

SOLUTION:

Maximum shear stress in the material = Half of difference of maximum and minimum
principal stresses.

= 1 [σ1 - σ3] = 1 [ 200 – (-50)] = 250/2 = 125 N/mm2

2 2

Maximum shear stress in simple tension at elastic limit = Half of difference of

maximum and minimum principal stresses.

= 1 x σt* = 1 x 200 = 100 N/mm2

2 2

As maximum shear stress developed in the material is 125 N/mm2 is more than the
maximum shear stress at the elastic limit in simple tension is 100 N/mm2 , hence
failure will occur.

5.According to the theory of maximum shear stress, determine the diameter of a

bolt which is subjected to an axial pull of 9 KN together with a transverse shear
10
force of 4.5 KN. Elastic limit in tension = 225 N/mm2 , factor of safety = 3 and
Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.

GIVEN DATA:

Axial pull, P = 9 KN = 9000 N

Transverse shear force, F = 4.5 KN = 4500 N

σt* = 225 N/mm2

Factor of safety = 3

Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.

SOLUTION:

1.DIAMETER OF BOLT ACCORDING TO MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRESS THEORY:

Permissible simple stress in tension, σt = σt* /3 = 225/3 = 75 N/mm2

The axial pull will produce tensile stress whereas transvers shear force will produce
shear stress in the bolt.

Let us calculate these stresses.

Now, tensile stress, σ = P = P = 4P

A πd2/4 πd2

= 4 X 9000 = 11459 N/mm2

πd2 d2

Now, shear stress, τ = F = 4F = 4 X 4500 = 5729.5 N/mm2

πd2/4 πd2 πd2 d2

11
12
MAXIMUM STRAIN ENERGY THEORY (HAIGH'S THEORY)

According to this theory, the failure of a material will occur when the total strain
energy per unit volume in the material reaches the strain energy per unit volume of the
material at the elastic limit in simple tension.

Strain energy in a body is equal to work done by the load in straining the material and
is equal to ½ X P X δL.

13
14
6. The principal stresses at a point in an elastic material are 200 N/mm2 (tensile),
100 N/mm2 (tensile) and 50 N/mm2 (compressive). If the stress at the elastic limit
in simple tension is 200 N/mm2 , determine whether the failure of material will
occur according to maximum principal strain theory. Take Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.

GIVEN DATA:

σ1 = 200 N/mm2

σ2 = 100 N/mm2

σ3 = 50 N/mm2 = - 50 N/mm2

σt* = 200 N/mm2

Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.

SOLUTION:

1.TO DETERMINE WHETHER FAILURE OF MATERIAL WILL OCCUR OR NOT:

Total strain energy per unit volume in the material,

1 [σ1 + σ1 + σ1 – 2 ( σ1 σ2 + σ2 σ3 + σ3 σ1 ) ]

2E

= 1 [ 2002 + 1002 +(-50)2 – 2 x 0.3 {200 x 100 + 100 x (-50) + (- 50) x 200}]

2E

= 1 [49500]

2E

strain energy per unit volume of the material at the elastic limit in simple tension

1 X σt*2

2E

15
= 1 X 2002 = 40000

2E 2E

We find the total strain energy per unit volume in the material is more than the strain
energy per unit volume at elastic limit in simple tension. Hence failure will occur.

7. According to maximum strain energy theory, determine the diameter of a bolt

which is subjected to an axial pull of 9 KN together with a transverse shear force
of 4.5 KN. Elastic limit in tension = 225 N/mm2 , factor of safety = 3 and Poisson’s
ratio = 0.3.

GIVEN DATA:

Axial pull, P = 9 KN = 9000 N

Transverse shear force, F = 4.5 KN = 4500 N

σt* = 225 N/mm2

Factor of safety = 3

Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.

SOLUTION:

1.DIAMETER OF BOLT ACCORDING TO MAXIMUM STRAIN ENERGY THEORY:

Permissible simple stress in tension, σt = σt* /3 = 225/3 = 75 N/mm2

The axial pull will produce tensile stress whereas transvers shear force will produce
shear stress in the bolt.

Let us calculate these stresses.

Now, tensile stress, σ = P = P = 4P

A πd2/4 πd2

= 4 X 9000 = 11459 N/mm2

πd2 d2
16
Now, shear stress, τ = F = 4F = 4 X 4500 = 5729.5 N/mm2

πd2/4 πd2 πd2 d2

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MAXIMUM SHEAR STRAIN ENERGY THEORY (MISES-HENKY THEORY)

• According to this theory, the failure of a material will occur when the total shear
strain energy per unit volume in the material reaches the value of shear strain
energy per unit volume at the elastic limit in the simple tension.
• The total shear strain energy per unit volume due to principal stresses σ1 ,σ2 and
σ3 in a stressed material is given as,

1 [ (σ1 – σ2 ) 2 + (σ2 – σ3 ) 2 + (σ3 - σ1 ) 2 ]

2C

The simple tension test is a uniaxial stress system which means the principal stresses
are σ1 ,0,0.

At the elastic limit the tensile stress in simple tension is σt*

Hence at the elastic limit in simple tension test, the principal stresses are σt* ,0,0.

The shear strain energy per unit volume at the elastic limit in simple tension will be.

1 [ (σt* – 0 ) 2 + (0 – 0 ) 2 + (0 - σt* ) 2 ]

12C

1 [ 2 X σt*2 ]

12C

For the failure of the material,

1 [ (σ1 – σ2 ) 2 + (σ2 – σ3 ) 2 + (σ3 - σ1 ) 2 ] > 1 [ 2 X σt*2 ]

12C 12C

(σ1 – σ2 ) 2 + (σ2 – σ3 ) 2 + (σ3 - σ1 ) 2 > 2 X σt*2

For actual design instead of σt*, the allowable stress σt in simple tension should be
considered.

σt = σt* / factor of safety

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Hence for design purpose, the following equation should be used.

(σ1 – σ2 ) 2 + (σ2 – σ3 ) 2 + (σ3 - σ1 ) 2 = 2 X σt2

8. The principal stresses at a point in an elastic material are 200 N/mm2 (tensile),
100 N/mm2 (tensile) and 50 N/mm2 (compressive). If the stress at the elastic limit
in simple tension is 200 N/mm2 , determine whether the failure of material will
occur according to maximum shear strain energy theory. Take Poisson’s ratio =
0.3.

GIVEN DATA:

σ1 = 200 N/mm2

σ2 = 100 N/mm2

σ3 = 50 N/mm2 = - 50 N/mm2

σt* = 200 N/mm2

Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.

SOLUTION:

1.TO DETERMINE WHETHER FAILURE OF MATERIAL WILL OCCUR OR NOT:

The total shear strain energy per unit volume due to principal stresses σ1 ,σ2 and σ3 in a
stressed material is given by,

1 [ (σ1 – σ2 ) 2 + (σ2 – σ3 ) 2 + (σ3 - σ1 ) 2 ]

12C

= 1 [ (200 – 100)2 + {100 – (-50)} 2 + {(-50) -200} 2]

12C

= 1 X 95000

12C

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 The shear strain energy per unit volume at the elastic limit in simple tension will
be,

1 [ 2 X σt*2 ] = 1 [ 2 X 2002 ] = 1 X 80000

12C 12C 12C

We find that total shear strain energy per unit volume due to principal stresses σ1 ,σ2
and σ3 are more than the shear strain energy per unit volume at the elastic limit in
simple tension.

Hence failure will occur.

9. According to maximum shear strain energy theory, determine the diameter of

a bolt which is subjected to an axial pull of 9 KN together with a transverse shear
force of 4.5 KN. Elastic limit in tension = 225 N/mm2 , factor of safety = 3 and
Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.

GIVEN DATA:

Axial pull, P = 9 KN = 9000 N

Transverse shear force, F = 4.5 KN = 4500 N

σt* = 225 N/mm2

Factor of safety = 3

Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.

SOLUTION:

1.DIAMETER OF BOLT ACCORDING TO MAXIMUM SHEAR STRAIN ENERGY

THEORY:

Permissible simple stress in tension,σt = σt* /3 = 225/3 = 75 N/mm2

The axial pull will produce tensile stress whereas transvers shear force will produce
shear stress in the bolt.

Let us calculate these stresses.

20
Now, tensile stress, σ = P = P = 4P

A πd2/4 πd2

= 4 X 9000 = 11459 N/mm2

πd2 d2

Now, shear stress, τ = F = 4F = 4 X 4500 = 5729.5 N/mm2

πd2/4 πd2 πd2 d2

In this problem, diameter is to be calculated according to the maximum shear strain

energy theory.

Hence the following equation is to be used.

(σ1 – σ2 ) 2 + (σ2 – σ3 ) 2 + (σ3 - σ1 ) 2 = 2 X σt2

21
22
REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. Bansal R.K., “Strength of Materials”, 5th Edition, Laxmi Publications, 2013.

2. Ramamrutham R., “Strength of Materials”,14th Edition, Dhanpat Rai Publications,

2011.
3. Punmia B.C., “Strength of Materials”, Laxmi Publications, 2011.
4. Subramanian R., “Strength of Materials - Theory and Problems”, Oxford University
Press, 2010.
5. Rajput R.K., “Strength of Materials”, S. Chand and Company Ltd., New Delhi,
2007.
6. Timoshenko S.P. and Gere J.M., “Mechanics of Materials”, 6th Edition, Tata
McGraw Hill.

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QUESTION BANK:
1. Name the important theories of failure.
2. Define: Maximum principal stress theory.
3. Define: Maximum principal strain theory.
4. Define: Maximum shear stress theory.
5. Define: Maximum strain energy theory.
6. Define: Maximum shear strain energy theory.
7. The principal stresses at a point in an elastic material are 22 N/mm2 tensile, 110
N/mm2 (tensile) and 55 N/mm2 (compressive). If the stress at the elastic limit in
simple tension is 200 N/mm2, determine whether the failure of material will occur
according to maximum principal stress theory. If not, then determine the factor of
safety.
8. Determine the diameter of a bolt which is subjected to an axial pull of 9 kN together
with a transverse shear force of 4.5 kN using Maximum principal strain theory. Given
the elastic limit in tension = 225 N/mm2, factor of safety = 3 and Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.
9. At a section of mild steel shaft, the maximum torque is 8437.5 Nm and maximum
bending moment is 5062.5Nm. The diameter of shaft is 90 mm and the stress at the
elastic limit in simple tension for the material of the shaft is 220 N/mm2.Determine
whether the failure of the material will occur or not according to maximum shear
stress theory. If not, then find the factor of safety.
10. According to the theory of maximum shear stress, determine the diameter of a bolt
which is subjected to an axial pull of 9 kN together with a transverse shear force of 4.5
kN. Elastic limit in tension is 225 N/mm2, factor of safety = 3 and poisson’s ratio =
o.3.
11. The principal stresses at a point in an elastic material are 22 N/mm2 tensile, 110
N/mm2 (tensile) and 55 N/mm2 (compressive). If the stress at the elastic limit in
simple tension is 220 N/mm2 and poisson's ratio = 0.3, determine whether the failure
of material will occur or not according to maximum strain energy theory.
12. A cylindrical shell made of mild steel plate and 1.2 m in diameter is to be
subjected to an internal pressure of 1.5 MN/m2. If the material yields at 200 MN/m2,
calculate the thickness of the plate on the basis of the following three theories,
assuming a factor of safety 3 in each case: (i) maximum principal stress theory, (ii)
maximum shear stress theory, and (iii) maximum shear strain energy theory.

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