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General Paper On Teaching &

Research Aptitude
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 Reasoning

1. REASONING

Reasoning is drawing of inferences or conclusions the use of reason. Reasoning is measure of

capacity of intelligence test. The main purpose suitable persons of various situation.
Analogical Reasoning
Analogical reasoning is using an analogy, a type of comparison between two things, to develop
understanding and meaning. It's commonly used to make decisions, solve problems and communicate.
As a tool of decision making and problem solving, analogy is used to simplify complex scenarios
to something that can be more readily understood. This can improve the quality of solutions, as long as
the substitution is valid. As a tool of communication, analogy can efficiently represent complex ideas with
familiar and easy to understand comparisons. This can be used to persuade or simply to transfer
knowledge.
Logical Reasoning
Logical reasoning test (also Known as Critical Reasoning tests) is the process of using a
rational, systematic series of steps based on sound mathematical procedures and given statements to
arrive at a conclusion. It is a form of psychometric testing that is widely used by corporate employers
to help assess candidates during their recruitment process.
Logical reasoning tests mostly feature non-verbal content, requiring candidates to interpret
and manipulate shapes, numbers and patterns. Sometimes logical reasoning tests are given a more
specific name to reflect a more target skill set. Such as: Deductive Reasoning, Inductive Reasoning,
diagrammatic reasoning and abstract reasoning. 'Diagrammatic reasoning. The terminology differs between
the various tests, but the overall principle is the same.
Reasoning (logic) can take two forms – inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning. Inductive
and deductive reasoning are two methods of logic used to arrive at a conclusion based on information
assumed to be true. Both are used in research to establish hypotheses.
Deductive and Inductive Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning means a form of logic in which specific inferences are drawn from multiple
premises (general statements). It establishes the relationship between the proposition and conclusion.
When all the proposed statements are true, then the rules of deduction are applied and the result
obtained is inevitably true.
In the case of deductive reasoning, the conclusion must be true if the premises are also true.
Deductive reasoning uses general principles to create a specific conclusion. Deductive reasoning is also
known as 'top-down reasoning' because it goes from general and works its way down more specific. A
valid argument is reasoning that is comprehensive on the foundation of logic or fact.
It is adopt process of Theory > Hypothesis > Observation > Confirmation
 For example, 'All cars have engines. I have a car. Therefore, my car has an engine.'
 The apple hit me on the head because of gravity.
 There are three people in my family. Each one is tall, so everyone in my family is tall.
These examples are truth therefore these called deductive reasoning.

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 General Paper-I (Sample Theory)

Inductive Reasoning
In inductive reasoning, there are certain possibilities that the conclusion drawn can be false, even
if the all the assumptions are true. The reasoning vests on experience and observations that support the
apparent truth of the conclusion. Further, the argument can be strong or weak, as it only describes the
likelihood of the inference, to be true.
It adopt process Observation > Pattern > Tentative Hypothesis > Theory
Inductive reasoning is reasoning where the premises support the conclusion. The conclusion
is the hypothesis, or probable. This means that the conclusion is the part of reasoning that inductive
reasoning is trying to prove. Inductive reasoning is also referred to as 'cause and effect reasoning' or
'bottom-up reasoning' because it seeks to prove a conclusion first. This is usually derived from specific
instances to develop a general conclusion.
For Example
 Every windstorm in this area comes from the north. I can see a big cloud of dust caused
by a windstorm in the distance; so, a new windstorm is coming from the north.
 All cars in this town drive on the right side of the street. Therefore, all cars in all towns
drive on the right side of the street.
 The chair in the living room is red. The chair in the dining room is red. The chair in the
bed room is red. All chairs in the house are red.
These examples cannot right all times therefore it is called inductive reasoning.
Adductive Reasoning : Abduction is a form of logical inference that goes from observation to
a hypothesis that accounts for the reliable data and seeks to explain relevant evidence. The American
philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce first introduced the term as "guessing".
Reductive Reasoning : Reductive reasoning is a subset of argumentative reasoning which
seeks to demonstrate that a statement is true by showing that a false or absurd result/circumstance
follows from its denial. It is proving a statement true by reducing to the opposite of it and showing the
absurdity of the opposite result. Reductive reasoning is also called Reductio ad absurdum (Latin:
"reduction to absurdity"). Reductive Reasoning is also considered a mixture of deductive & inductive
reasoning.
Fallacious Reasoning : Fallacious Reasoning is not real reasoning, it is the faulty premises for
critical thinking and logic. One of the tall tell signs of fallacious reasoning is a logical fallacy. A fallacy is
usually an error in reasoning and argumentation often due to a misconception, false premises, or
presumptuous conclusions.
Summary of Reasoning
 Deductive Reasoning: What is (absolutely) true?
 Inductive Reasoning: What is observably (most) true?
 Abductive Reasoning: What is most likely true?
 Reductive Reasoning: What is NOT true?
 Fallacious Reasoning: What you think is true?
Understanding the structure of Arguments
An argument can be defined as a form of reasoning that attempts to establish the truth of one
claim (called a conclusion) based on the assumed truth of the evidence in other claims (called
premises) provided to support the conclusion.
An argument has three important characteristics or features in that it :
(i) Is a "form of reasoning
(ii) Is comprised of claims (sometimes also called statements or assertions)

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 General Paper-I (Sample Theory)

(iii) Aims at establishing a conclusion (i.e., one claim) based on evidence provided (by other
claims)
One could say that at that time, research on psychological aspects of argumentation was still
embryonic, largely due to technical limitations since argumentation is a social activity, analysis of
argumentation demands tools for recording and analyzing such data. But there is here more than
technological developments, with cultural and historical dimensions. Each society has its own history,
norms, tools, or institutions.
Main components in argument
(a) Premises
(b) Conclusion:
A simple argument must have a conclusion and at least two premises.
Premises or propositions are statements that directly support the conclusion.
Conclusion is what an author or an individual wants me to believe, accept or do.

Argument Forms
Arguments come in two basic Forms : Deductive and Inductive.
a. Good deductive arguments are valid; the truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the
conclusion.
b. Good inductive arguments are not valid; the truth of the premises, at best, only makes the
conclusion possible.
A deductive argument is an argument in which it is thought that the premises provide a guarantee
of the truth of the conclusion. In a deductive argument, the premises are intended to provide support for
the conclusion that is so strong that, if the premises are true, it would be impossible for the conclusion
to be false
An inductive argument is an argument in which it is thought that the premises provide reasons
supporting the probable truth of the conclusion. In an inductive argument, the premises are intended only
to be so strong that, if they are true, then it is unlikely that the conclusion is false.
The difference between the two comes from the sort of relation the author or expositor of the
argument takes there to be between the premises and the conclusion. If the author of the argument
believes that the truth of the premises definitely establishes the truth of the conclusion due to definition.

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 General Paper-I (Sample Theory)

The Structure of Categorical Propositions

To "categorize" a person, place, time, thing, or situation is to characterize it as a member of
a class of similar things. One does not consider the thing in question from its purely individual point of
view, that is, in terms of the qualities it has without relationship to any other things. Upon being categorized,
an individual thing is known by properties that it has by virtue of its being a member of the class of things
referred to by that category.
All propositions expressed in the Aristotelian system of logic are called categorical propositions
because they are constructed using two categories of things: the subject category (or class) and the
predicate category (or class).
There are exactly four types of categorical propositions.
(1) The whole subject class is included in the predicate class;
(2) The whole subject class is excluded from the predicate class;
(3) Part of the subject class is included in the predicate class;
(4) Part of the subject class is excluded from the predicate class.
Thus there are four standard forms of categorical propositions:
1. All S are P (A proposition)
2. No S are P (E proposition)
3. Some S are P (I proposition)
4. Some S are not P (O proposition)
'S' and 'P' represent the subject and predicate terms, respectively. Note that this is different
from the grammatical subject and predicate. The grammatical subject contains the quantifier (All), while
the subject term does not. 'No', 'All', and 'Some' are quantifiers. 'Are' and 'are not' are copulas.
The four forms :
Universal affirmative: A All S are P
Universal negative: E All S are not P
Particular affirmative: I Some S are P
Particular negative: O Some S are not P
A categorical proposition has a subject and a predicate term, which give it its content. It also has
an affirmative or negative quality and a universal or particular quantity. The quality and quantity together
determine the form of the proposition–A, E, I, or O.
In traditional logic these four standard forms can be arranged in a square of opposition, which
exhibits the following logical relationships: contraries, contradictories, sub alternates, and sub contraries.
If we hold that A and E propositions lack existential import, however, then all these relationships except
contradictories are omitted from the square.
Mood and Figure
Categorical syllogisms are sets of three categorical propositions. The first two are given and
presumed to be true. These first two categorical propositions are called premises. The third categorical
proposition is the conclusion. The third categorical proposition is in the form _____ S is (___) P.
The first categorical proposition is called the major premise and introduces P and a term that will
be called M, the middle term. The second categorical proposition is called the minor premise and
includes S and M.
A categorical proposition is termed "valid" if the premises are sufficient support to prove the
conclusion true. The premises are always presumed to be true. To avoid confusing oneself, the use of
factually true premises is useful when examining a syllogism.

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 General Paper-I (Sample Theory)

Once a categorical syllogism is in standard form, we can then determine its mood and figure.
The form of the syllogism is named by listing the mood first, then the figure.
Mood
Mood depends upon the type of propositions (A, E, I or O) It is a list of the types beginning with
the major premise and ending with the conclusion.
The mood of a categorical syllogism in standard form is a string of three letters indicating,
respectively, the forms of the major premise, minor premise, and conclusion of the syllogism.
There are four types of categorical proposition, the universal affirmative A, the universal negative
E, the particular affirmative I, and the particular negative O.
A : All rocks are hard things.
E : No rocks are hard things ( Major Premise)
I : Some rocks are hard things( Minor Premise)
O : Some rocks are not hard things [Not every rock is a hard thing] (Conclusion)
For instance, a syllogism with an E proposition as its major premise, an I proposition as its minor
premise, and O proposition as its conclusion has the mood EIO. Now, you would also notice that each
syllogistic mood, say EIO, can have four distinct versions depending on the arrangement of the major,
minor, and middle terms in the premises—for a particular term can either be the subject or the predicate
of the proposition. Thus, we need to supplement the labeling system with mentioning its figure, that which
identifies the four distinct ways the middle terms are arranged in the syllogism:
Figure
Categorical syllogism have four possible figures depending on the position of the middle term.
The "flying brick" is a good way to remember the four figures. The flying brick refers to the possible
positions of the middle term without regard to quantity. The following is a picture of the flying brick.
The position of the middle term is described by the figure of the syllogism. The figures are named
"1," "2," "3," and "4." They are easily remembered because they form the shape of a flying brick.
M MM M
\ /
MMMM
If we let S represent the minor term, P the major term, and M the middle term, and leave out the
quantifiers and copulas, the four figures may be illustrated as follows:
M-P P-M M-P P-M
\ /
S-M S-M M-S M-S
S-P S-P S-P S-P
First Second Third Fourth
Figure Figure Figure Figure
Figure 1 : the middle term is the subject term of the major premise and the predicate term of
the minor premise
Figure 2 : the middle term is the predicate term of both premises
Figure 3 : the middle term is the subject term of both premises
Figure 4 : the middle term appears as the predicate term of the major premise and the subject
term of the minor premise
Considering all possible moods and figures, there are exactly 256 distinct forms of categorical
syllogism (four types of major premise multiplied by four kinds of minor premise multiplied by four kinds
of conclusion multiplied by four possible figures).

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 General Paper-I (Sample Theory)

Fallacies
Fallacies are errors or tricks of reasoning. We call a fallacy an error of reasoning if it occurs
accidentally; we call it a trick of reasoning if a speaker or writer uses it in order to deceive or manipulate
his audience. Fallacies can be either formal or informal.
A fallacy is a defect in an argument which misleads the mind. The defect may be intentional or
unintentional. If the defect is intentional, we sometimes call it a sophism. One's understanding of fallacies
may be used for good, in order to avoid or expose error; or it may be used for evil, in order to subtly
deceive.
Sometimes it refers to a mistaken belief, typically expressed as an untrue statement; sometimes
it refers to a mistake in reasoning. In the latter sense, it is like the term "validity? in that it can only be
applied to arguments. Mistakes in reasoning are sometimes called "formal fallacies? because the logical
form of such arguments makes them deductively invalid, e.g., the fallacy of an undistributed middle term,
or the fallacy of asserting the consequent; more generally, such arguments are inferentially weak.
Mistaken beliefs (as expressed by untrue statements) are sometimes called "informal fallacies?
When they are used as premises in an argument because the mistake here does not have to do with
the logical form of the argument, but with its premises, which are unsatisfactory in some way
When we make an argument, we often attempt to establish the truth of a statement that is
unknown or disputed. That statement becomes the conclusion of our argument. A deductively valid
argument that proves the truth of its conclusion on the basis of the truth of its premises is a sound
argument; an inductive argument that gives good evidence for the truth of its conclusion is a strong
inductive argument.
Formal Fallacies
A formal fallacy (deductive) is one which involves an error in the form, arrangement or technical
structure of an argument. The question in view is not whether a conclusion is true or false, but whether
the form of the argument is correct or incorrect, valid or invalid.
Below is an example of an invalid deductive argument.
Premise : All black bears are omnivores.
Premise : All raccoons are omnivores.
Conclusion : All raccoons are black bears.
The argument is invalid—that is, the relationship between the premises doesn't support the
conclusion.
Informal Fallacies
Informal (or inductive) fallacies abound. Not only are we more likely to come across them than
formal fallacies, their variations are endless. While formal fallacies are identified through an examination
of the statement or claim, informal fallacies are identified through supporting evidence. Very often they
involve bringing irrelevant information into an argument or they are based on assumptions that, when
examined, prove to be incorrect.
An informal fallacy involves such things as: the misuse of language such as words or grammar,
misstatements of fact or opinion, misconceptions due to underlying presuppositions, or just plain illogical
sequences of thought.
Distinguish : Formal fallacies are a matter of invalid form. Informal fallacies are a matter of
unclear expression. Formal fallacies deal with the logic of the technical structure, while informal fallacies
deal with the logic of the meaning of language. The word "informal" does not here mean it is inferior,
casual or improper. It only means that our focus is not on the form of the argument, but on the meaning
of the argument.

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 General Paper-I (Sample Theory)

Uses of Language
One of most the fundamental things use language for is argument. Arguing means claiming that
something is true and trying to persuade other people to agree with claim by presenting evidence to
substantiate it.
An argumentative research paper needs to support your stand on an issue. An argumentative
research paper is analytical, but it uses information as evidence to support its point, much as a lawyer
uses evidence to make their case.
Some descriptive words contain an evaluative meaning (either positive or negative). By
consistently choosing negative (or positive) words, the reader can be subtly persuaded to see these
things in the same way. For example, words with positive evaluative are meaning include: important,
significant, necessary, impressive. Words with negative evaluative meaning include: inconclusive,
questionable, unimpressive, insignificant and weak.
Beginning to end structure when we think of the larger scale of a whole essay, it is useful to
capture the relationship between the beginning, the middle, and the end in a simple way:
 Introduction : To tell the reader what the essay is going to be about
"Tell me what you're going to tell me."
 Body : To tell the reader what the essay is about
"Tell me"
 Conclusion : To tell the reader what the essay has been about
"Tell me what you've told me."
One way to go about evaluating an argument for fallacies is to return to the concept of the three
fundamental appeals: ethos, logos, and pathos.
 Pathos : Pathos involves using emotional language that is designed to draw the reader
in and make them feel for you. For example: "If my allowance isn't increased, I won't be
able to go out with my friends and do everything they do."
 Research and Logos : These strategies involve using studies, data, charts, illustrations,
and logic to back up her position and points. For example: "As you can see in the pie
chart, at my age the average child's allowance is..."
 Ethos : The ethos strategy of persuasion involves using language that shows that the
writer is trustworthy and believable. For example: "As you may recall, I've always been
willing to put ten percent of my allowance in my bank account, thus..."
The claim may also be referred to as the thesis statement. Sometimes the author will direct an
open discussion towards a claim, which is presented at the end of the article. The claim can therefore
also be referred to as the conclusion. Often the author presents the claim early on ("I will argue that"),
follows it by arguments (discussion, debate, analysis, review) and then finally presents the claim again,
this time as a conclusion.
Connotations and Denotations of Terms
Connotation refers to the emotional, social, and cultural associations attached to a word.
Connotation, on the other hand, refers to the associations that are connected to a certain word or the
emotional suggestions related to that word.
The most important thing when choosing words is intention, and they should be selected based
on the answer to the question, "what feeling do you want to convey through your words?" For instance,
the word "thin" can be expressed in different ways: imagine a friend saying, "WOW, you're so slender,
you look amazing!" versus "oh my God, you're so skinny, do you ever eat?" The first use of "slender"
has a positive connotation, implying that you look great, but the second word "skinny" has a negative
connotation, implying that you look sickly.

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The connotative meanings of a word exist together with the denotative meanings.
Generally words can be used for positive or negative connotations depending on the contextual
situation. The usage of words may be good or bad sense, impression, experience, feeling, etc. for
example, politicians and advertisers may prefer words with positive connotations in view of expressing
their message attractively. In case of unpleasant feeling, a word with negative connotations may be used
to describe them. For example
"Long before the Christian era, people celebrated the winter equinox. Let's remove religious
connotations and call it the winter equinox break."
Denotation represents the explicit or referential meaning of a sign. Denotation refers to the
literal meaning of a word, the 'dictionary definition.
A word's denotation is the strict dictionary definition of that word and refers to the actual thing
or idea it represents. In other words, a denotation is the actual meaning of the word without reference
to the emotional associations it can arouse in a reader. Such deviations from the literal meanings are
referred to as "figurative language ," or "literary devices" e.g. metaphors, similes, personifications,
hyperboles, understatements, paradoxes, and puns.
Below is a list of some common deviations from denotative meanings of words that we experience
in our day-to-day life:
 Dog – suggests shamelessness or an ugly face.
 Dove – suggests peace or gentility.
 Home – suggests family, comfort, and security.
 Politician – suggests negative connotation of wickedness and insincerity
 Pushy – suggests someone is loud-mouthed and irritating.
 Mom and Dad – when used instead of "mother and father" suggest loving parents.
Positive and Negative Connotations
Words may have positive or negative connotations that depend upon the social, cultural, and
personal experiences of individuals. For example, the words childish, childlike and youthful have the
same denotative, but different connotative, meanings. Childish and childlike have a negative connotation,
as they refer to immature behavior of a person. Whereas, youthful implies that a person is lively and
energetic.
Classical Square of Opposition
The square of opposition is a chart that was introduced within classical (categorical) logic to
represent the logical relationships holding between certain propositions in virtue of their form.

Contrary Directions : State the contrary of each of the following statements. First, state the
resultant truth value if the given statement is assumed true; second, state the resultant truth value if the
given statement is assumed false.
For Example : All voters are citizens.
Answer : All voters are citizens. True (contrary)  No voters are citizens. False
All voters are citizens. False (contrary)  No voters are citizens. Undetermined

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 General Paper-I (Sample Theory)

Sub contrary Directions : State the sub contrary of the following statements. First, state the
resultant truth value if the given statement is assumed true; second, state the resultant truth value if the
given statement is assumed false.
For Example : Some microbes are marine organisms.
Answer : Some microbes are marine organisms. true (sub contrary)  Some microbes are not
marine organisms. Undetermined.
Some microbes are marine organisms. False (sub contrary)  Some microbes are not marine
organisms. true
Subalternation Directions : Use subalternation for the following statements. First, state the
resultant truth value if the given statement is assumed true; second, state the resultant truth value if the
given statement is assumed false.
For Example : All Zurich gnomes are bankers.
Answer : All Zurich gnomes are bankers. True (sub alternation)  Some Zurich gnomes are
bankers. true
All Zurich gnomes are bankers. False (sub alternation)  Some Zurich gnomes are bankers.
Undetermined.
Contradiction Directions : Use contradiction for the following statements. First, state the resultant
truth value if the given statement is assumed true; second, state the resultant truth value if the given
statement is assumed false.
For Example : No artists are analysts.
Answer : No artists are analysts. True (contradiction)  Some artists are analysts. False
No artists are analysts. False contradiction  Some artists are analysts. True

We can now state the following conclusions :

 If A is true: then I is true, E is false, O is false.
 If A is false: then O is true, E is doubtful, I is doubtful.
 If E is true: then O is true, A is false, I is false.
 If E is false: then I is true, A is doubtful, O is doubtful.
 If I is true: then E is false, A is doubtful, O is doubtful.
 If I is false: then O is true, A is false, E is true.
 If O is true: then A is false, E is doubtful, I is doubtful.
 If O is false: then I is true, E is false, A is true.
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 General Paper-I (Sample Theory)

Number and Letter Series Completion

A series is an ordered list of numbers. The numbers in this ordered list are called the "elements"
or the "terms" of the series. It is Numbers or alphabetical letter are given.
Types of series
 Number series
 Alphabet Series
 Letter Series
Number Series
Number series tests present numerical sequences that follow a logical rule based on elementary
arithmetic. An initial sequence is presented from which the rule must be deduced. A set of numbers
arranged in a definite order according to some definite rule is called a sequence.
Rules of Number Series
 Arithmetic Progression: the progression of the form a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d …… is
known as an arithmetic progression which first term = a and common difference = d.
In A.P. we have Nth term = a+ (n-1) d.
 Geometric Progression : the progression of the form a, ar , ar², ar³ ….. is known as a
G.P. with first term = a and common ratio = r.
In G.P. we have nth term = arn – 1
Square
Number series are two forms
 Simple number series
 Wrong number series
Case I : Completing the Given Series
Ex.1 Which number would replace question mark in the series 7, 12, 19,?, 39.
(A) 29 (B) 28
(C) 26 (D) 24
Sol. (B) Clearly, the given sequence follows the pattern :
+5, +7, +9 … i.e., 7 + 5 = 12, 12 + 7 = 19… .
Missing number = 19 + 9 = 28.
Hence, the answer is (B).

Ex.2 Which is the number that comes next in the sequence :

0, 6, 24, 60, 120, 210 ?
(A) 240 (B) 290
(C) 336 (D) 504
Sol. (C) Clearly, the given series is 13 – 1, 23 – 2, 33 – 3, 43 – 4, 53 – 5, 63 – 6.
Next number = 73 – 7 = 343 – 7 = 336.
Hence, the answer is (C).
1 3 5 7
Ex.3 Which fraction comes next, in the sequence , , , , ?
2 4 8 16
9 10
(A) (B)
32 17
11 12
(C) (D)
34 35
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 General Paper-I (Sample Theory)

Sol. (A) Clearly, the numerators of the fractions in the given sequence from the series 1, 3, 5, 7
in which each term is obtained by adding 2 to the previous term.
The denominators of the fractions form the series 2, 4, 8, 16, i.e., 21, 22, 23, 24.
So, the numerator of the next fraction will be (7 + 2) i.e., 9 and the denominator will be
25 i.e., 32.

9
The next term is .
32
Hence, the answer is (A).

Ex.4 In the series 357, 363, 369, …, what will be the 10th term ?
(A) 405 (B) 411
(C) 413 (D) 417
Sol. (B) The given series is an A.P. in which a = 357 and d = 6.
10th term = a + (10 – 1) d = a + 9d.
= (357 + 9 × 6) = (357 + 54) = 411.
Hence, the answer is (B).

Ex.5 In the series 7, 14, 28, …, what will be the 10th term ?
(A) 1792 (B) 2456
(C) 3584 (D) 4096
Sol. (C) Clearly, 7 × 2 = 14, 14 × 2 = 28, … and so on.
So, the given series is a G.P. in which a = 7 and r = 2.
10th term = ar(10–1) = ar9 = 7 × 29 = 7 × 512 = 3584.
Hence, the answer is (C).

Case II : Finding the Wrong Term in the Given Series

Ex. 1. Find the wrong number in the series :
7, 28, 63, 124, 215, 342, 511
(A) 7 (B) 28
(C) 124 (D) 215
Sol. (B) Clearly, the correct sequence is
23 – 1, 33 – 1, 43 – 1, 53 – 1, 63 – 1, 73 – 1, 83 – 1.
28 is wrong answer should be replaced by (33 – 1) i.e. 26.
Hence, the answer is (B).

Ex.2 Find the wrong number in the series :

3, 8, 15, 24, 34, 48, 63
(A) 15 (B) 24
(C) 34 (D) 48
Sol. (C) The difference between consecutive terms of the given series are respectively 5, 7, 9, 11
and 13.
Clearly, 34 is a wrong number and must be replaced by (24 + 11) i.e. 35.
Hence, the answer is (C).
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 General Paper-I (Sample Theory)

Alphabet Series
In alphabet series alphabet are arrange in any manner. Alphabet order may be in increasing order
and decreasing. Order of letters with their respective number A = 1 ….. Z = 26 and vice versa. When
counting the circular after Z the cycle will continue from A.
Alpha – Numerical Series
In this type of the test, some numbers along with the alphabets are arranged in a series or in a
sequence.
Alphabets
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

Ex.1 What terms will fill in the blank spaces ?

Z, X, V, T, R, (…), (…)
(A) O, K (B) N, M
(C) P, N (D) M, N
Sol. (C) Clearly, the given series consists of alternate letters in a reverse order. So, the missing
terms would be P and N.
Hence, the answer is (C).

Ex.2 Which term comes next in sequence : nd iy dt yo tj ?

(A) mp (B) nq
(C) of (D) oe
Sol. (D) Clearly, the first and second letters of each term are moved five steps backward to obtain
the corresponding letters of the next term.
Hence, the answer is (D).

Ex.3 What will be the next term in : BDF, CFL, DHL, ?

(A) CJM (B) EIM
(C) EJO (D) EMI
Sol. (C) Clearly, the first, second and third letters of each term are respectively moved one, two
and three steps forward to obtain the corresponding letters of the next term. So, the
missing term is EJO.
Hence, the answer is (C).

Ex.4 Which terms comes next in the series : YEB, WFD, UHG, SKI ?
(A) QOL (B) QGL
(C) TOL (D) QNL
Sol. (A) Clearly, the first letter of each term is moved two steps backward to obtain the first letter
of the next term. So, the first letter of the missing term will be Q.
The second letter of the first, second, third, fourth terms are respectively moved one, two,
three and four steps forward to obtain the corresponding letter of the subsequent term.
So, the second letter in the missing term will be O.
The third letter is alternately moved two and three steps forward to obtain the corresponding
letter of the subsequent term. So, the third letter in the missing term will be L.
Thus, the missing term is QOL.
Hence, the answer is (A).
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 General Paper-I (Sample Theory)

Ex.5 Which term will replace the question mark in the series :
ABD, DGK, HMS, MTB, SBL, ?
(A) ZKW (B) ZKU
(C) ZAB (D) XKW
Sol. (A) Clearly, the first letters of the first, second, third, fourth and fifth terms are moved three,
four, five, six and seven steps forward respectively to obtain the first letter of the successive
terms. The second letters of the first, second, third, fourth terms are moved five, six,
seven, eight and nine steps forward respectively to obtain the second letter of the successive
terms. The third letters of the first, second, third, fourth and fifth terms are moved seven,
eight, nine, ten and eleven steps forward respectively to obtain the third letter of the
successive terms.
Thus, the missing term would be ZKW.
Hence, the answer is (A).

Ex.6 Choose the term which will continue the following series :
P 3 C, R 5 F, T 8 I, V 12 L, ?
(A) Y 17 O (B) X 17 M
(C) X 17 O (D) X 16 O
Sol. (C) Clearly, the first letters of the terms are alternate. The sequence followed by the numbers
is +2, +3, +4, … The last letter of each term is three steps ahead of the last letter of the
preceding term. Thus, the next term would be X 17 O.
Hence, the answer is (C).

Letter Series
In this test, a number of letters are arranged in a series. Usually a series of small letters which
follow a certain pattern. However some letters are missing from the series. These missing letters are
than given in a proper sequence as one of the alternative. You are required to choose this alternative as
the answer.
Ex.1 ab__ __ __ b__ b baa
(A) abaab (B) abbab
(C) baaab (D) babba
Sol. (C) The series is abb/aab/abb/aab thus the pattern abb,aab is repeated.

Ex.2 _ _ aba _ _ ba _ ab
(A) abbba (B) abbab
(C) baabb (D) bbaba
Sol. (B) The series is ab/ab/ab/ab/ab/ab. Thus the pattern ab is repeated.

Ex.3 CMM, EOO, GQQ, _____, KUU

(A) GRR (B) GSS
(C) ISS (D) ITT
Sol. (C) The first letter are in alphabetical order with a letter skipped in between each segment.
C, E, G, I, K. The second and third letters are repeated. They are also in order with a
skipped letter M, O, Q, S, U.

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 General Paper-I (Sample Theory)

Ex.4 QAR, RAS, SAT, TAU, _____

(A) UAV (B) UAT
(C) TAS (D) TAT
Sol. (A) In this series the third letter is repeated as the first letter of the next segment .the middle
letter A remains static. The third letter are in alphabetical order beginning with R.

Ex.5 JAK, KBL, LCM, MDN, _____

(A) OEP (B) NEO
(C) MEN (D) PFQ
Sol. (B) This is an alternating series in alphabetical order. The middle letters follow the order
ABCDE. The first and third letters are alphabetical beginning with J. The third letter is
repeated as a first letter in each subsequent three-letter segment.

Ex.6 QPO, NML,KJI, EDC

(A) HGF (B) CAB
(C) JKL (D) GHI
Sol. (A) This series consists of letters in a reverse alphabetical order.

Correspondence Series
This type of series consists of three sequence with tree different elements (Capital letters, digits
and small letters). You are required to trace out this correspondence and accordingly choose the elements
to be filled in at the desired palace.
Ex. B_ _ D_ _ CABDACB
__ 41 32_ __ ?? ??
a _ a _ b c _ c _ _ _ _ _
(A) 1, 2, 3, 4 (B) 2, 3, 1, 4
(C) 1, 2, 4, 3 (D) 2, 1, 4, 3
Sol. (A) Clearly in the second series, 1 occurs at the same position as D occurs in the first series.
So, 1 correspondence to D. Thus the first question mark below D is to be replaced by 1.
Now, the third series c at the eight place correspondence to A in the first series while C
at the sixth place correspondence to 2 in the second question mark below A is to be
replaced by 2.
In the third series a, at the first place correspondence to B in the first series and a at the
third place correspondence to 4 in the second series So 4 correspondence to B. Thus
the question mark below B is to be replaced by 4.
Now only 3 remains So 3 correspondence to C thus the question mark below C is to be
replaced by 3 thus DACB correspondence to 1,2,3,4. Hence answer is ( A )

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 General Paper-I (Sample Theory)

CODES AND RELATIONSHIPS

Type : Deciphering Jumbled UP Descriptions

Mother’s or Father’s Son Brother

Mother’s or Father’s Daughter Sister
Mother’s or Father’s Brother Uncle
Mother’s or Father’s Sister Aunt
Mother’s or Father’s Father Grandfather
Mother’s or Father’s Mother Grandmother
Son’s wife Daughter-in-Law
Daughter’s husband Son-in-Law
Husband’s or Wife Sister Sister –in –Law
Husband’s or Wife Brother Brother- In Law
Brother’s Son Nephew
Brother’s Daughter Niece
Uncle or aunt’s Son or Daughter Cousin
Sister’s Husband Brother-in-Law
Brother’s Wife Sister-in-Law
Grandson’s Great grand daughter
In this type of questions, a indirect description is given in the form of certain small relationships.
We are required to analysis the whole chain of relations and decode the direct relationship between the
persons concerned.
Ex.1 Pointing to a photograph, a man said, "I have no brother or sister but that man's father is my
father's son." Whose photograph was it ?
(A) His own (B) His son's
(C) His father's (D) His nephew's
Sol. (B) Since the narrator has no brother, his father's son is he himself. So, the man who is
talking is the father of the man in the photograph or the man in the photograph is his son.
Hence, the answer is (B).

Ex.2 Anil introduces Rohit as the son of the only brother of his father's wife. How is Rohit related to
Anil ?
(A) Cousin (B) Son
(C) Uncle (D) Son-in-law
Sol. (A) The relations may be analyzed as follows :
Father's wife – Mother; Mother's brother – Uncle; Uncle's son – Cousin.
So, Rohit is Anil's cousin. Hence, the answer is (A).

Ex.3 A women Introduces a man as the son of the brother of her mother. How is the man related to
the women ?
(A) Nephew (B) Son
(C) Cousin (D) Uncle
Sol. (C) Here the woman's relation with man is expressed in elaborate manner. So, it is better to
step by step.
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 General Paper-I (Sample Theory)

Mother's brother means uncle in Hindi we call him as Mama, but there is no such word
in English. So mother's brother son means uncle's son and Uncle's son means cousin.

Ex.4 Pointing towards a person in a photograph, a women said, "He is the only son of the father of
my sister's brother." How is that person related to women ?
(A) Mother (B) Father
(C) Maternal Uncle (D) None of these
Sol. (D) The relations may be analyzed as follows:
Sister's brother - Brother; Brother's father - father, Father's son - Brother.
So, the person in the photograph is women's brother.
Hence, the answer is (D).

Ex.5 Ram introduces Mohit saying, "He is the husband of the grand- daughter of the father of my
father". How is Mohit related to Ram?
(A) Brother (B) Son
(C) Brother-in-law (D) Nephew
Sol. (C) The relations may be analyzed as follows :
Father's father - Grandfather; Grandfather's Grand -daughter - Sister; Sister's husband -
Brother-in-law.
So, Mohit is Ram 's brother-in law
Hence, the answer is (C).

Ex.6 Pointing out to a photograph, a man tells his friend, "She is the daughter of the only son of my
father's wife". How is the girl in the photograph related to the man ?
(A) Daughter (B) Cousin
(C) Mother (D) Sister
Sol. (A) The relations may be analysed as follows :
Father's wife - Mother; Mother's only son - himself
So, the girl is man's daughter.
Hence, the answer is (A).

Type-2 Relation Puzzle

Ex.1 A party consists of grandmother, father, mother, four son and their wives and one son and two
daughters to each of the sons. How many females are there is all ?
(A) 14 (B) 16
(C) 18 (D) 24
Sol. (A) Grandmother is one female, Mother is another, wives of four sons are the four females
and two daughter of all four sons are eight females.
So in all there are 1 + 1 + 4 + 8 = 14 females.

Ex.2 Given that

1. A is the mother of B 2. C is the son of A
3. D is the Brother of E 4. E is the daughter of B

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 General Paper-I (Sample Theory)

The grandmother of D is
(A) A (B) B
(C) C (D) D
Sol. (D) D is the brother of E and E is the daughter of B this means that D is the son of B.
Also A is the Mother of B.
So A is the grandmother of D
Hence the answer is (A).

Ex.3 Read the following information carefully and answer the question given below.
There are six children playing football namely A, B, C, D, E, and F . A and E are brothers, F is
the sister of E . C is the only son of A's uncle. B and D are the daughters of the brother of C'
s father.
(i). How is C related to F ?
(A) Cousin (B) Brother
(C) Son (D) Uncle
Sol. (A) F is E's and hence A's sister so C is also the Son of F's Uncle and is therefore. F's cousin
So, the answer is (A)

(ii). How many male players are there ?

(A) One (B) Three
(C) Five (D) Six
Sol. (B) As given A and E are brother Hence both are male. F is the sister of E and hence female
C is the son and hence male. B and D are daughter and hence female. Thus there are
three males so the answer of (B).

(iii). How many female players are there ?

(A) Two (B) Three
(C) Five (D) One
Sol. (B) Clearly from the solution of b we find that there are three females so the answer is (B)

(iv). How is D related to A?

(A) Uncle (B) Sister
(C) Niece (D) Cousin
Sol. (D) Clearly D's father is the brother of C's father and C's father is A's Uncle. So D's father
is also A's uncle thus D is A's cousin. Hence the answer is ( D )

Type of 3: Coded Relations

In such question the relationships are represented by certain codes or symbols such as +, –
, x, and ÷ etc. then relationship certain persons given in the form of these codes are to be analyzed.
When relationship is expressed in code, never try to alter the order of alphabets / symbols
mentioned in the code.
Ex.1 If A + B means A is the sister of B. A – B means A is the brother of B, A x B means A is the
daughter of B. Which of the following shows the relation that E is the maternal Uncle of D ?
(A) D + F × E (B) D – F × E
(C) D × F + E (D) D × F – E

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 General Paper-I (Sample Theory)

Sol. (C) E is the maternal uncle of D means D's mother is the sister of E.
D's mother can be coded as D × F ...(1)
Where F stands for that lady who is the mother.
F (mother of D) is the sister of E and it can be coded as F + E ...(II)
After blending expressions (I) and (II) we get D × F + E.

Ex.2 If Z × T – S X U + P what is U to Z.
(A) Mother (B) Grandmother
(C) Father (D) Can't be determined
Sol. (B) Z × T – S × U means Z is the son of T who is the wife of S who is the son of U i.e. Z
is the son of S who is the son of U i.e. Z is the grandson of U or U is the grandmother
or grandfather of Z. Hence (B) is the correct answer.

Ex.3 Read is the following information carefully and answer the question given below it.
A + B means A is the father of B, A – B means A is the wife of B, A × B means A is the brother
of B, A ÷ B means A is the daughter of B.
(i). If P ÷ R + S + Q which is the following is true ?
(A) P is the daughter of Q (B) Q is the aunt of P
(C) P is the aunt of Q (D) P is the mother of Q
Sol. (C) P ÷ R + S + Q means P is the daughter of R who is the father of S who is the father
of Q i.e. P is the sister of the father (S) of Q i.e. P is the aunt of the Q.

(ii). If P – R + Q which of the following statements is true ?

(A) P is the mother of Q (B) Q is the daughter of P
(C) P is the aunt of Q (D) P is the sister of Q
Sol. (A) P – R + Q means P is the wife of R who is the father of Q i.e. P is the mother of Q.

(iii). If P × R ÷ Q which of the following statements is true?

(A) P is the uncle of Q (B) P is the father of Q
(C) P is the brother of Q (D) P is the son of Q
Sol. (D) P × R + Q means P is the brother of R who is the daughter of Q i.e. P is the son of Q.

(iv). If P ÷ R + Q which of the following is true ?

(A) P is the father of Q (B) P is the brother of Q
(C) P is the mother of Q (D) P is the sister of Q
Sol. (D) P ÷ R + Q means P is the daughter of R who is the father of Q i.e. P is the sister of Q.

(v). If P – R × Q which of the following is true ?

(A) P is the sister of Q (B) Q is the husband of P
(C) P is the sister – in – law of Q (D) Q is the Son of P
Sol. (C) P – R × Q means P is the wife of R who is the brother of Q i.e. P is the sister-in-law
of Q.

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 General Paper-I (Sample Questions)

Sample Questions With Solutions

1. 9 16 23 30 37 44 51
(A) 59 66 (B) 56 62
(C) 58 66 (D) 58 65

2. Look at this series : U32, V29, _______, X23, Y20, _______ What number should fill the blank ?
(A) W26, Z17 (B) W17, Z26
(C) W28, Z17 (D) W18, Z26

3. If A + B means A is the father of B; A – B means A is the brother B; A % B means A is the wife

of B and A × B means A is the mother of B, which of the following shows that M is the maternal
grandmother of T ?
(A) M×N% S+ T (B) M×N– S%T
(C) M×S– N%T (D) M×N× S% T

Direction (Q.4 to 5) : Each of these questions is based on the following information :

A + B means A is the mother of B.
A – B means A is the sister of B.
A  B means A is the father of B.
A  B means A is the brother of B.
4. Which of the following means Q is the grandfather of P ?
(A) P + N  M  Q (B) Q  N  M + P
(C) Q  M N P (D) None of these

5. Which of the following means that N is the maternal uncle of M ?

(A) N P–L+E–M (B) N–Y+A M
(C) M–YP– N (D) N  C + F  M

6. Find out wrong Term 25, 36, 49, 81, 121, 169, 225
(A) 29 (B) 36
(C) 26 (D) 34

7. In the series 2, 6, 18, 54, _______ what will be the 8th term ?
(A) 4370 (B) 4374
(C) 7443 (D) 7434

8. 24, 60, 120, 210, ?

(A) 300 (B) 336
(C) 420 (D) 525

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 General Paper-I (Sample Questions)

9. Which term comes next in sequence: DF, GJ, KM, NQ, RT, ?
(A) UW (B) YZ
(C) XZ (D) UX

10. Statement : Are educational Institution responsible for unrest among the youth ?
Arguments : I. Yes, there is no discipline in educational institution.
II. No, there are no disciplinary problems n educational institutions.
(A) If only argument I is strong
(B) If only argument II is strong
(C) If either I or II is strong
(D) If neither I nor II is strong and

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 General Paper-I (Sample Questions)

SOLUTIONS

1. (D) Here is a simple addition series, which begins with 9 and adds 7.
2. (A) In this series, the letters progress by 1; the numbers decrease by 3.
3. (A) M×N% S+ T
M × N  M is the mother of N
N % S  N is the wife of S
and S + T  is the father of T.
4. (D) None of these
5. (A) N  P  N is the brother of P
P – L  P is the sister of L
L + E  L is the mother of E
E – M  E is the sister of M.
Hence, L is the mother of M, P is the maternal aunt of M and N is the maternal uncle of
M.
6. (B) The correct series is 52, 62, 72, 92, 112, 132, 152 …… So the wrong term is 36.
7. (B) Clearly, 2 × 3 = 6, 6 × 3 = 18, 18 × 3 = 54,.....
So, the series is a G. P. in which a = 2, r = 3.
Therefore 8th term = ar8–1 = ar7 = 2 × 37 = (2 × 2187) = 4374
8. (B) The pattern is + 36, + 60, + 90, ..... i.e. + [6 × (6 + 0)], + [6 × (6 + 4)], + [6 × (6 + 9)]
9. (D) There is a gap of one letter between both the letters of the first term a gap of two letters
between both the letters of second term and again a gap of one and two letters between
letters of third and fourth terms respectively. Besides the letters of each term and the first
letter of next term are alphabetical order.
10. (D) Clearly both arguments do not provide strong reasons in support or against the statement.

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