MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY

GENERAL CONCEPT RELATED TO SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

Science and technology innovations are prevalent in our society. It permeates our
everyday activities, as well as the tools that we use, from the simplest to the most complex. In
order for you to completely grasp the impact of science and technology on our society, it is
necessary to study some concepts related to science and technology.

Science
 comes from the Latin word scientia, meaning ‘knowledge’.
 refers to a systematic and methodical activity of building and organizing
knowledge about how the universe behaves through observation,
experimentation, or both.

The Nature of Science

The Nature of Science (NOS) was put together by the American Association for the
Advancement of Science (AAAS) which was anchored on decades of gathering information
through research, investigation, and experiment about the natural world. It is significant to
understand the nature of science because it is a critical element of scientific literacy. It
enhances your understanding of science concepts and enables you to make informed decisions
about scientifically-based personal and societal issues. AAAS believes that all individuals
involved with science teaching and learning should have a shared accurate view of the nature of
scientific knowledge, thus, Nature of Science (NOS) should be taught explicitly alongside other
disciplinary core ideas.

The following sums up the nature of science:

A. The Scientific World View

 The world is understandable

Science presumes that the things and events in the universe occur in consistent patterns
that are comprehensible through careful, systematic study. Scientists believe that
through the use of the intellect, and with the aid of instruments that extend the senses,
people can discover patterns in all of nature.
Science also assumes that the universe is, as its name implies, a vast single system in
which the basic rules are everywhere the same. Knowledge gained from studying one
part of the universe is applicable to other parts.

 Scientific ideas are subject to change

 Science is a process for producing knowledge. The process depends both on making
careful observations of phenomena and on inventing theories for making sense out of
those observations. Change in knowledge is inevitable because new observations may
challenge prevailing theories. No matter how well one theory explains a set of
observations, it is possible that another theory may fit just as well or better, or may fit a
still wider range of observations.

 Scientific knowledge is durable

Although scientists reject the notion of attaining absolute truth and accept some
uncertainty as part of nature, most scientific knowledge is durable. The modification of
ideas, rather than their outright rejection, is the norm in science, as powerful constructs
tend to survive and grow more precise and to become widely accepted.

 Science cannot provide complete answers to all questions

There are many matters that cannot usefully be examined in a scientific way. There are,
for instance, beliefs that --- by their very nature --- cannot be proved or disproved (such
as the existence of supernatural powers and beings, or the true purposes of life). In
other cases, a scientific approach that may be valid is likely to be rejected as irrelevant
by people who hold to certain beliefs (such as in miracles, fortune-telling, astrology, and
superstition).

B. The Scientific Inquiry

 Science demands evidence

The validity of scientific claims is settled by referring to observations of phenomena.

Hence, scientists concentrate on getting accurate data. Such evidence is obtained by
observations and measurements taken in situations that range from natural settings
(such as a forest) to completely contrived ones (such as the laboratory). To make their
observations, scientists use their own senses, instruments (such as microscopes) that
enhance those senses, and instruments that tap characteristics quite different from what
humans can sense (such as magnetic fields). Scientists observe passively (earthquakes,
bird migrations), make collections (rocks, shells), and actively probe the world (as by
boring into the earth's crust or administering experimental medicines).

 Science is a blend of logic and imagination

Although all sorts of imagination and thought may be used in coming up with hypotheses
and theories, sooner or later scientific arguments must conform to the principles of
logical reasoning—that is, to testing the validity of arguments by applying certain criteria
of inference, demonstration, and common sense. Scientists may often disagree about
the value of a particular piece of evidence, or about the appropriateness of particular
 assumptions that are made—and therefore disagree about what conclusions are
justified. But they tend to agree about the principles of logical reasoning that connect
evidence and assumptions with conclusions.
Scientists do not work only with data and well-developed theories. Often, they have only
tentative hypotheses about the way things may be. Such hypotheses are widely used in
science for choosing what data to pay attention to and what additional data to seek, and
for guiding the interpretation of data. In fact, the process of formulating and testing
hypotheses is one of the core activities of scientists. To be useful, a hypothesis should
suggest what evidence would support it and what evidence would refute it. A hypothesis
that cannot in principle be put to the test of evidence may be interesting, but it is not
likely to be scientifically useful.
The use of logic and the close examination of evidence are necessary but not usually
sufficient for the advancement of science. Scientific concepts do not emerge
automatically from data or from any amount of analysis alone. Inventing hypotheses or
theories to imagine how the world works and then figuring out how they can be put to the
test of reality is as creative as writing poetry, composing music, or designing
skyscrapers.

 Science explains and predicts

Scientists strive to make sense of observations of phenomena by constructing

explanations that are consistent with currently accepted scientific principles. Such
explanations or theories may be either broad or restricted, but they must be logically
sound and incorporate a significant body of scientifically valid observations. The
credibility of scientific theories often comes from their ability to show relationships among
phenomena that previously seemed unrelated. For example, the theory of moving
continents, has grown in credibility as it has shown relationships among diverse
phenomena such as earthquakes, volcanoes, the match between types of fossils on
different continents, the shapes of continents, and the contours of the ocean floors.

 Scientists try to identify and avoid bias

When faced with a claim that something is true, scientists respond by asking what
evidence supports it. But scientific evidence can be biased in how the data are
interpreted, in the recording or reporting of the data, or even in the choice of what data to
consider in the first place. Scientists' nationality, sex, ethnic origin, age, political
convictions, and so on may incline them to look for or emphasize one or another kind of
evidence or interpretation.

 Science is not authoritarian

It is appropriate in science, as elsewhere, to turn to knowledgeable sources of

information and opinion, usually people who specialize in relevant disciplines. But
esteemed authorities have been wrong many times in the history of science. In the long
run, no scientist, however famous or highly placed, is empowered to decide for other
scientists what is true, for none are believed by other scientists to have special access to
the truth. There are no preestablished conclusions that scientists must reach on the
 basis of their investigations. In the short run, new ideas that do not mesh well with
mainstream ideas may encounter vigorous criticism, and scientists investigating such
ideas may have difficulty obtaining support for their research.

C. The Scientific Enterprise

 Science is a complex social activity

Scientific work involves many individuals doing many different kinds of work and goes on
to some degree in all nations of the world. Men and women of all ethnic and national
backgrounds participate in science and its applications. These people --- scientists and
engineers, mathematicians, physicians, technicians, computer programmers, librarians,
and others may focus on scientific knowledge either for its own sake or for a particular
practical purpose, and they may be concerned with data gathering, theory building,
instrument building, or communicating.
As a social activity, science inevitably reflects social values and viewpoints. The history
of economic theory, for example, has paralleled the development of ideas of social
justice—at one time, economists considered the optimum wage for workers to be no
more than what would just barely allow the workers to survive.

 Science is organized into content disciplines and is conducted in various

institutions

Science can be thought of as the collection of all of the different scientific fields, or
content disciplines. From anthropology through zoology, there are dozens of such
disciplines. They differ from one another in many ways, including history, phenomena
studied, techniques and language used, and kinds of outcomes desired. With respect to
purpose and philosophy, however, all are equally scientific and together make up the
same scientific endeavor. The advantage of having disciplines is that they provide a
conceptual structure for organizing research and research findings. The disadvantage is
that their divisions do not necessarily match the way the world works, and they can
make communication difficult.

 There are generally accepted ethical principles in the conduct of science

Most scientists conduct themselves according to the ethical norms of science. The
strongly held traditions of accurate recordkeeping, openness, and replication, buttressed
by the critical review of one's work by peers, serve to keep the vast majority of scientists
well within the bounds of ethical professional behavior. Sometimes, however, the
pressure to get credit for being the first to publish an idea or observation leads some
scientists to withhold information or even to falsify their findings. Such a violation of the
very nature of science impedes science. When discovered, it is strongly condemned by
the scientific community and the agencies that fund research.
  Scientists participate in public affairs both as specialists and as citizens

Scientists can bring information, insights, and analytical skills to bear on matters of
public concern. Often they can help the public and its representatives to understand the
likely causes of events (such as natural and technological disasters) and to estimate the
possible effects of projected policies (such as ecological effects of various farming
methods). Often they can testify to what is not possible. In playing this advisory role,
scientists are expected to be especially careful in trying to distinguish fact from
interpretation, and research findings from speculation and opinion; that is, they are
expected to make full use of the principles of scientific inquiry.
Even so, scientists can seldom bring definitive answers to matters of public debate.
Some issues are too complex to fit within the current scope of science, or there may be
little reliable information available, or the values involved may lie outside of science.
Moreover, although there may be at any one time a broad consensus on the bulk of
scientific knowledge, the agreement does not extend to all scientific issues, let alone to
all science-related social issues. And of course, on issues outside of their expertise, the
opinions of scientists should enjoy no special credibility.
RELATED TO

Technology

 the word often attached side by side with science comes from the Greek word techne,
meaning ‘art, skill or cunning of hand’.
 a way of knowing and is also a process of exploration and experimentation.
 involves the development and use of materials, tools, and approaches for solving human
problems and helping to fulfill human needs and desires.
 is both a form of knowledge that uses concepts and skills from other disciplines and the
application of this knowledge to meet an identified need or to solve a specific problem
using materials, energy, and tools.

Technology addresses the needs and wants of society through the following fields:

 Information and Communication

 Bio-Related and Agriculture
 Medical
 Manufacturing and Construction
 Environmental
 Nanotechnology
 Transportation

It is indisputable that many of the products of technology help humans accomplish tasks
that would otherwise be very difficult or impossible to carry out. Although technology provides
many benefits, it also produces associated costs and risks.
Relationship between Science, Technology, and Society

Science, technology, and society are closely linked, especially through scientific inquiry,
technological problem-solving, and communication. Science frequently utilizes and requires
tools and processes developed by technology, and conversely, technology often employs
principles, laws, theories, and processes developed by means of science. Society, as we know
it today, has been affected in many ways by science and technology.

For example, society demands for an easy-access, and extensive and frequent
communication. This leads to the research and development of an ever-widening array of
mobile phone capabilities. Access to these capabilities, in turn, influenced the way humans live.
As society relies more and more on mobile phones, additional features were continuously
requested to improve like increasing the speed of phone processors, the use of touch-enabled
screens, or the implementation of mobile internet access, and the cycle continues.

HISTORICAL ROOTS OF STS AN ACADEMIC FIELD

As problems in science and technology continue to rise and become more observable, the
need to pay attention to their interactions with various aspects of human life, e.g. social,
political, and economic, becomes ever more necessary. How the different aspects of society
shape and influence the progression and further development of science and technology is the
area of concern of a relatively new academic discipline called Science, Technology, and
Society.
Science, Technology, and Society (STS) is a relatively young field that combines
previously independent and older disciplines, such as the history of science, philosophy of
science, and sociology of science. As an academic field, STS, according to Harvard University’s
Kennedy School (2018), traces its roots from the interwar period and the start of the Cold War. It
was during this period when historians and scientists found interest in the interconnections of
scientific knowledge, technological systems, and society. The rise of STS as an academic field
resulted from the recognition that many schools today do not really prepare students to respond
critically, reflectively, and proactively to the challenges posed by science and technology in the
modern world.

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF STS

STS seeks to bridge the gap between two traditionally exclusive cultures --- humanities
(interpretive) and natural sciences (rational) --- so that humans will be able to better confront the
moral, ethical, and existential dilemmas brought by the continued developments in science and
technology.

STS aims to help students to develop adaptability, equipped with not only academic skills but
with a range of practical skills which will make them functional citizens. With this, STS calls for
educating you (our students) so that you will be able to apply science and technology (tools,
knowledge, process, and products) to solve problems in your environment. STS is an important
academic discipline to help you apply science so as to be skillful and useful and not just become
graduates who are alien to your own society. It is expected that students like you should
become productive members of society who are self-reliant, able to grow their own food, carry-
out disease preventive measures, and well-informed on issues involving science and
technology.

ETHICAL DILEMMAS THAT REINFORCE THE IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF STS

Human beings are by no means perfect – we struggle with ethical dilemmas on a daily
basis and fail in doing what we think or believe to be the right thing more often than we would
like to admit. Unfortunately, these failings are also articulated in our technology.

To warn us of these failings, the John J. Reilly Center for Science, Technology, and
Values at the University of Notre Dame compile an annual list of what it determines to be that
year’s top 10 ethical dilemmas in science and technology. The list points to the challenges,
questions, and issues that need to be addressed and resolved when science and technology,
and humanity intertwine.

Top 10 ethical dilemmas of science and technology as identified by the John J. Reilly
Center for Science, Technology, and Values at the University of Notre Dame for listing the ten
emerging ethical dilemmas and policy issues in science and technology every year.

1. Helix- a digital app store designed to read genomes

2. BlessU-2 and Pepper- first robot priest and monk

3. Emotion-Sensing Facial Recognition- a software being developed to assess your

reactions to anything such as shopping and playing games.

4. Ransomware- a way of holding data hostage through hacking and requiring a ransom
to be paid.

5. Textalyzer- a device that analyses whether a driver was using his or her phone during
an accident.

6. Social Credit System- a system of scoring citizens through their actions by placing
them under constant surveillance (which China plays to adopt)

7. Google Clips- a hands-free camera that lets the user capture every moment
effortlessly

8. Sentencing Software- a mysterious algorithm designed to aid courts in sentencing

decisions.
9. Friendbot-an app that stores the deceased’s digital footprint so one can still ”chat” with
them.

10. Citizen App- an app that notifies users of ongoing crimes or major events in a specific
area.