Transformative Learning

Lesson 1: Introduction to Adult Learning

Distinction between education and learning Education is an activity undertaken or initiated by one or more agents that is designed to
effect changes in the knowledge, skill, and attitudes of individuals, groups, or communities.
The term emphasizes the educator, the agent of change who presents stimuli and reinforcement for learning and designs activities to
induce change. The term learning, by contrast, emphasizes the person in whom the change occurs or is expected to occur.

Learning is the act or process by which behavioral change, knowledge, skills, and attitudes are acquired (Boyd, Apps, et al., pp. 100–
101). Learning is experienced in multiple ways—formally, nonformally, informally, incidentally, and through tacit learning.

 Formal and nonformal learning are both intentional and based on organized activities that provide structures for learning.
 Formal learning, once completed, organized in structured learning contexts by educational institutions leads to credential.
 Nonformal learning is sponsored by organizations, agencies, and institutions where education might be a secondary mission
employed to carry out the main reason for existence.
 Informal learning is spontaneous, unstructured [daily] learning taken up in all private and nonorganized contexts of everyday life.
 Incidental learning is learning that is nor organized and often experienced unexpectedly and unpredictably.
 Tacit learning is learning that is difficult to express or transfer to others by means of writing it down or verbalizing it.

What is Lifelong Learning?

European Commission: “All learning activity undertaken throughout life, with the aim of improving knowledge, skills and
competencies within a personal, civic, social and/or employment-related perspective.”
Peter Jarvis (2006): “learning is an existential phenomenon that is co-terminal with conscious living, that is, learning is lifelong
because it occurs whenever we are conscious, and it needs have no objective in itself…”
Peter Jarvis (2006: 134):
“The combination of processes throughout a life time whereby the whole person – body (genetic, physical and biological) and mind
(knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, emotions, beliefs and senses) – experiences social situations, the perceived content of which is
then transformed cognitively, emotively or practically (or through any combination) and integrated into the individual person’s
biography resulting in a continually changing (or more experienced) person.”

Peter Jarvis (2007: 99):

“Every opportunity made available by any social institution for, and every process by which, an individual can acquire knowledge,
skills, attitudes, values, emotions, beliefs and sense within global society.”

Who is an adult?
a. Biological definition: We become adults when we reach the age at which we can reproduce.
b. Legal definition: We become adults when we reach the age at which the law says we can vote, get a driver’s license, and marry
without consent.
c. Social definition: We become adults when we start performing adult roles.
d. Psychological definition: We become adults when we arrive at a self-concept of being responsible for our own lives, of being self-
directing.

What is Adult Education?

UNESCO (1976, p. 2): “The term ‘adult education’ denotes the entire body of organized educational processes, whatever the content,
level and method, whether formal or otherwise, whether they prolong or replace initial education in schools, colleges, and universities
as well as in apprenticeship, whereby persons regarded as adult by the society to which they belong develop their abilities, enrich their
knowledge, improve their technical or professional qualifications or turn them in a new direction and bring about changes in their
attitudes or behavior in the twofold perspective of full personal development and participation in balanced and independent social,
economic, and cultural development; adult education, however, must not be considered as an entity in itself, it is a sub-division, and an
integral part of a global scheme for lifelong education and learning.

Darkenwald and Merriam (1992, p. 9): “adult education is a process whereby persons whose major social roles are characteristic of
adult status undertake systematic and sustained learning activities for the purpose of bringing about changes in knowledge, attitudes,
values and skills.
Merriam and Brockett (1997, p. 8): Adult education refers to “activities intentionally designed for the purpose of bringing about
learning among those whose age, social roles, or self-perception define them as adults.”

Foundational Theories of Adult Learning

1. Andragogy. Malcolm Knowles (1980) defined andragogy as “the art and science of helping adults learn” (p. 43), in contrast to
pedagogy, which focuses on helping children learn. The andragogical model of adult learning describes the characteristics of
adult learners. According to Knowles (2014), adult learners are different from children in terms of the need to know, the learner’s
self-concept, the role of the learner’s experiences, readiness to learn, orientation to learning, and motivation.
 Adults need to know why they need to learn something before undertaking to learn it. Children only need to know that they
must learn what the teacher teaches if they want to pass and get promoted.
 Adults possess independent responsibility. They are responsible for their own decisions and lives. They are capable of self-
direction. Children have dependent personalities.
 Adults enter into the educational activity with greater volume and a different quality of experience from that of children. Their
experience plays a significant resource for learning. Children’s limited experience has little importance as a resource for learning.
 Adults are ready to learn those things they need to know and be able to do in order to cope effectively with their real-life
situations. Children become ready to learn what the teacher tells them they must learn if they want to pass and get promoted.
 Adults are oriented to learn those things about life, tasks, and problems related to their social roles. Children’s learning is
subject-centered oriented.
 Adults’ motivation to learn is driven by external (better jobs, promotions, higher salaries) and internal (desire for increased job
satisfaction, self-esteem, quality of life) factors. Children are motivated by external motivators (grades, teacher’s approval,
parental pressures).
In contrast, the pedagogical model of education accords teachers the full responsibility for making all decisions about what will
be learned (content), how it will learned (instruction), when it will be learned (curriculum), and if it has been learned
(assessment)
2. Self-directed Learning
Allen Tough developed a particular dimension of andragogy by studying the intentional and nonformal practices taken up by
adults when learning. SDL highlights two aspects of learning: processes of learning where learners have the primary
responsibility for their learning pathway, and products of learning.
Malcolm Knowles: “Self-directed learning describes a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help
of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning,
choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes.” (1975, p. 18)

3. Experiential learning
Experience plays a central role in the learning process. According to Kolb (1984), learning “occurs when the learner directly
experiences the realities of the theory, concept, or fact that they are learning.”
Keeton and Tate (1978): “Learning in which the learner is directly in touch with the realities being studied. It is contrasted with
the learner who only reads about, hears about, talks about, or writes about these realities but never comes into contact with them
as part of the learning process.”
4. Transformative Learning
Mezirow: Transformative learning is defined as the process by which we transform problematic frames of reference (mindsets,
habits of mind, meaning perspectives) – sets of assumptions and expectation – to make them more inclusive, discriminating,
open, reflective and emotionally able to change. Such frames are better because they are more likely to generate beliefs and
opinions that will prove more true or justified to guide action.

LESSON 2
TRANSFORMATIVE LEARNING By Patricia Cranton and Edward Taylor

Transformative learning is a deep shift in perspective during which habits of mind become more open, more permeable, and
better justified (Cranton, 2006; Mezirow, 2000).
Generally, transformative learning occurs when a person, group, or larger social unit encounters a perspective that is at odds with
the prevailing perspective.
The discrepant perspective can be ignored, or it can lead to an examination of previously held beliefs, values, and assumptions.
When the latter is the case, the potential for transformative learning exists, though it does not occur until an individual, group, or
social unit changes in noticeable ways.

What are the three theoretical perspectives of transformative learning?

 Constructivist foundation:
It is a view of learning where the learner is an active participant in the learning process, not a passive recipient, creating and
interpreting knowledge rooted in personal experience.
It recognizes that learners, particularly adults, have a rich life experience that plays a significant role in understanding the
meaning-making process both for constructivism and transformative learning theory.
Rational transformation
Jack Mezirow’s (1991, 2000) perspective is the dominant view of transformative learning theory, where the unit of analysis is
individual change. Critical reflection is the central process of transformation. It reflects a rational approach to transformative
learning, emphasizing a critical and objective analysis of an interpretation of experience. It recognizes that there is an innate
drive among all humans to understand and make meaning of their experiences.
Based on the assumption that there are no fixed truths, and that change is continuous, individuals cannot always be confident of
what they know or believe and therefore it becomes imperative that they continually seek ways to better understand their world,
by developing a more critical worldview.
Mezirow (2000) argues that adults have a need to better understand “how to negotiate and act upon our own purposes, values,
feelings and meanings rather than those we have uncritically assimilated from others—to gain greater control over our lives as
socially responsible clear thinking decision makers” (p. 8).

Understanding transformative learning requires recognizing its various structures

1. Frame of reference. The meaning structures of assumptions and expectations that frame an individual’s tacit points of view
and influence their thinking, beliefs, and actions.
 A frame of reference is composed of two dimensions, habits of mind and a point of view.
 Habits of mind are habitual means of thinking, feeling, and acting influenced by underlying cultural, political,
social, educational, and economic assumptions about the world. The habits of mind get expressed in a particular
point of view.
 They often develop uncritically in childhood through socialization and acculturation with family, teachers, and
through other significant relationships. Over time, in conjunction with numerous congruent experiences, a frame of
reference becomes reified, providing a rationalization for an often irrational world.
 It offers criteria for evaluating the world that adults interact with, based on a set of cultural and psychological
assumptions. These assumptions give meaning to experience, but they are subjective: they can distort thoughts and
perceptions, skewing reality.
 Frames of reference act as filters when interpreting experience. When an individual comes upon a new experience,
depending on the degree of conformity with prior experience, it either reinforces the frame of reference or gradually
stretches its boundaries.
 However, when an individual has a radically different or incongruent experience (e.g. the death of a loved one,
moving to a different country), where the experience cannot be assimilated into the frame of reference, it is either
rejected or there is a development of a new frame of reference—a perspective transformation.
 It is the revision of a frame of reference in concert with a disparate experience, often referred to as a disorienting
dilemma, in conjunction with critical reflection on the experience that leads to a perspective transformation—a
paradigmatic shift. A perspective transformation leads to “a more fully developed (more functional) frame of
reference … one that is more (a) inclusive, (b) differentiating, (c) permeable, (d) critically reflective, and (e)
integrative of experience” (Mezirow, 1996: 163).
Extrarational transformation
 Discernment is the central process of transformation; symbols and images lead to personal enlightenment as individuals
work to bring the unconscious to consciousness.
 Boyd (1989) defines transformation as “a fundamental change in one’s personality involving conjointly the resolution of
a personal dilemma and the expansion of consciousness resulting in greater personality integration” (p. 459). This
process is the inner journey of individuation (Jung, [1921] 1971).
 Jung ([1921] 1971: 448) defines individuation as the process by which individuals differentiate themselves from the
collective of humanity. People come to see how they are both the same as and different from others; transformation is
the emergence of the Self.
 In the extrarational perspective on transformative learning, people bring the unconscious into consciousness through
imagination, intuition, and emotional experiences. We enter into a conscious relationship with images as we discover
who we are as separate from and the same as others.
Social transformation
 Social transformation is a view of transformative learning of a socially constructed individual within the context of society,
more specifically about transforming society in concert with individual change. Critical reflection and ideology critique are
the central processes of transformation.
  It emphasizes the importance of fostering an awareness, a consciousness of the dominant culture and its relationship to power
and positionality in defining what is and is not knowledge in society.
 Social transformation is seen as the unveiling or demythologizing of reality by the oppressed through the awakening of their
critical consciousness–conscientization, where they learn to become aware of political, social and economic contradictions
and to take action against the conditions that are oppressive. This awakening of an individual’s critical consciousness is the
consequence of the transformative experience.
 “Critical theory views thinking critically as being able to identify, and then to challenge and change, the process by which a
grossly inequitable society uses dominant ideology to convince people this is a normal state of affairs” (Brookfield, 2009:
126).
 As a result, a transformation is more of a social experience where the act of transformation is change in society. It is based on
the assumption that humans relate to the world in only two ways, by integration and adaptation. Integration involves the
critical capacity to act on the world as a Subject and adaptation is being an Object, acted upon by the world.
 Transformative learning from this perspective occurs when the learner becomes aware of his or her history and biography
and how this is embedded in social structures that foster privilege and oppression of persons, based on power.

Lesson 3 Making Meaning: The Dynamics of Learning By Jack Mezirow

We have acquired frames of reference through socialization (informal learning) and schooling (formal learning). Some of these
frames of reference were uncritically assimilated. These approved ways of seeing and understanding and established pattern of
thought and behavior collaborate to set limits to our future learning.

Overview of Transformation Theory

 Sets of habitual expectations or “meaning perspectives” (created by ideologies, learning styles, neurotic self-deception)
constitute codes that govern the activities of perceiving, comprehending, and remembering.
 The symbols that we project onto our sense perceptions are filtered through meaning perspectives (loaded perception).
 Meaning is an interpretation and to make meaning is to construe or interpret experience—in other words, to give it
coherence.
 The idea that uncritically assimilated habits of expectation or meaning perspectives serve as schemes and as perceptual
and interpretive codes in the construal of meaning constitutes the central dynamic and fundamental postulate of a
constructivist transformation theory of adult learning.
 Meaning schemes and meaning perspectives constitute our “boundary structure’ for perceiving and comprehending new
data from experience.
 Meaning schemes are sets of related and habitual expectations governing ifthen, cause-effect, and category relationships
as well as event sequences.
 Meaning schemes are habitual, implicit rules for interpreting. Meaning schemes are made up of specific knowledge,
beliefs, value judgments, and feelings that constitute interpretations of experience.
 Meaning perspectives are made up of higher-order schemata, theories, propositions, beliefs, prototypes, goal
orientations, and evaluations.
 Lover-beloved, teacher-student, employer-employee, priest-parishioner, and other familiar role relationships are
predicated on established meaning perspectives involving habitual expectations to everyone.
 Meaning perspectives refer to the structure of assumptions within which new experience is assimilated and transformed
by one’s part experience during the process of interpretation. They involve the habits of expectation to objects or events
to form an interpretation.
-Experience strengthens our personal meaning system by refocusing or extending our expectations about how things are supposed to
be.
-We allow our meaning system to diminish our awareness of how things really are in order to avoid anxiety, creating a zone of
blocked attention and self-deception.
-Overcoming limited, distorted, and arbitrarily selective modes of perception and cognition through reflection on assumptions that
formerly have been accepted uncritically is central to development in adulthood.
A crucial dimension of adult learning is justifying or validating communicated ideas and the presuppositions of prior learning.
-Uncritically assimilated presuppositions may distort our ways of knowing, involving epistemic assumptions; our ways of believing,
involving social norms, cultural or language codes, and social ideologies; and our ways of feeling, involving repressed parental
prohibitions from childhood that control adult feelings and behavior through anxiety.
-This process of determining the conditions under which an expressed idea is true or valid that problematic meaning schemes (specific
knowledge, beliefs, value judgments, or feelings involved in making an interpretation) are confirmed or negated and meaning
perspectives (rule systems governing perceptions and cognition) are significantly restructured. Meaning schemes of habits of
expectation and perspectives are transformed through reflection.
-Reflection involves validity testing. Reflection involves critique of the content, process pr premises of problem solving. Reflection on
content and process may result in the transformation of meaning schemes.
-Reflection on premises may result in the transformation of the meaning perspectives and the experience being interpreted. Reflective
learning involves assessment or reassessment of assumptions. Reflective learning becomes transformative whenever assumptions or
promises are found to be distorting, inauthentic, or otherwise invalid.
-Transformative learning results in new or transformed meaning schemes or, when reflection focuses on premises, transformed
meaning perspectives. The goal of reflective learning is either confirmation or transformation of ways of interpreting experience.
Transformation theory views memory as an inherent function of perception and cognition, an active process of recognizing again and
reinterpreting a previously learned experience in a new context.
-The dialectic may result in the creation of new meaning schemes when old ones prove inadequate.
-Anything that moves the individual toward a more inclusive, differentiated, permeable (open to other points of view), and integrated
meaning perspectives, the validity of which has been established through critical discourse, aids in adult development.

LESSON 4 The Nature of Assumptions By Stephen Brookfield

Transformative education deals primarily with problematic frame of reference or structure of assumptions.
• Switching on a desktop entails many assumptions on the part of the user. First, she takes for granted that it is connected to a power
source. Second, there is electricity running through this power source. Third, the computer is not defective. Fourth, it will not explode
after pressing the power button.
• If you are to hail a ride such as public utility bus or van, you hold the following (unconscious) beliefs: the vehicle is in good
condition, the driver is not under the influence of liquor nor illegal drugs, no criminals will hijack the bus, the driver has good eyesight
and, you will arrive to your destination in one piece, etc.

Assumption Defined
Stephen Brookfield (2017) defines assumptions as “taken-for-granted beliefs about the world and our place within it that guide our
actions.”
Kies (1995) says that assumptions are beliefs or ideas that we hold to be true—often with little or no evidence required. A taken-for-
granted belief is a belief that is not supported by reasons. It is assumed to be true but not known to be true. The person holding the
belief thinks that it is true.
Examples of assumptions are the following:
• When a customer orders food, I assume as a waiter that the customer has money to pay for his order. (The waiter does not know
whether the customer has money or not.)
• People who bet in the lotto assume that they will win. (They do not have evidence to support the belief, “I will win in the lotto.”
• People who enter into marriage assume that their spouse will be faithful to them.
• People vote for a particular politician assuming that the person will true to his or her promises once elected into office.
Kinds of Assumptions
Brookfield (2017) identifies three kinds of assumptions, namely, paradigmatic, prescriptive, and causal.
(1) Paradigmatic assumptions are “structuring assumptions we use to order the world into fundamental categories.” This means
that we assume that some things, actions, people, and events have their proper place in the world.
Gifts are symbols of generosity.
Cooking is a skill.
Educated people possess good manners.
Teachers are exemplars of moral excellence.
Schools are place of learning. Birthdays are joyous events.
(2) Prescriptive assumptions are “assumptions about what we think ought to be happening in a particular situation.”
Educated people should possess good manners.
Teachers ought to be exemplars of moral excellence.
Schools should be a place of learning.
Birthdays should be a joyous event.

Prescriptive assumptions are extensions of paradigmatic assumptions. For example,

Paradigmatic assumption: Students learn best through collaborative learning activity.
Prescriptive assumption: Teachers should engage students in a collaborative learning activity to maximize learning.

(3) Causal assumptions are “assumptions about how the different parts of the world work and about the conditions under which
these can be changes.”
When there is smoke, there is fire.
If I lie to a person, she will not trust me anymore.
 If the government stops sending OFWs, the economy will be negatively affected.
If your boyfriend finds out that you are engaged in another relationship with a guy, he will be mad .

ARTS APPRECIATION
The Origin and Meaning of Humanities
The term “humanities” originated from the Renaissance Latin expression studia humanitatis, which means “culture,
refinement, education”. Humanities today include literature, philosophy, geography, history, religion, music, and art. These subjects
used methods that the primarily critical, speculative, and historical in elements whereas natural sciences are critical discipline and use
empirical approaches.
Meaning and Importance of Art
Art is a subject under humanities. There is no one universal definition of Art since Art is subjective. It is subjective in the
sense that people differ in their perception of an object or thing.

Hereunder are some of the definitions of Art given by various authors and writers.
1. Art is derived from the Latin word “ars,” meaning ability or skill - J.V. Estola
2. Artis takenfrom theItalian word“artis” which means craftsmanship, skill, mastery ofform, and ideas between material and
technique- A.Tan
3. Art is never finished, only abandoned.- Leonardo Da Vinci
4. Art is the conscious creation of something beautiful or meaningful using skill and imagination - Lisa Morder
5. Art is the desire of man to express himself, to record the action of his personality in the world he lives in.- Amy Lowell

Nevertheless, a glimpse of the above definitions brings us four (4) standard essentials of arts:
1. Art is human-made, not God made
2. Art is creative, not imitative
3. Art benefits and benefits man- when he uses Art in practical life through artistic principles, taste, and skill
4. Art is expressed through a particular medium or material by which the artist communicated himself to his fellows.

Meaning and importance of Art Appreciation

Art appreciation can be defined as follows:
1. Art appreciation is the ability to interpret and understand man-made arts and enjoy them through actual work experience with art
tools and materials.
2. Art appreciation is the possession of the works of art for one’s admiration and satisfaction.
3. Art appreciation refers to the knowledge and understanding of the general everlasting qualities that classify all great arts.
4. Art appreciation is the introduction and exploration of visual and performing art forms.
5. Art appreciation is the analysis of the form of an art to general audience to enhance their enjoyment and satisfaction of the works of
art.
Art appreciation is important to our lives. However, people differ in their art appreciation. Their appreciation of art depends
on personal preference on: (1) Aesthetics and form of art; (2) elements and principles of design; and (3) social and cultural acceptance.
Thus appreciation of art can be subjective.
Art appreciation is important to students. It develops their visual thinking and analytical skills where they are able to observe
closely and describe what they see around them in detail, so as it to provide evidence for their observations. Small efforts done by the
students such as this can lead to a greater appreciation of art.

Assumption of Art
Art is universal
In every country of the world, art exist because it is important to people’s lives. It is the oldest and most important means of
expression developed by man in any culture.
Art as cultural
Art contributes with the understanding of past and present cultures. Through art, people learn about their culture’s values and
strengthen their culture’s identity.
Art is not nature
Art is not nature because it is man-made. Art is man’s interpretation of what he perceives as art.
Art involves experience
Artists used their experiences to ventilate their feelings through the works that they make. Some artists focus on societal problems,
issues, and concerns.
 The Functions of Art
Every art form has a definite function since it satisfies a particular need. To the layman, art may have a little function. Some find
meaning in art its ability to serve the purpose for which it was designed.

The seven (7) functions of the art are:

1. Aesthetic function
Through Art, man becomes conscious of the beauty of beauty and nature. They benefit from their work and from those who
have done for their fellowmen.
2. Utilitarian function
Through Art, man is provided with shelter, clothing, food, light, medicine, beautiful surroundings, personal ornamentals,
entertainment, language, transportation, and other necessities and conveniences in life.
3. Cultural function
Through the printed matter, Art transmits and preserve skills and knowledge from one generation to another. It makes man
aware of their cultural background, making him more knowledgeable, making their life more enduring and satisfying.
4. Social function
Through civic and graphic arts, man learns to love and help each other. International understanding and cooperation are
fostered, and nations become more unified, friendly, cooperative, helpful, and sympathetic.
5. Political function
Art reinforces and enhances a sense of identity and ideological connection to specific political views, political parties, and
politicians.
6. Educational function
There are art symbols and signs to illustrate the knowledge and attitudes that are not expressed in words.
7. Spiritual function
Some artworks express spiritual beliefs, customs, ceremonies, and rituals about the meaning and destiny of life. These
artworks may have religious significance
Philosophy of Art
Philosophy of art refers to the study of the nature of art, its concept, interpretation, representation, expression and form.
1. Art as Mimesis
The word mimesis is a Greek word which means “imitation” or “copying”, although it may also mean representation. The
philosophers Plato and Aristotle spoke of mimesis as there presentation of nature. Plato believed that all artistic creation is
mimesis. It exists in the “world of ideas” and is created by God. The concrete things that man created are just shadows
created by man’s mind.
2. Art as Representation (Aristotle)
Are represents something. When an artist uses signs and symbols to take the place of something else, he is using art as a
representation of such signs and symbols.
3. Art for Art’s sake (Kant)
Immanuel Kant's main interest was not in Art per se, but Beauty in the Sublime. Kant being an Enlightenment writer though
that beauty or sublimity were not properties of objects, but ways in which we respond to items. Kant point out that what he
meant by Beauty is not the Form of the Beautiful but about Taste.
4. Art as an Escape
According to Allen Weinstein, without mental escape, we build up alotof anxiety within ourselves. Artists has to get rid of
this anxiety and pressure because if we keep these worries and concerns within our mind, they will come out in the form of
anger and even hatred.
5. Art as Functional
The artist's intent in creating a functional piece of art is to bring creativity, beauty, and usefulness into people’s everyday
lives.
Subject and Content of Art
Subject of Art
In any art from-painting, music, sculpture, architecture, or dance - there is always a subject that serves as the foundation of the
creation of the work of art. A subject of art is usually anything that is represented in the artwork. It is varied – it may be a person,
object, scene, or event.

Sources of subjects
Subjects of art may be found in primary sources such as:
 Artwork nature
Autobiographies History
The film of the artiest Mythology
Diaries, speeches Christian
documents tradition
Types of subjects
1. Representational or Objective Arts
Some artworks depict something easily recognized by most people. Painting, sculpture, graphic arts, literature, and theatre arts
are generally classified as representational arts, although some paintings and sculptures are without objects. Music and dance
may or may not have subjects.
2. Non-Representational or Non-Objective Arts
There are artworks have no resemblance to any real subject. They do not represent anything and they are what they are. They
rather appeal directly to the senses primarily because of the satisfying organization of their elements.

Kinds of Subject
Artists usually draw their arts through the different kinds of subject. These include:
1. Still Life- These are groups of inanimate objects arranged in an indoor setting.
2. Landscapes, Seascapes and Cityscapes- Artists have always been fascinated with their physical environment.
3. Animals- They have been represented by artists from almost every ages and places. In fact, the earliest known paintings are
representation of animals on the walls of caves.
4. Portraits- People have always been intrigued by the human face as an index of the owner’s character. As an instrument of
expression, it is capable of showing a variety of moods and feelings.
5. Figures- The sculptures chief subject has traditionally been the human body, nude or clothed.
6. Everyday Life- Artists have always a deep concern about life around them. Many of them have recorded in paintings their
observation of people going about their usual ways and performing their usual tasks.
7. History and Legends- History consists of verifiable facts, legends, of unverifiable ones.
8. Religion and Mythology- Arts has been a hand maiden of religion. Most of the world’s religions have used the arts to aid in
worship, to instruct, to inspire feelings of devotion and to impress and covert non-believers.
9. Dreams and Fantasies- Dreams are usually vague and illogical. No limits can be imposed on imagination.