Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE

Grade 10

[DR SARAH ABDEL NASSER]

O
 Index

Topic 1: States of Matter………………………………………………………………………2--6

Topic 2: Separating Substances…………………………………………………………….7--17

Topic 3: Atoms, Molecules, Elements and Compounds………………………..18—23

Topic 4: Chemical Bonding and Compounds………………………………………..24—34

Topic 5: Stoichiometry (Formula, equations and calculations)…………….35---54

Topic 6: The periodic table ………………………………………………………………..55-----69

Topic 7: Metals and reactivity series …………………………………………………70-----82

Topic 8: Electrolysis…………………………………………………………………………..83-----95

Topic 9: Acids, bases and salts………………………………………………………….96-----112

Topic 10: Energy changes…………………………………………………………………114---125

Topic 11: Rate of chemical reactions……………………………………………….126----139

Topic12: Air and Water…………………………………………………………………..140-----152

Topic 13: carbon and sulfur…………………………………………………………….153----159

Topic 14: Organic chemistry……………………………………………………………160-----190

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
 Topic 1: States of Matter
Q: What is “Matter”?

 Matter is anything that has mass and volume filling a space.

 All matter is made of tiny particles (atoms, ions and molecules).

States of matter:
Matter exists in three states: solid, liquid and gas. They are interconnected through
cooling and heating.

Matter Solid Liquid Gas

Shape Fixed Not fixed( take shape of container)
Volume Fixed Fixed Not fixed
Arrangement  Particles  Particles Slide  particles
arranged in past each move freely
fixed pattern other apart
(lattice)  Still close  Irregular
 Close together together in an pattern
in regular irregular  No force
arrangement pattern
 Strong force  Weak force

Model

Vibration Only vibrate in place Can move around Free, moving rapidly
slowly (random (random motion)
motion)
Melting Boiling

The Brownian Motion: by Robert Brown

 It is the random motion of particles in a suspension which can be seen by the eye
or under a microscope and this motion is because the particles follow a zigzag
pattern because they are struck by tiny invisible particles.

e.g.: cooking smell due to tiny particles which spread because they are bombarded by
particles in air. This is also an example of diffusion.e.g.: the random motion of dust particles
in air is due to their bombardment by gas molecules.

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The Kinetic Particles Theory: (Motion Theory)

 All matter is made up of very small invisible particles (atoms, ions & molecules).
 The speed of the particles depends on their mass and temperature
 So the higher the temperature the faster the particles will move.
 Also lighter particles will move faster than the heavier ones.
 Gases can fill any volume as they are free to move anywhere.

The following graph shows the changing of state (Heating curve) from solid (ice) to liquid
(water) to gas (steam).

E
D

B
A

 At point A: solid is heated. Its particles get more energy so they vibrate more.
 At point B: (change of state happens) particles have gained enough heat energy to
break the strong force between the particles. At that point melting occurs and the
temperature remains constant until all the solid ice change into liquid water.
 At point C: water/ liquid is gaining more energy and sliding past each other more but
boiling has not started yet. N.B.: some evaporation might happen at this phase.
 At point D: (change of state happens) all water particles have gained enough heat
energy to break forces between liquid molecules and change into gas molecules. At
that point boiling occurs and the temperature remains constant until all liquid
(water) changed in gas (water vapor) at 100 °C.
Workout :Draw cooling curve

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 Endothermic

Exothermic

State Changes & its Reverse:

 Melting point: the temperature at which solid melts and changes into liquid.

≠
 Freezing/ solidification: when liquid is cooled, particles slow down and eventually
stop moving changing into solid.

 Boiling point: temperature at which liquid changes/ boils into gas.

≠
 Condensation/Liquefaction: when gas is cooled, particles lose energy, move slowly
and become closer changing into liquid.

 Evaporation: it is when the particles on the surface of the liquid have enough energy
to escape into gaseous state and form a gas at a temperature below the boiling
point.
A point to remember: evaporation can occur spontaneously at any temperature but
boiling occurs at a certain temperature which is the boiling point.
Rate of evaporation increases: 1)by increasing Temperature 2)increasing Surface
area

 Sublimation: it is the change of state from solid to gas directly and back from gas to
solid without passing through the liquid state.
e.g.: if you leave solid frozen carbon dioxide at room temperature, it sublime to
carbon dioxide gas(called dry ice).
e.g.: if you boil dark grey iodine crystal(solid) it changes into purple vapor I2 gas and
on cooling returns back to dark grey iodine crystal.

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Important points to be mentioned during change of state:
1. Particles gain heat move faster and collide more and more of colliding
molecules have sufficient energy/activation energy to react .
2. Pure substances have fixed melting and boiling points. Presence of impurities
increase boiling point and decrease melting point. e.g.: pure water boils at 100 °C
and freezes at 0°C.
3. The melting and boiling points of different substances reflect the strength of
attraction between the molecules of these substances.
4. Compressing a gas: the only particles that can be compressed are gas particles while
solid and liquid cannot be compressed because their particles are already very close
together. If enough force is applied by the plunger the gas particles get closer
together and changes into liquid.

When the gas in compressed into smaller space its pressure increases, and by
heating the gas in a closed container it’s pressure increases. This is the idea of the
pressure cooker.
N.B: Pressure is created from the beginning as gas particles hit each other and hit the
side of the container so this exerts pressure.

Diffusion
It is the process where particles mix and spread by colliding with other moving particles.
This is seen mainly in gases and liquids. Diffusion is faster in gases than liquids.

Definition: Particles move from region of high concentration into region of low
concentration down concentration gradient.

e.g.: 1) Bromine diffusion: Bromine is a reddish brown liquid that easily vaporizes
(turns into gas) at room temperature.
Some bromine is placed at the bottom of a sealed jar as the cover in the middle of
the jar removed the reddish brown vapor of Bromine diffuses to fill both sides
uniformly.

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
 2) Solid crystals dissolve and spread among water particles.
e.g.: Blue Copper Sulfate crystals and purple Potassium Manganate (VII)
3) Perfume smells/ Car exhausts/ Drops of ink in water

 The rate of diffusion of gases depends on the molecular mass (Mr) and the
temperature. The smaller the Mr, the faster they diffuse. The higher the
temperature, the faster they diffuse.(liquids and gases only)
A) The mass of the molecules:
- Cotton wool soaked in Ammonia solution is put into one end of a long
tube which gives off Ammonia gas NH3.
- At the same time, in the same tube, a cotton wool soaked in Hydrochloric
acid (HCl) is put into the other end which gives of Hydrogen Chloride gas.
- The gases diffuse along the tube reacting together forming white smoke
of Ammonium chloride NH4Cl where they meet.
- Ammonia NH3 (14+3=17) particles have lower mass so they travel faster
than Hydrogen Chloride HCl(1+35.5=36.5)
- The white smoke NH4Cl is formed closer to Hydrochloric acid B.
- The lower the relative molecular mass, the faster the gas diffuses.

B) The temperature:
- When a gas is heated, its particles take in heat energy and move faster.
- They collide with more energy so the gas diffuses faster.

Applications of Diffusion:
 Separation of a mixture of gases by diffusion at a certain temperature:
e.g.: 1) Helium and Argon mixture
2) Oxygen O2 and Ozone O3

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 Topic 2: Separating Substances

Balance (electronic) Beakers Bunsen Burner Burette

graduated cylinder
crucible and Lid Dropper Tongs
(not accurate)

Funnel Flask(Erlenmeyer) Googles Evaporating Dish

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 Glass rod stand and clamp Measuring Cylinders
pipette and bulb

spatula
Round bottom flask pipette
Stirring Rods

Glass plate
Tube Tube &
Test Tube Holder
Holder

Watch Glasses Wire Gauze (placed A.Tap/separating

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 Wash Bottle over tripod) funnel

Fractionating
Condenser column and Tripod Mortar and pestle
condenser
Laboratory Rules and Safety Precautions:

Do Don’t
1) Keep away bags and coats safely 1) Eat or drink or run in a lab
2) Tie your hair and clothes 2) Look down to test tubes that is being
heated or point it to anyone
3) Wear safety googles, gloves and 3) Heat flammable liquids such as
white coat during experiments of Ethanol on flame use hot water bath
corrosive substances or electric heater
4) Use fume cupboard or in a well 4) Handle any corrosive substances such
ventilated laboratory when carrying as concentrated Sulfuric acid without
out experiments involving toxic gases gloves and spatula
or strong smelling gases as Ammonia
5) Hold test tubes with tongs or a
holder
Chemical Hazard Labels:
Oxidizing agents
e.g.: Potassium Manganate, Potassium dichromate, Hydrogen peroxide

Toxic
e.g.: Chlorine, Bromine, Mercury, Carbon monoxide

Flammable
e.g.: Ethanol, Petrol, Hydrogen

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 Corrosive
Concentrated solutions of acids and alkalis
e.g.: concentrated sulfuric acid

Mixture, Solutions and Solubility:

 Mixture: it contains more than one substance. The substances are just mixed
together and not chemically combined.
e.g.: Air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen and small amount of other gases.
 Solutions: when you add sugar (solute) to water(solvent), the sugar seems to
disappear as the sugar dissolved in the water giving a solution.
SOLUTE + SOLVENT= SOLUTION
- Water is the most common solvent. A solution in water is called an aqueous
solution. Other solvents, such as Ethanol and Acetone, can dissolve substances
that do not dissolve in water.
- The solubility of every substance is different depending on the particles inside
the substance.
- Type of solutions:
 Diluted solution: the percentage of solute is low while lots of solvent.
 Concentrated solution: the percentage of solute is high while small amount
of solvent.
Q: What about saturated solution?
Solution is called saturated when it can dissolve no more solute at that
temperature.

1. Add solute (sugar) to solvent (water) and it will dissolve slowly at room temperature.
2. By stirring using spatula the dissolving become faster.
3. Add extra sugar at that room temperature, no more solute will dissolve and the
solution becomes saturated.
4. By heating, the extra sugar dissolves as the temperature rises (super saturated
solution). N.B: soluble solid gets more soluble as the temperature rises.

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  Solubility: solubility of solid in water is the number of grams of that solid that will
dissolve in 100g of water.

Solubility curve: shows that the number of grams of solute (Potassium nitrate) that
dissolves in solvent (water) is increased as temperature increase.

 When a saturated solution is cooled some of the dissolved solute will crystalize out
of solution.
 At 20°C the solubility of KNO3 is 25g/cm³.
 At 60°C the solubility of KNO3 is 110g/cm³.
 If the saturated solution is cooled from 60°C to 20°C, the solubility fall from 110 to
25; meaning that (110-25)= 85g of KNO3 will crystalize out and appear as crystals.
Purity and its Importance:

 A pure substance has only one type of particles and has no other substances mixed
with it.
 A pure substance has a definite sharp melting and boiling point. When it contains
impurities its melting point falls and its boiling point rises.
 The more impurity there is, the bigger the change in melting and boiling points, the
wider the temperature ranges.
 Also a pure substance will produce only one spot on chromatogram (paper
chromatography).
 Tests for purity are very important in drug, food and drinking industries because
impurities might cause undesirable health effects.
 Dissolving is considered a physical change as melting, boiling and evaporation.

e.g.: Pure water freezes at 0°C and boils at 100°C. If it freezes at -- 0.5°C and boils at
101°C then it is not pure.

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 Methods of Purification (Separation):

Methods of separation Used to separate

1) Filtration and Decantation Insoluble solid from a liquid
2) Crystallization Soluble solid (solute) from a solution
3) Evaporation Soluble solid (solute) from a solution
4) Simple distillation Solvent from a solution
5) Fractional distillation Miscible liquids from each other
6) Separating funnel Immiscible liquids (oil and water)
7) Paper chromatography Different substances from a solution

A) To Separate insoluble solid in a liquid:

1- Filtration (accurate)
Chalk (Calcium carbonate) is visible in water easy to separate by filtering
where chalk is trapped in the filter paper as (Residue) while water pass
through it as (Filtrate).

2- Decantation (inaccurate)
Just pouring the liquid off from the solid

Work out :how you can separate between(sugar and NaCl salt)&(sand and
sugar)

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 B) To separate soluble solid from a liquid solution:
1- Crystallization (process involve evaporation)
How to obtain copper (II) sulfate from its solution?
The idea is based on that soluble solids tend to be less soluble at lower
temperature by carrying the following steps:

or

check that it is ready by dipping

a glass rod and observe crystals
2- Evaporation (suitable for substances which change very little as temperature
falls, so crystallization not applicable)
A solution consists of a solute dissolved in a solvent.
Sea water is solution of salt (sodium chloride) in water. By heating the
solution, water evaporates and solid salt is left.

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 C) To obtain solvent from solution:
1- Simple Distillation
a- Heat the solution in the flask. As it boils water vapor rises into the
condenser leaving salt behind.
b- The condenser is cold; the vapor condenses into water in it.
c- The water droplets collected is called distillate.
This process involves evaporation and condensation

D) To separate mixture of miscible liquids:

1- Fractional Distillation (mixture of ethanol 78°C and water 100°C)

a- Heat the mixture in the flask. At about 78°C the ethanol begins to boil,
some water evaporates too so the mixture rises up the column.
b- The vapor condenses on the glass beads in the fractionating column
making them hot.
c- When the beads reach about 78°C, ethanol vapor no longer condense on
them reaching the top of the column. Only the water vapor does so water
drips back into the flask as it’s boiling point has not reached yet while
ethanol distils over and collected first.
d- Pure ethanol drips into the flask.
e- When the thermometer rises above 78°C then a sign that all the ethanol
has gone so you can stop heating.
Separation depends on different boiling points.

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 Application of fractional distillation:
1- Separation of liquid air into oxygen and nitrogen
2- Separation of crude oil (petroleum) into useful fractions
3- Separation of ethanol from aqueous ethanol and as a product from
fermentation process.

E) Two immiscible liquids (oil and

water):Separating (tap) funnel
The less dense liquid (oil) will float over
the more dense liquid (water) and the denser
liquid (water) will be separated first by
controlling the tap.

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 F) Paper chromatography (special type of filter paper):
Separating different colored substances from a solution
Paper chromatography is used to separate the components of a mixture like the
colors of dyes in ink according to their different solubility in water and also to
identify additives in foods such as flavorings and colorings and in forensic
additives.

1)Base line drawn in pencil not pen ink as ,it will turn run on the paper as it will dissolve in
solvent while pencil made of graphite insoluble in solvents.

2) Solvent level must be below the baseline to prevent the solubility of the spot in the whole
beaker.

3)The solvent rise up by capillarity and the mixture begin to separate and spots appear at
different distance above origin line according to their different solubility in the solvent and
attraction to the paper they travel over, most soluble one travels faster than the the less
soluble one .

4) The number of spots indicates the number of constituents present in the mixture.

5) Pure substance will produce one spot.

6) If the sample spot didn’t move producing no spots this means that the wrong solvent
used, as the substance is insoluble in the solvent.

7) The process ends when the solvent reaches the solvent front. Remove the paper and
examine the number of spots.

8) Finished paper containing spots is called chromatogram.

9) Solvents used (water, ethanol, and organic acids)

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Chromatography can be used to separate colorless substance producing invisible spots are
separated by spraying the paper with another chemical called locating agent so the
position of spots can be seen.

Ninhydrin is the best choice locating agent for amino acids.

Resorcinol is the best choice locating agent for sugar (carbohydrates).

Usage of paper chromatography:

1) Identify substance
2) Separate mixture
3) Purify substance by separating impurities
1) Identify a substance:
a) Run the sample you want to examine against a reference / standard sample
b) Measure the Rf (retention factor) value of the spots produced and compare
them with the standard sample.

Rf= Distance travelled by sample Y /Distance travelled by solvent X

Then compare the Rf of the spots X with the Rf values of the standards.

Note: Rf value of a compound is always the same for a given solvent under the same
conditions.

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Topic 3: Atoms, Molecules, Elements and Compounds
Atoms: are the smallest particles of matter that cannot be broken down further by chemical
reaction e.g. sodium is made up of tiny particles called sodium atoms.

Molecules: made up of two or more atoms joined together chemically.

Elements: substance made of one type of atom e.g. sodium element is made up of sodium
atoms only, each element has a symbol.

Compound: two or more different elements chemically combined. The symbol of a

compound is called a formula. The compound has different properties from those of its
elements.

Mixtures: made of two or more elements or compounds joined physically not chemically
and their composition can vary, the mixture has the same properties of the substances in it.

 There are over 100 elements which are represented in a table called periodic table.
Each element has a symbol which identifies it together with its name.
 Periodic table is divided into columns and rows.
 Columns numbers I to VIII are called groups each group has similar properties.
 Rows 1 to 7 are called periods.
 Most of the elements are classified as metals and the remaining 22 are non-metals.
 Metalloids: are elements having some metallic & non-metallic properties
(Silicon,Arsenic,Germanium)

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 Atomic structure

 Atoms consist of a nucleus and clouds of electrons that moves around the nucleus.
Nucleus contains two types of particles; protons and neutrons. The Electrons orbits
around the nucleus in shells (energy shells) ;( atoms contains three subatomic
particles).
 All particles in an atom are very light so there mass is measured in atomic mass units
rather than in grams.
Particle Mass Charge
+)
Proton (p 1 unit Positive (+1)
Neutron (n) 1 unit None
Electron (e) (1/2000 or 1/1840) Negative (-1)
How particles are arranged?
11
e.g.: Sodium (23Na )

 Proton number /Atomic number: (11)

It is the number pf protons inside the nucleus of an atom.

 Nucleon number/ mass number: (23)

- The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom (heavy
part an atom), so the number of neutrons =23-11=12 neutrons.
- As the atoms is electrically neutral (no charge) so the number of protons
(+ve) equal number of electrons (-ve), so the number of electrons =11.
- Nucleus represent the mass of atom since electrons mass are negligible
protons and neutrons are called Nucleons.
- You can identify an atom by its proton number (not mass number) since
periodic table is arranged according to atomic number it is the ID for any
atom.
- Number of neutrons= Mass number (Nucleon number) -- Atomic number.

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 How Electrons are arranged?

Electrons shells:
1) Electrons are arranged in shells around the nucleus ( energy levels)
2) The first shell closer to the nucleus is the lowest energy level.
3) The further shell is from the nucleus is the higher the energy level.
 Each shell can hold only a certain number of electrons, when the first energy shell is
full the electrons go to fill the next shell and so on.

This is The 3rd shell can hold up to 18 electrons

called the but it fills 8 electrons the rest goes to
electronic the fourth
structure The 2nd shell can hold 8 electrons the
it fills the next

The 1st shell can hold 2 electrons then it

fills the next

This is called (2, 8, 8) electronic configuration/distribution.

 In The periodic table, elements are arranged in order of increasing the proton
number and the number of electrons increases each time too. (It is the same as the
proton number in neutral atoms).
Patterns in the periodic table:
1. Periods number gives the number of shells e.g: potassium 39K19 (2,8,8,1 ) ͢ number
of shells is 4 so it is present in period 4.
2. Potassium is in group 1 (ǀ) this gives indication to the outer shell electron (1electron)
so it is in group 1. Outer shell is called valency shell containing valency electrons &
the group number gives the properties of the element in their groups which are
similar.
3. Group 8/0 (VIII): ( Noble gases/ Inert gases):
 All elements of this group have stable arrangements of electrons.
 Their atoms all have 8 electrons in the outer shell except helium has 2 electrons just
one shell
 Noble gases are stable (unreactive) as they have full outer shells.

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Note :
After the 20th element Calcium, the electron shells fill in a complete way that you don’t have
to draw but you should answer questions about electron distribution, proton number &
number of neutrons by using the periodic table.

e.g.: Give the name, group number, period number, number of neutrons of 37Rb?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Isotope and Radioactivity:

 First atoms are identified by their proton number/atomic number

e.g.: (6C) Carbon known as proton number ⑥.
However there are 3 atoms of carbon that exist in nature:
6 6 6
12C 13C 14C
(6 neutrons) (7 neutrons) (8 neutrons)
What differs here is the mass number (number of neutrons) this is what we call
isotope, isotopes of carbon.
 Isotopes: are atoms of the same element which have the same proton number but
different nucleon number (different number of neutrons). So carbon has 3 isotopes;
most elements have isotopes.
 Isotopes of the same element have the same chemical properties as both have the
same electronic distribution (same outermost electrons, but they differ in physical
properties.
1
e.g.: isotopes of hydrogen 1H Hydrogen (no neutron)
1
2D Deuterium (1 neutron)
1
3T Tritium (2 neutrons)

Radioactive Isotopes:
 Some isotopes are radioactive having unstable nuclei that break down to emit
radiation in form of rays and particles (alpha, beta and gamma) to be more stable.
e.g.: C14 & 13T.
 Although these radiations cause sickness, we try to make use of them.

 Radiations may combine: - Alpha particles (2 protons & 2 neutrons)

- Beta particles (electrons)
- Neutron
- Gamma rays (high energy rays)

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Medical Use:

1. Cancer treatment: destroying tumors by gamma radiation of cobalt 60.

2. Sterilizing medical equipment: gamma rays kill bacteria & germs.
3. Industrial use: detection of leaks in water and gas pipes (tracers isotopes) & checking
thickness of paper and plastic sheets.
4. Nuclear power use (source of energy): some radioactive isotopes used in nuclear fuel
as Uranium 235 when they are bombarded by neutrons they split into smaller atoms.
The splitting called Nuclear Fission. Fission of uranium produces huge amount of
energy (nuclear energy) which can be used for generation of electricity and nuclear
235 92
power stations. U Kr (Krypton 92)
141
Ba (Barium 141)
Relative Atomic Mass (Ar):
Relative atomic mass of an element is the average mass of element’s isotopes taking
into account their proportions compared to the mass of 12C atom having exactly 12
units.
e.g.: 35.5Cl Chlorine exits in nature
37Cl (25%) 35Cl (75%) (work out by proportions)

Metals and Non-metals:

Metals lie on the left Non-metals lie on the right except hydrogen

General properties of metals General properties of non-metals

1. Good conductor of heat and 1. Bad conductor(except graphite)
electricity
2. High melting and boiling point 2. Low melting and boiling point
except group 1&2. (ALL are mainly solid and gases, only
solids)except mercury Hg liquid bromine liquid Physical
3. Hard, strong, can be hammered 3. Break easily, brittle properties
into shape(malleable) & make Not malleable or ductile and (non ss
wires(ductile) and sonorous sonorous)

4. Shiny,silvery grey except 4. Dull

copper reddish brown &Gold is
yellow
5. High density(heavy) except 1&2 5. Solids low density
6. Form positive ions (Na+) 6. Form negative ions (O2-) Chemical
7. React with O2 forming basic 7. React with O2 forming acidic properties
oxides oxides

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Exceptions:

 All metals are solid except mercury is liquid.

 All non-metals are solids and gases except Bromine liquid.
 Carbon non-metal is a bad conductor of electricity but when in form of graphite it is
a good conductor.
 All metals are hard except group 1 can be cut with a knife.
 Hydrogen is a non-metal but form positive ions.

Draw the atomic structure for the following:(write down the group number, period
number ,symbol and electronic distribution)

 Calcium
 Aluminium
 Magnesium
 Argon
 Sulphur

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 Topic 4: Chemical Bonding and Compounds
Compound: made up of atoms of different elements bonded together. Compound is
described by a formula made from symbol of atoms in it.

e.g.: Carbon dioxide made of carbon and oxygen Formula: CO2

Mixture: contain different substances that are not bonded together.(ex:Air )

What is the difference between chemical and physical change?

Chemical change Physical change

1. One or more new chemical 1. No new chemical substances formed
substances are formed
e.g.: iron + sulfur iron (II) sulfide
silvery grey yellow black
2. Energy is taken in or out during 2. Physical change is usually easy to
reaction reverse
3. The change is usually difficult to e.g.: mixing iron with sulfur without
reverse (chemical change involves heating, no chemical reaction occurs
chemical reaction) and they can by separated again by
dissolving sulfur in mercury and
benzene and filtering the iron off
Chemical Bonding
Why do atoms form bonds?

The clue is group 8/0 noble gases. The elements in this group are unreactive because
atoms have a very stable arrangement of electrons in the outer shell.
e.g.: Helium (2) & Argon (2, 8,8 )
so atoms bond with each other in order to gain stable arrangement of outer shell
electrons, like atoms of group 8, they bond in order to gain 8 electrons in the outer
shell (or 2 if they have only one shell) Octet rule

Types of Bonding:
1- Ions and ionic bonding: (1st type of bonding)
- Ionic bond is formed when one or more electrons are completely transferred
from an atom of metal to an atom of non-metal.
- Metals lose electrons to become positively charged (Cation) and their ions have
the same name of the atoms while non-metals (except hydrogen) gain electrons
to be negatively charged ions (Anion), with names ending in (ide).
e.g.: Chlorine Chloride ion / Sulfur Sulfide ion

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 - The number of positive charges on a metal is equal to the number of electrons
lost while the number of the negative charges on non-metal is equal to the
number of electrons gained.
- Elements of group IV/V don’t usually form ions because their atoms would have
to gain or lose some electrons that take too much energy.
- Outer shell electrons called valency electrons and the shell called valency shell

e.g.: how can sodium and chlorine reach stable outer shell configuration?

Sodium: (metal, group 1)

In this case sodium ions has 11 protons (+ve) but 10 electrons (-ve) so the number of
positive › number of negative so overall charge is positive +ve(+) (positive ion).

Chlorine: (non-metal, group 7)

Chloride ion is a negative ion as it has 17 protons (+ve) but 18 electrons (-ve) so the number
of the negative is › the number of the positive so the overall charge is negative –ve(-)
(negative ion)

An ion: is a charged particle because it has unequal number of protons and electrons; ions
have a more stable electronic configuration similar to the nearest noble gas.

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Dot and cross diagram:

1- Draw Dot and Cross Diagram of sodium chloride:

Ionic bond is the bond that forms between ions of opposite charge forming giant ionic
lattice (NaCl) formula.

Giant ionic lattice: it is a regular arrangement of positive and negative ions; these ions are
held together by strong electrostatic attraction forces between oppositely charged ions.

-
- This ionic compound is called
sodium chloride formula NaCl
- Ionic compound has no overall
charge

2- Draw Dot and Cross Diagram of magnesium oxide:

Formula: MgO

 Draw Ionic lattice

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
 3- Draw Dot and Cross Diagram of magnesium chloride:

Formula: MgCl2

In dot and cross diagrams you just show the electrons in the outer shell which is called
valency shell and the final formula of ionic compound has no overall charge.

Hint:
 Most transition metals form more than one type of ion. e.g.: (Fe2+, Fe3+), (Cu+,
Cu2+)
 Compound ion (polyatomic ion) is a group of atoms that are combined together
and carry a charge behave like ions. e.g.: NO-3 / SO2-4 / NH+4

Properties of ionic compounds:

1- Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points. e.g.: NaCl has a
melting point 801°C and boiling point 1413°C as ionic bonds are very strong it
takes a lot of heat energy to break up the lattice so ionic compounds are solid
at room temperature.
2- Soluble in water (but insoluble in organic solvents as ethanol).
3- Solid ionic compounds don’t conduct electricity (ions cannot move) but when
melted (molten) or dissolved in water, the ions are free to move and carry
electric current.

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
 2- Covalent bonding :(2nd type of bonding)
- Covalent bond occurs when two non-metals react together. Both need to gain
electrons to become stable, they manage this by the sharing of outer shell
electrons
Three types of covalent bond

A. Single covalent bond: one pair of electrons (2 electrons) are shared between two
atoms (non-metals)
e.g.: 1) Hydrogen (H2)

 So the sharing of electrons lead to a noble gas configuration, Helium

(2).
 Molecule: group of atoms held together by covalent bond.

2) Chlorine (Cl2) & Similarly I2, Br2, F2

e.g.:

Hydrogen Chloride (HCl) Water (H2O) Methane (CH4) Phosphorous

Trichloride (PCl3)

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
- Draw a diagram showing valency electrons in ammonia (NH3), tetra-chloromethane (CCl4)

B. Double covalent bond: two pairs of electrons (4 electrons) are shared between 2
atoms.
e.g.: 1) Oxygen (O2)

2) Carbon dioxide (CO2)

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
 C. Triple covalent bond: three pairs of electrons (6 electrons) shared between two
atoms.
e.g.: Nitrogen (N2)

Draw Ethyne (Acetylene) Organic

Properties of covalent compounds: (simple molecules)

1. Made up of molecules not ions.
2. Don’t conduct electricity. There are no charged particles so they cannot conduct.
3. Most covalent substances are gases and liquids, few are solids.
4. Covalent substances are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as
ethanol/acetone.
5. Usually have lower melting and boiling points than ionic compounds (molecules are
held together by weak forces).
N.B:
 Only carbon (and group IV elements) and (hydrogen) share all their valency
electrons. All of their outermost electrons are involved in covalent bonding.
 Diatomic molecules are molecules consisting of 2 atoms. e.g.: H2, N2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2,
O2
Ionic bonding (strong) Covalent bonding/Weaker
 Strong electrostatic attraction  Strong attraction between the
between oppositely charged ions bonding pair of electrons and nucleus
of atoms involved in the bond as
nuclei of atoms are positive
 Intermolecular forces (IMF): Forces which mediate interaction
(including forces of attraction and repulsion) between molecules
generally it is a weak force of attraction.

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
Giant Covalent Structures (Macromolecules):

Allotropes of Carbon:

 Macromolecules: are covalent molecules formed of millions of atoms sharing

electrons in giant structure.
 Allotropes: when an element exists in more than one structure form (different
structure of same element). Carbon occurs in two solid forms: diamond and
graphite; they are very different though they contain carbon atoms so these are
allotropes of carbon and both are giant covalent structures of carbon atoms.

Diamond Graphite
Diagram

Arrangement Each carbon atom is bonded to Carbon atoms are arranged in

of atoms four carbon atoms in a hexagons in parallel layers. The
tetrahedral arrangement layers are held together by weak
forces
Property & 1. Colorless crystal that 1. Very soft solid with a dull
use sparkles in the light shine used in pencils
jewelry 2. Soft and slippery as layers
2. Hardest substance on slide over each other due to
earth. Each carbon atom weak forces between layers
held in place by four used as lubricant
strong bonds with four
atoms used in cutting
& drilling tools.

Electricity Cannot conduct electricity. No Good conductor of electricity (used

conduction free electrons or ions to carry as electrodes in electrolysis) this is
charge because each carbon atom has
four electrons but forms only three
bonds, the fourth electron is free
to move through graphite carrying
the charge

Melting & Both have high melting and boiling points. This is because both consist
boiling points of giant structure of atoms with strong bonds between them.

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
 Silicon dioxide/ Silicon (IV) oxide (SiO2) is similar to diamond:
 It has giant covalent structure. Each silicon atom is bonded to four oxygen
atoms and each oxygen atom is bonded to two silicon atoms in a tetrahedral
arrangement.
 Same physical properties as diamonds. It is hard, has high melting point and
doesn’t conduct electricity.

O O

Si
Si

O O O
O O

Property Use
Hard, can scratch things Used in sand paper
Hard, lets light through Making glass and lenses
High melting point Bricks for lining furnace
 Sand paper used in removing impurities from surfaces

Germanium oxide/ germanium (IV) oxide/ Germania/ GeO2 macromolecule is similar to

silicon dioxide.

Properties of macromolecules/Giant molecules:

1. High melting and boiling point
2. Hard except graphite is soft
3. Don’t conduct electricity except graphite
4. Insoluble in water

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
 Melting point

Low High

In case of molecular substances ionic compounds and giant covalent

(simple covalent molecules) structures as bonds between ions or
as forces between particles are weak within giant structures are very strong

3- Metallic bonding in metals: (3rd type of bonding)

 Giant metallic lattice consist of positive ions surrounded by a sea of free

mobile electrons (electrons of outer shell) that are delocalized.
 Metallic bond: attraction between metal positive ions and free electrons.

Properties of metals linked to metallic bonding:

1. Metallic bonding is very strong in transition metals such as Cu/ Fe but weaker in
group one (Na & K) and that is why transition metals have higher melting point
than group 1(as the number of electrons in the outer shell increase the metallic
bond become stronger )
2. Metals are malleable (pressed into shapes) and ductile (wires) as layers of
positive ions can slide past each other without breaking.
3. Good conductor of heat and electricity. Heat and current are carried by free
moving electrons.

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
 Summary

Bonding Ionic Simple Giant covalent Metallic

covalent
Types of Metal and Non-metals and non-metals Metals
elements non-metal
State of RT. Solid Gases or Solid Solid
liquids, few except(Hg)
solids
Structure Giant ionic Simple Macromolecular Giant
lattice molecular metallic
Melting point High Low(weak Very high Usually high
intermolecular
forces)
Electric Molten No No (except Yes
conductivity ( only free graphite) Free
moving ions) electrons
Example NaCl, MgO Cl2, N2, H2O SiO2 Fe, Mg, Zn

 Carbon dioxide and silicon (IV) oxide have similar formula but different
physical properties. State the formula & physical properties of each?

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
 Topic 5: Stoichiometry (Formula, Equations &
Calculations)
1) Chemical formula
Valency or combining power
 The valency of an element is the number of electrons lost, gained or shared
to form a compound.
.
Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8/0
number
Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0

Complete the following table (metals):

Element Symbol Valency Charge

Lithium Li 1 +
Sodium
Potassium
Silver Ag 1 +
Calcium Ca
Lead Pb 2 +2
Mercury Hg 2 +2
Zinc Zn 2 +2
Aluminum 3 +3
Iron (II) Fe 2
Iron (III)
Copper (I)
Copper (II)
 In naming the formula the metal name remains as it is.
 Transition metals have more than one valency
Element Symbol Valency Charge
Hydrogen H 1 +
Chlorine
Iodine
Oxygen
Sulphur S 2 -2
Phosphorous p 3 -3
Nitrogen N 3 -3
 Naming the non-metal ends with (ide) e.g:Chloride/sulphide/phosphide/Nitride

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
As we mentioned before in topic 4: There are polyatomic ions/ compound ions which are
a group of atoms combined together and carries a charge behaving like ions.

Valency Radical Symbol Charge

Hydroxide OH- -1
Nitrate NO3- -1
Monovalent Nitrite NO2- -1
Hydrogen carbonate HCO3- -1
Ammonium NH4+ +1
Carbonate CO32- -2
Divalent Sulphate SO42- -2
Sulphite SO32- -2
Trivalent Phosphate PO43- -3
Steps to write chemical formula:
1- Write the symbol of elements. (metals on left and non-metals on right)
2- Write valency or charge of each element below the symbol
3- Cross the valencies

Ionic compounds:

e.g.: Aluminum Oxide No. of atoms/ ions: 2 Aluminium ions & 3 Oxide ions

1- Al O
2- +3 -2
3- Cross: Al2O3

e.g.: Sodium Carbonate No. of atoms/ ions: 2 Sodium ions & 1 Carbonate ion

1- Na CO3
2- +1 -2
3- Na2CO3

Workout chemical formula: Calcium Phosphate and Potassium Nitrate.

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
Covalent compounds:

e.g.: Methane No. of atoms/ ions: 1 carbon & 4 hydrogen atoms

1- C H
2- 4 1
3- Cross: CH4

e.g.: Phosphorus Trichloride No. of atoms/ ions: 1 phosphorus & 3 chlorine atoms

1- P Cl
2- 3 1
3- Cross: PCl3

Workout chemical formula for Ammonia and Carbon dioxide:

Remember:
1) Compounds ending with (ide) made of 2 elements except Hydroxide
2) Compounds ending with (ate) made of 2 elements one of them is oxygen
ex :SO4 -2 sulphate
3) Compounds ending with (ite) made of 2 elements one of them is oxygen
4) Not all covalent compounds follow the cross valencies
Example: CO2, SO2, NO2, CO,SiO2

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
2) Chemical equations:
- When a chemical reaction occurs substances react together forming new substances.
These reacting substances are called reactants and the new substances are called products.

-The number of each atom is the same on both sides as they are just rearranged.

How to write an equation for a reaction?

1- Write the equation in words (word equation)
2- Write the equation using symbols. Make sure all formulas are correct
3- Check the equation is balanced for each type of an atom on each side. (make sure
you don’t change any of the formulas)
4- Add the state symbols to reactants and products which are solid (s), liquid (l), gas (g)
and aqueous solutions (water) (aq)

e.g.: solid Calcium burn in chlorine gas to form calcium chloride:

1- Calcium + chlorine calcium chloride

2- Ca + Cl2 CaCl2
3- Balance 1 Ca atom on left = 1 Ca atom on right
2 Cl atoms on left = 2 Cl atoms on right
4- State symbol: Ca(s) + Cl2(g) CaCl2(s)
Remember: Diatomic molecules: O2, N2, H2, Cl2, F2, Br2, I2

Q) Write down a balanced equation & state the symbols for the following:

1) Magnesium burn in oxygen forming Magnesium oxide.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

2) Aluminium reacting with oxygen forming Aluminium oxide.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....

Q) Write the formula for the following ionic compounds:

Potassium Carbonate :………………………………………………………………

Iron(II) Phosphate :………………………………………………………………
Aluminium Hydroxide :………………………………………………………………
Lithium Carbonate :………………………………………………………………
Zinc Sulphide :………………………………………………………………

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
Q) Write the following equations into symbol equations & balance:

1- Sodium + Copper(II) Sulphate Sodium Sulphate + Copper

2- Zinc + Hydrochloric acid Zinc Chloride + Hydrogen

3-Magnesium Sulphide + Oxygen Magnesium Oxide + Sulphur dioxide

3)Chemical Calculations:

 Relative atomic mass: (Ar)

Relative atomic mass (Ar): is the average mass of naturally occurring isotopes of an element
relative to the mass of carbon 12 atom.

- Since atoms almost weigh nothing so we used Carbon-12 to be a standard atom fixing its
mass as exactly 12 atomic mass units and they compare all other atoms to it.

e.g.: Mg(24) means that it is twice as heavy as the Carbon-12 so its mass is 24

e.g.: H(1) it means it has 1/12 the mass of the Carbon-12 atom.

 Relative molecular mass (Mr)/ (RMM): Compounds have relative molecular

mass (sometimes called formula mass), which is formed by adding up the relative
atomic mass of elements( mass number) in the compound according to the number
of atoms of each element in the compound

Substance Formula Atoms in Ar of atoms Mr

formula
Ammonia NH3 1N N= 14 14 x 1= 14
3H H= 1 +
3 x1= 3
= 17
Magnesium Mg(NO3)2 1Mg Mg= 24 24 x 1= 21
nitrate 2N N= 14 +
6O O= 16 2 x 14= 28
+
6 x 16= 96
=148

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
Workout the Mr of CaCl2 / ZnCl2

Percentage composition by mass:

The percentage composition of a compound tells you how much of each element it contains
as a percentage of total mass

% of an element by mass in a compound = Ar of the element x no. of its atoms x 100

Mr of the compound
1- Calculate the percentage of oxygen in sulfur dioxide?
SO2= contains 1 S and 2 O
Mr= 32+(16x2)= 64
% of O in SO2= 16X2 x100 = 50%
64

This means that this compound is 50% oxygen and 50% sulfur.

2- Calculate the percentage of N in Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3

% of N in NH4NO3= 14 x 2 x100 = 35% Mr Total = 2N= 14 x 2 =28

Total (80) 4H= 4 x 1=4
3O= 3 x 16= 48
Total =80

This means that NH4NO3 contains 35% N

Work out the percentage of mass calcium in Calcium Carbonate CaCO 3.

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
4) The Mole :
- Mole (Molecular mass) : of any substance is its relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element or
relative molecular mass (Mr) if it is a compound expressed in grams.

- Mass of 1 mole= Ar of element or Mr of a compound in grams

e.g. For elements :

1 mole of sodium atoms = relative atomic mass in grams = 23g

1 mole of calcium atoms = relative atomic mass in grams = 40g

For Compounds:

1 mole of water = relative molecular mass of water in grams=18g

1 mole of CaCO3 = relative molecular mass of CaCO3 in grams

Ca+C+(O x 3)

40+12+ (16x3)=100g

Mole calculations:
Finding the mass of a mole

Mass (g)
Mass of 1 mole x no. of moles
(Mr , Ar)

Mass (g) = no of moles x Ar( element/ Mr(compound) periodic table

1) Calculate the mass of 0.5 moles of Bromine atoms, the Ar of Bromine is 80?
Mass = no of moles x Ar (80)
Mass = 0.5 x 80 = 40g
So the 0.5 moles of Br atoms equal to 40g
2) Calculate the mass of 0.5 moles of Bromine molecules?
Mr of Br2 ( molecule) = 80x2=160
Mass =no of moles x Mr (160)
0.5 x 160 =80g

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
 3) How many moles of oxygen molecules are in 64g of oxygen?

Mr of O2 = 16 x 2= 32g
Mass = no of moles x Mr
64g = ? x 32
No of moles = 64/32 = 2 moles of oxygen

Workout:

How many moles are in

a) 2.4g of magnesium?
b) 36g of water?
c) 50g of calcium carbonate?

Avogadros Number ( L ) :
It is the number of particles ( atoms, molecules ) in 1 mole of any substance, there are
6.02 x 10²³ particles in 1 mole of any substance.

1 mole of potassium it contains = 6.02 x 10²³ atoms of potassium.

2 mole of potassium it contains =( 6.02 x 10²³x 2 ) atoms of potassium.

So the number of atoms ( molecules ) = no of moles x L.

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
 Moles and Chemical equations
Equations can be used to predict the amount of substance that will be used up or made in
chemical reaction. Since the total mass does not change during chemical reaction as no
atoms disappeared they are just rearranged.

Calculating the mass from equation:

1- First balance the equation
2- Write down molar ratio between reactants and products
3- Get the Ar and Mr for each substance in the reaction
4- Calculate the theoretical masses using no. of moles & Ar & Mr

e.g.: C + O2 CO2

1) Balanced
2) molar ratio 1 1 1
1 mole of carbon reacts with 1 mole of O2 produces 1 mole of CO2
3) Ar/ Mr: 12g(C) reacts with 32g(O2) produces 44g(CO2)
4) 12+32=44
In = Out

e.g.: Calcium reacts with oxygen to produce calcium oxide. Calculate the mass of calcium
needed to prepare 28 grams of calcium oxide.

1) Write balanced equation

2 Ca + O2 2CaO
2) Molar ratio 2 1 2
3) Ar/Mr 40 32 56
Mass
4) mass 28g
No. of moles x Ar/Mr
No. of moles: 28/56= 0.5 moles

 So the CaO is 0.5 moles by molar ratio

CaO : Ca
Molar ratio 2 : 2
0.5 moles= 0.5 moles
 So The mass of Ca= no. of moles x Ar = 0.5 x 40 = 20 grams

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
Workout:

Calculate the mass of calcium oxide formed when 5g of calcium carbonate are strongly
heated.CaCO3 CaO + CO2

e.g.: 6 grams of magnesium reacts completely with 30 grams of excess chlorine (Cl2). 1.What
is the maximum yield (mass) of magnesium chloride that could be formed from this
reaction?2. What is the mass of Cl2 left unreacted?

1- Write a balanced equation

Mg(s) + Cl2(g) MgCl2(s)

2- Molar ratio 1 1 1
3- Ar/ Mr 24 71 95
4- Mass 6g 30(excess)

no. of moles= Mass/Ar 6/24

=0.25 moles

Mg : MgCl2
Molar ratio 1 : 1
0.25 moles: 0.25 moles

1) Mass of MgCl2 = no. of moles x Mr = 0.25 x 95 = 23.75 grams

2) Mass of unreacted Cl2?

First get the mass of reacted Cl2:

Mass of Cl2 reacted= no. of moles x Mr = 0.25 x 71 = 17.75 grams (reacted)
Unreacted Cl2 = total mass excess- reacted= 30 – 17.75 = 12.25 grams

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
Establishing equations from molar ratios:
Quantities of chemicals expressed in moles can be used to find the formula of a compound
and to establish equations.

e.g.: A compound containing only Aluminium and Carbon. 0.03 moles of this compound
reacts with excess water to form 0.12 moles of Al(OH)3 and 0.09 moles of CH4

Al4C3 + H2O Al(OH)3 + CH4

0.03 excess 0.12 0.09 ÷ 0.03

Molar ratio 1 4 3 (should be whole number)

Al4C3 + H2O 4 Al(OH)3 + 3CH4

Balance

Al4C3 + 12 H2O 4 Al(OH)3 +3 CH4

Reactions involving gases/ molar gas volume:

 The volume of one mole of any gas is 24 dm3 (24 liters) / or (24000 cm3) at standard
room temperature and pressure (rtp)
 This rule applies to all gases. This makes it easy to convert moles of gas to volumes and
vice versa volumes to moles

No. of moles= volume of gas(dm3) ÷ 24

If the reaction involves Only Gases Ratio between Volumes == Ratio between Moles

Volume at rtp dm3

No. of moles x 24 dm3

One mole of every gas occupy the same volume 24 dm3 at rtp at room temperature (20oC)
and 1 atmospheric pressure

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
e.g.: Q) How many moles of CO2 are there in 7200 cm3 of gas at rtp?

7200 cm3/ 1000= 7.2 dm3

No. of moles= volume / 24 = 7.2 / 24= 0.3 moles of CO2

e.g.: Q) What volume does 22 g of carbon dioxide occupy at rtp?

First get the no. of moles using mass given: no. moles = mass/ Mr= 22/44= 0.5 moles CO2

Volume= no. of moles x 24= 0.5 x 24= 12 dm3

Workout : What is the volume does 0.25 mole of SO2 occupy at rtp?

Calculating gas volumes from equations:

When sulfur burns in air, it forms sulfur dioxide. What volume of this gas produced when
1g of sulfur burns in air (Ar S= 32)

1) Write a balanced equation to find molar ratio.

Sulfur + oxygen sulfurdioxide
S(s) + O2(g) SO2 (g)
1 1 1 molar ratio
2) Calculate the number of moles using mass of sulfur given
No. of moles of S = Mass/ Ar= 1/ 32= 0.03125 moles of sulfur
3) Since molar ratio of S to SO2 is 1:1 so the number of moles of SO2 is 0.03125 moles
equal to sulfur no. of moles.
4) Volume of SO2 = no. of moles x 24 = 0.03125 x 24 = 0.75 dm3

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
Workout:

Q) What is the volume of hydrogen reacting with 24 dm3 of oxygen to form water?

As we said before if the reaction involve only gases:

Ratio of volumes = ratio of moles

e.g.: Q) 20 cm3 sample of butyne C4H6 is burnt in 150 cm3 of oxygen. This is an excess of
oxygen.

(Excess: more than what is needed in the reaction and some of the oxygen will remain by
the end of the reaction)

2C4H6 (g) + 11O2(g) 8CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l)

Molar ratio 2 11 8 6

Volume ratio 20 cm3

a) What volume of O2 reacts?

Using ratio of mole = every 2 moles of C4H6 needs 11 moles of oxygen
Volume of O2 = 20 x 11 = 110 cm3 (reacted)
Cross multiplicaion with molar ratio 2
b) The volume of O2 left unreacted = 150 – 110 = 40 cm3 (unreacted oxygen)
c) Volume of CO2 produced = 20 x 8 = 80 cm3of CO2
by cross multiplication 2
with molar ratio

Workout:

Insert the missing volumes.

C3H8 (g) + 5O2 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (l)

Molar ratio 1 5 3 4

Volume of gas/ cm3 10

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
Sample from the past paper:

Iron (III) sulphate decompose when heated. Calculate the mass of iron (III) oxide formed and
the volume of sulphur trioxide produced when 10.0 g of iron (III) sulphate was heated.

Mass of one mole of Fe2(SO4)3 is 400g Mr / RMM

Fe2(SO4)3 (s) Fe2O3 (s) + 3SO3 (g)

Number of moles of Fe2(SO4)3 =

Number of moles of Fe2O3 formed=
Mass of iron(III) oxide formed=
Number of moles of SO3 produced=
Volume of sulphur trioxide at r.t.p=

Concentration of solutions: A B

Solution A Solution B
contains 2.5 grams of copper (II) sulfate in 1 contains 25 grams of copper (II) sulfate in 1
dm3 of water. So its concentration is dm3 of water. So its concentration is
2.5 g/dm3 25 g/dm3

 The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute in grams or moles that is

dissolved in 1 dm3 of solution (1 dm3= 1000 cm3= 1litre). Concentartion is expressed
in g/ dm3 or mol/ dm3
 If we want to prepare 1mol/ dm3 of NaCl solution:
Mass of 1 mole of NaCl is = 23+ 35.5 = 58.5
By dissolving 58.5 g of NaCl in 1 dm3 of water, the concentration of NaCl will be
1mol/ dm3 = 1M

Molar Solution: a solution that contain 1 mole of solute in 1 dm3 of solution.

 If we want to prepare 2mol/ dm3 of NaCl solution:

We will dissolve 58.5 x 2 = 117 in 1 dm3 of water
This will give concentration of 2mol/ dm3 = 2M

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
 Concentration mol/ dm3 = no. of moles (mol)
Volume (dm3)

If volume in cm3:

Concentration mol/ dm3 = no. of moles (mol) x1000

Volume (cm3)
1 dm3 = 1000 cm3 = 1 litre = 1000 ml

No. of moles = concentration mol/ dm3 x volume (dm3)

You can convert moles into grams

Mass = no. of moles x Mr or RMM

e.g.: How many moles are present in 25 cm3 of 0.1 mol/ dm3 sulphuric acid (H2SO4) ?

volume = 25 / 1000 = 0.025 dm3

no. of moles = conc. x vol. = 0.1 x 0.025 = 0.0025 moles

Workout:

What is concentration of solution which contain 0.1 mole of solute in 100 cm 3 of solution

Sample from the past paper:

25.0 cm3 of solution of lithium hydroxide LiOH, concentration 1.00 mol/ dm3 was placed in a
beaker. Few drops of indicator methyl orange were added and the mixture turned yellow
hydrochloric acid was added from a burette until the mixture just tured red 20.0 cm 3 of acid
reacted with the alkali.

Calculate the concentration of hydrochloric acid.

LiOH + HCL LiCl + H2O

Molar ratio 1 1 1 1
3
Volume 25 cm 20 cm3
Concentration 1.00 mol/dm3

No. of moles of LiOH in 25 cm3 of 1.00 mol/ dm3 solution = 1.00 x 25/1000 = 0.025 moles

- Since (molar ratio of LiOH to HCL 1:1)

- The no. of moles of HCL is 0.025 moles

Concentration of HCL = no. of moles = 0.025 = 1.25 mol/dm3

Volume 20 ÷ 1000

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
Workout:

In an experiment 25.0 cm3 of aqueous sodium hydroxide 0.4 mol/ dm3 was neutralised by
20.0 cm3 of aqueous oxalic acid H2C2O4

2NaOH + H2C2O4 Na2C2O4 + 2H2O

Calculate the concentration of oxalic aicd in mol/dm3

i. Calculate the number of moles of NaOH in 25.0 cm3 of 0.4 mol/dm3 solution (1)

ii. Use your answer in (i) and the molar ratio in the equation to find out the number of
moles of H2C2O4 in 20 cm3 of solution (1)

iii. Calculate the concentration mol/ dm3 of aqueous oxalic acid. (2)

Percentage yield and percentage purity:

Yield : the amount of product produced from a reaction.

In factories I want the highest yield possible and also what matters a lot is the purity of the
product especially in medical drugs or flavouring for foods (impurities could harm people)

Percentage yield: some reactions do not go to completion. Not all reactants are converted
into products.

- Actual yield: is the true yield produced from a reaction in a real experiment( Lab).
- Theoretical yield: is the maximum (calculated) yield expected from a balanced
chemical equation.

Percentage yield= Actual yield (given) x 100

Theoretical yield (calculated)

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
e.g.: On heating 5g calcium carbonate 2.1g of calcium oxide are formed. What is the
percentage yield of the reaction?

CaCO3 (s) Cao (s) + CO2 (g)

Molar ratio 1 1 1

First get the theoretical yield from molar ratio

Mass= 5g
No. of moles= mass /RMM
First get the no. of moles of CaCO3 = 5g/100 =0.05 moles
Since the molar ratio of CaCO3 to CaO is 1:1 so the CaO no. of moles =0.05 moles
Mass of CaO = 0.05 x Mr (56) =2.8g (theoretical yield)
Percentage yield= Actual yield (given) x 100 = 2.1 x 100 = 75%
Theoretical yield (calculated) 2.8

Percentage purity:
Percentage purity: mass of pure substance x100
Mass of impure substance/ total mass

e.g.: 10g of chalk (Calcium carbonate) reacted with excess of dilute hydrochloric acid
producing 2280 cm3 of carbon dioxide gas collected at room temperature and pressure (rtp).
What is the purity of the sample?

CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

Molar ratio 1 2 1 1 1
Mass 10g
Volume 2280 cm 3

Get first no. of moles of CO2 :

Volume = no. Of moles x 24 dm3

No. of moles = 2280 /1000 ÷ 24 = 0.095 moles
Molar ratio CaCO3 to CO2 1:1, so the number of moles of CaCO3 is 0.095
To get pure reacted mass = no. of moles x Mr (Mr of CaCO3 =100)
0.095 x 100 = 9.5g
% purity of chalk= 9.5 x 100 =95%
10

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Limiting reactant and excess reactant:
Limiting reactant: is the reactant that limits the amount of product that can be formed. The
reaction will stop when all the limiting reactant is consumed.

Excess reactant: is the reactant that still remains present in the reaction mixture. When the
reaction stops the excess reactant remains because there is nothing remaining to react with
(limiting reactant consumed).

e.g.: 0.07 moles of silicon reacts with 25g of bromine

Si + 2Br2 SiBr4

Q) Which one is the limiting reactant? Explain your answer.

Molar ratio 1 2 1
No. of moles 0.07 moles
RMM 28 160
Mass 25g

First get no. of moles of Br2= 25/160= 0.156 moles

By molar ratio Si to Br2 = 1: 2 the number of moles of Br2 should be twice the silicon
(0.07 x 2)= 0.14 moles which is less than what is present so bromine is in excess 0.156 > 0.14
while silicon is the limiting reagent while Br2 will remain at the end of the reaction.

Q) How many moles of SiBr4 are formed? Dependent on limiting reagent

0.07 moles by molar ratio to limiting reagent (Si) 1:1

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
Finding Empirical formula:
Empirical formula: of a compound shows the simplest ratio of the number of atoms of
different elements

Molecular formula: shows the actual number of atoms of different elements present in the
compound.

Compound Molecular formula Empirical formula

Ethane C2H6 CH3
Benzene C6H6 CH
Methane CH4 CH4
Ethanoic acid C2H4O2 CH2O
Glucose C6H12O6 CH2O
e.g.: 32grams of sulfur combine with 32 grams of oxygen to form an oxide. What is the
empirical formula?

Elements that combine Sulfur Oxygen

Masses that combine 32g 32g
Ar 32 16
Moles of atoms that combine 32/32 32/16
Ratio in which atoms combine 1 : 2
Empirical formula SO2

e.g.: Compound Y contains 80% carbon and 20% hydrogen. What is its empirical formula?

Elements that combine Carbon Hydrogen

Masses that combine 80g 20g
Ar 12 1
Moles of atoms that combine 80/12 20/1
Ratio in which atoms combine 6.67 : 20 (÷6.67)
1 : 2.99 ≈ 3
Empirical formula CH3
Workout:

Oxalic acid is found to contain 26.7% carbon, 2.2% hydrogen by mass and the rest is
oxygen. Mr of oxalic acid is 90. Find the empirical formula and molecular formula.

Elements that combine Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen

Masses that combine 26.7% 2.2% 100-(26.7+2.2)= 71.1%
Ar 12 1 16
Moles of atoms that combine 26.7/12 2.2/1 71.1/16
Ratio in which atoms combine 2.2 : 2.2 : 4.4 (÷2.2)
1 : 1 : 2
Empirical formula CHO2
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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
To find the molecular formula:

1- Calculate the Mr of the compound then Mr (molecular formula) (this gives n)

Mr Empirical formula
2- Multiply the numbers in the empirical formula by (n)

To get the molecular formula:

Empirical formula CHO2
Mr of empirical formula 12+1+(2 x 16)= 45
Mr of molecular formula 90 = 2
Mr of empirical formula 45
Multiply each element in empirical formula by 2 CHO2 x 2= C2H2O4
Mr of C2H2O4 = (2 x 12) + 2 + (4 x 16)= 90 √√

Workout:

Compound containing 72% magnesium and 28% nitrogen. What is its empirical formula?

N.B: In the ionic compounds, the empirical formula is the same as the molecular formula.

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 Topic 6: The Periodic Table
 The periodic table is the study of elements. Elements are arranged in order of
increasing atomic number (proton number) and placing them in rows so that similar
elements fall into vertical columns. The horizontal rows are called periods and the
vertical columns are called groups.
 There are 7 horizontal rows (periods)= represent number of energy levels( shells ).
 There are 8 vertical columns called groups = represent the number of valency
electrons.
 Properties of element can be predicted from its position in the periodic table.

The heavy zigzag line separates metals from non-metals.

(Majority) left zigzag = metals (except for hydrogen it is nonmetal)
Right of zigzag = non metals
Border line = metalloids or semi-metals (arsenic, germanium, silicon)

e.g.:

- Arsenic As looks like metals shiny but doesn’t behave as metals

- Germanium looks like metals shiny but from covalent compounds react with O2
forming Germanium dioxide (GeO2) as silicon dioxide (SiO2).

Metalloids are semi-conductors conduct electricity under certain condition. e.g.: Silicon used
in computer chips.

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Groups with Special Names :

 Group I : Alkali metals.

 Groups II : alkaline earth metals.
 Group VII : halogens.
 Group VIII : Noble gases / inert gases.

Group Periods
 Group number is same as the outer  The number of electron shells in the
shell valency electrons. atom.
 It indicates how the element will
react/ behave .
 All elements of the same group have
similar properties (same valency
electrons).
 Group VIII (8) stable arrangement
(unreactive).

Hygdrogen (non-metal): has one electron in outer ( it forms positive ion H⁺ like group I
metal)s it is a gas and usually reacts as nonmetals.

Actinides elements (lowest block ): These elements are radioactive and their atoms are
broken down very quickly.
Non metals

H
Noble
gases

metals
metalloid
s

Metallic character increases

 If you know where an ele Non- metallic character increases

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
  If you know where an element exists in the periodic table you can use the patterns
and trends to predict how it will behave.
 Valency increases with the group number till group 4 then decreases.
 Valency is not the same as the number of valency electrons.

Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Valency 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
electrons
Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
Lose/ gain/ Lose 1e Lose Lose Share Gain/ Gain/share Gain/ NA
share 2e 3e 4 share 2e share
3e 1e
Charge on ions/ +1 +2 +3 +4/-4 -3 -2 -1 NA
oxide ion state

 Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties because they have the
same number of electrons in the outer most energy level ( valency electrons).
 Isotopes of same elements have same chemical properties since they have the
same electronic configuration (same outer shell).
 Metals reacts with non metals forming ionic compounds.
 Non metals react with non metals forming covalent compounds.
 Metal oxides are basic while non metal oxides are acidic .
 Reactivity of metals increase down ( group 1 ).
Fr> Cs> Rb> K>Na>Li
 Reactivity of non metals decrease down( group 7/ halogens )
F>Cl>Br>I>At

A) Group 1 Alkali metals ( very reactive )

“Alkali metals” because they react with cold water to form alkaline solution
(producing metal hydroxides soluble in water) ( pH greater than 7)

Metal Symbol Melting point (oC) Density g/cm3 Melting

Lithium (lightest) Li 181 0.53 decrease
Sodium Na 98 0.97 float denisty,
Potassium K 63 0.86 softness
Rubidium Rb 39 1.53 increase
Caesium Cs 29 1.88
down
group

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Physical properties of Group 1
1) Good conductor of heat & electricity.
2) Light silvery grey surface.
3) Softer than most metals, cut with a knife.
4) Lighter than most other metals( low density).
(Li,Na,K) float on water surface ( density <1)
5) Low melting and boiling points compared with most metals not typical
metals

Chemical properties of Group 1:

 Very reactive metals and reactivity increase as you go down group.

Fr>Cs>Rb>K>Na>Li (cannot be found in nature as elements only exist in compounds)
 All Salts of group 1 are soluble in water
 Group 1,2,3 produce white salts/solids when dissolved in water produce colorless
solutions

1- Reaction with Air ( Oxygen ):

Burn easily in air to form metal oxides ,
 4Na(s) + O2(g) 2Na2O(s)
 Potassium + oxygen potassium oxide
4K +O2 2K2O
 That’s why they are stored under oil because they react with air and
water vapour.
 Metals of group 1 are shiny when freshly cut , they quickly tarnish as they
react with air.
2- Reaction with water :
React with cold water to form alkaline solutions. The heat from the reaction
melts the metal ( reaction is exothermic ) (Displacement.)And bubbles of
hydrogen are seen.

Group 1 metal + water metal hydroxide + hydrogen

 Sodium + water sodium hydroxide + hydrogen
 2Na (s)+2H20 (l) 2NaOH (aq) + H2(g)

Bubbles due
to H2 gas

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 3- Reaction with Chlorine (Cl2):
Metals react easily to form chlorides ( ionic compounds )
 2 Li (s)+ Cl2(g) 2LiCl (s)
Lithium + chlorine lithium chloride
 2Na (s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl (s)
Sodium + chlorine sodium chloride

Remember reactivity increases down the group.

 The alkali metals form white ionic solids , metal ion charge is (+1). Salts of
group 1 ( white ionic ) soluble in water giving colourless solutions

WHY?

Metals of group 1 Reactivity increases down the group?

Most reactive of all metals

2,1 2,8,1 2,8,8,1

Search for it???

B) Transition elements (Cu,Zn,Fe,Ag):

 Transition metals starts from period 4 with no specific group, it starts
with Scandium.
 Have complex electronic configuration and more than one valency.

General properties of/Typical Metals( physical):

1- Hard, tough, and strong ( not like group 1)

2- High melting point and boiling point except Hg .
3- Malleable and ductile.
4- Good conductor of heat and electricity, silver is the best then copper.
5- High density.

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 Chemical properties of Transition Metals

1- They are much less reactive than group 1 metals, e.g Copper and Nickel
don’t react with water or catch fire in air as Sodium , so transition metals
don’t rust easily except ( iron ).
2- Most transition elements form coloured (salts)compounds when dissolved
in water gives colored solutions in contrast to group 1 form white
compounds , e.g Cu2+ ions (aq) blue , Fe2+ (aq) green , Fe3+ (aq) reddish
brown.
3- Have more than one valency / oxidation state, they form ions with
different charge.
e.g Iron ͢ Fe2+ Iron (II) react O2 FeO
͢ Fe3+ Iron ( III) react O2 Fe2O3

Copper ͢ Cu1+ Copper (I)react O2͢ Cu2O

͢ Cu2+ Copper (II) react O2 ͢ CuO
4- Most transition metals and its compounds act as catalysts (speed up the
reaction while remaining unchanged).
e.g. iron used in manufacture of Ammonia (NH3) Haber process.
Vanadium (v) oxide V2O5 in Sulphuric acid manufacture ͢ contact
process.

Q) Mention 3 physical and 4 chemical differences between Potassium (group 1) and

Vanadium (transition metal).

C) Group VII Halogen ( Non metals):

Halogen Symbol Molecule Color of Halide ion Color of
(diatomic) molecules ions in
aqueous
solution
Fluorine F F2 Yellow F- (ide)
Chlorine Cl Cl2 Green Cl- (ide)
Bromine Br Br2 Reddish Br- (ide)
brown Colorless
-
Iodine I I2 Greyish I (ide)
black
Astatine At At2 Black At- (ide)

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
 Symbol State at rtp Mpt oC Bpt oC Density g/cm3
F Gas -220 -188 1.7
Cl Gas -101 -34 3.2
Br Liquid -7 58 3.12
I Solid 114 183 4.93
At Solid 302 337

Trend:

Melting and boiling pt darker

Density increase down group

Down group

Why reactivity decrease down the group??

Search for it?

 Bromine is very volatile (low boiling point 58oC) easily turn into gas.
 Iodine (I2) dark grey solid when warmed turn to purple vapour (Sublimation)
solid gas.
 Aqueous solution of iodine is brown, starch is an indicator of iodine; forms
blue black complex.

Chemical properties of Halogens:

 Reactivity decrease down the group, Fluorine is the most reactive.

 Exist as diatomic molecules F2, Cl2, Br2, I2.
 7 electrons in outer most shell (1 valency) either gain 1 electron to become negative
ion or share 1 electron to with non-metal by single covalent bond.

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Chemical reactions:

1- Reaction with metals:

Halogens react with most metals to form salts (ionic compounds)
Sodium + chlorine sodium chloride
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)

2- Displacement reaction: (when halogens react with halides)/reaction exothermic

Fluorine > Chlorine > Bromine > Iodine
(Most reactive) (least reactive)
The most reactive halogen displace the least reactive halide from its salt solution
e.g.: Cl2(g) + 2KI(aq) 2KCl(aq) + I2(aq)
brown
colorless

Cl2(g) + 2NaBr(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(l)

colorless colorless reddish brown

The change in color indicates that the more reactive halogen displaced the less reactive
halide in its salt.

If solution contains When you add Cl2 Br2 I2

Chloride ions (Cl-) No change No change
Bromide ions (Br-) Bromine displaced No change
Iodide ions (I-) Iodine displaced Iodine displaced

Chlorine: (Cl2)/toxic

1- Pale green diatomic gas denser than air and soluble in water.
2- Test for chlorine presence by using damp litmus paper
Result: bleach damp litmus (remove color and make it white)
3- Uses: a) make bleach
b) Water purification (kill bacteria/ microorganisms)
c) make PVC (polyvinyl chloride) insulation of electric wires
4- Make hydrochloric acid
 Fluorine (F2) tooth paste
 Iodine (I2) disinfectant

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
 D) Noble gases (group 0):
Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton and Xenon
 Colorless monoatomic gases naturally occurring in air
 Unreactive (inert) they have complete stable outer shell of electrons
 Obtained from air by fractional distillation of liquid air

Noble gas Use

Helium (He) Very light and does not burn (will not catch
fire) used in filling balloons and aircrafts
Neon (Ne) Advertising signs: emit bright light when
electric current passes through it
Argon (Ar) inert atmosphere to fill light bulbs. This
prevent metal filament (tungsten) from
burning. Filament lasts longer
Krypton (Kr) Laser (eye surgery)
Xenon (Xe) Used in light house lamps , lights for
hospitals operating rooms
N.B: as we go down the group, the gases get heavier and denser because the mass of the
atom increases.

Argon
(unreactive)

Test for Gases:

Gas Formula Test Result

Hydrogen H2 Lighted splint Burn with pop sound
Oxygen O2 Glowing splint Red light/ glow more
Carbon dioxide CO2 Pass through lime Turn milky
water
Chlorine Cl2 (green) Damp litmus paper Bleached(turn white)
Ammonia NH3 (pungent smell) Damp red litmus Turn blue
paper
Sulphur dioxide SO2 Add acidified Color change from
Potassium pink/purple to
manganate (VII) colorless
Hydrogen chloride HCl  Damp blue  Turn red
(gas) litmus paper
 Bring with  White smoke
NH3 gas NH4Cl

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
Collection of gases:

Over water Downward delivery Upward delivery

gas jar
gas gas

water

gas

For gases insoluble in water For gases which are - For gases less dense
H2, O2 & N2 soluble in water and than air and soluble in
denser than air water (NH3)
CO2, Cl2 & SO2 - Also H2 but it is
insoluble in water
Also any gas can be collected using gas syringe giving accurate measurement of gas
volumes

Drying of gases (remove moisture)

1- Gases that do not react with acids such as (CO2 &SO2) gases can be dried by passing
through concentrated sulphuric acid (drying agent).

gas
Dry
gas

2- Gases that react with acids such as NH3 gas can be dried by passing it through
calcium oxide (drying agent)
 Concentrated sulphuric acid cannot be used because it reacts with ammonia to form
ammonium sulphate.
2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4
 Silica gel/granules used as drying agent

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
 Oxidation and reduction (redox reaction):

A) Redox in terms of oxygen/ hydrogen gain or loss

Oxidation Reduction
 Gaining of oxygen  Removal of oxygen
 Removal of hydrogen  Gaining of hydrogen
 Substance is said to be oxidized  Substance is said to be reduced
when it gains oxygen/ loses when it loses oxygen/ gain
hydrogen during reaction hydrogen during reaction
 Substance which is oxidized is  Substance which is reduced is
called reducing agent (reductant) called oxidizing agent (oxidant)

e.g.: Oxidation (oxygen gained)

Magnesium burns in air to form white ash of magnesium oxide

2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
Magnesium is oxidized as it gained oxygen

Reduction (oxygen is lost)

When hydrogen is passed over black copper (II) oxide in the apparatus below, the
black powder turn into pink brown (copper)

hydrogen

Copper (II) oxide + hydrogen copper + water

reduction

CuO(s) + H2(g) Cu(s) + H2O(l)

oxidation

Oxidizing Reducing
agent agent

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  Copper (II) oxide (black color) is reduced as it lost oxygen to copper (reddish brown)
 Hydrogen is oxidized as it gained oxygen
 The reaction involve both oxidation and reduction so it is called redox reaction
 The reactant with oxygen is always the oxidizing agent

Q) Which substance is oxidized and which is reduced in the following reactants. Mention the
reducing and oxidizing agent.

Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2

Burning reactions:

Reaction between calcium and oxygen

oxidation

2Ca(s) + O2(g) 2CaO(s)

reduction

- Calcium is oxidized while oxygen is reduced

 Another name for burning is combustion
 Combustion is redox reaction
 For example: when element burns in oxygen , it is oxidized to its oxide.

N.B:

- Rusting is considered oxidation

- Iron is being oxidized to iron(II) oxide this is called rusting
- Formula of rust is Fe2O3.2H2O

Oxidizing agent: substance which oxidize another substance (gives oxygen) during a redox
reaction and is itself reduced. Also called oxidants

e.g.: oxygen(O2), ozone(O3), hydrogen peroxide(H2O2), potassium chromate(K2CrO4),

potassium dichromate VI(K2Cr2O7) & potassium manganate VII (KMnO4)

Reducing agent: substance which reduce another substance (remove oxygen/ add
hydrogen) during a redox reaction and is itself oxidized. Also called reductants.

e.g.: carbon, carbon-monoxide, hydrogen, reactive metals (Na, K, Ca) and potassium
iodide(KI)

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
B) Redox in terms of electron transfer:

Oxidation (OIL) Reduction (RIG)

- Oxidation is loss of electrons (OIL) - Reduction is gain of electrons (RIC)
- Increase in oxidation state - Decrease in oxidation state
Fe2+ Fe3+ Fe3+ Fe2+

 Reducing agent lose/ give electrons

 Oxidizing agent gain/ accept electrons

e.g.: Magnesium + oxygen Magnesium oxide

2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)

Write half equations to show electron transfer (ionic equations)

1- Write down each reactant with the electrons it loses/ gains:

i. Magnesium Mg – 2e Mg2+
ii. Oxygen O + 2e O2-
2- Check that each substance is in correct balance as main equation:
Add 2 to both equations 2Mg – 4e 2Mg2+
O2 + 4e 2O2-
3- The number of electrons must be balanced on both sides of the equation. If not,
multiply one or both equations by a number to balance them.
Multiply electrons by 2 2Mg – 4e 2Mg2+ (each Mg will lose 2 electrons)
O2 + 4e 2O2- (each oxygen will gain 2
electrons)

OR

You can just write this: Mg – 2e Mg2+ (both are correct but not balanced
as
Or Mg Mg2+ + 2e main equation)

Here magnesium is oxidized, while oxygen is reduced.

e.g.: Magnesium + Sulphur magnesium sulphide

Mg + S MgS
Ionic equation: Mg + S Mg2+ + S2-

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
Write each half:

1- Mg -2e Mg2+ (balanced)

 Magnesium is oxidized and act as reducing agent as it gives electrons
2- S + 2e S2- (balanced)
 Sulphur is reduced and act as oxidizing agent as it accepts electrons

e.g.: reaction between chlorine and potassium bromide

Cl2(g) + 2KBr (aq) 2KCl (aq) + Br2 (aq)
Colorless reddish brown
-
Cl2 + 2e 2Cl (reduction)
-
2Br - 2e Br2 (oxidation)
 KBr acts as reducing agent
Complete ionic equation: Cl2 + 2Br- 2Cl- +Br2
Ionic equations: it shows the ions that take part in reaction

Oxidation state / oxidation number:

1- It is the number given to an element to show whether it has been oxidized or

reduced. It is the charge on the ion.
2- When an element is not combined to another element, oxidation state is zero
3- Many elements have the same oxidation state in most or all of their compounds.
e.g.: group 1 elements (+1) Na+
4- But transition metals have more than one oxidation state

Element Common oxidation states in compounds

Iron +II/ +III Iron(II)oxide/ Iron(III) oxide
Fe2+ Fe3+ (oxidation occurred)
Increased in oxidation number
Copper +I / +II
Manganese +II/+IV/+VII
Manganese (IV)oxide and in potassium
manganate (VII)7
Chromium +III/+VI
Chromium (III) oxide (3) and in potassium
dichromate(VI)6

So these elements, the oxidation state is included in the compounds name as iron(III)
chloride, copper(II) oxide

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Oxidation state during redox reaction:

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)

Oxidation state: 0 0 +1 -1
- So sodium is oxidized, oxidation state rise from 0 to +1
- Chlorine atom gained electron to form Cl- ion so chlorine is reduced. Oxidation state
falls from 0 to -1

A rise in oxidation number means oxidation occurred

-IV -III -II -I 0 +I +II +III +IV

A fall in oxidation number means reduction occurred

Oxidizing agent Reducing agent

Is reduced Is oxidized
Oxygen gives away oxygen Oxygen accept oxygen
Electrons gain electrons Electrons lose electrons

To test the presence of oxidizing agent To test the presence of reducing agent

Add potassium iodide (KI) solution which is 1.Add acidified potassium Manganate(VII)
reducing agent solution which is oxidizing agent

The color change from colorless to brown

(I2) Color change from purple to colorless
I- (aq) I2(aq)
colorless brown MnO-4(aq) Mn2+(aq)
Potassium iodide is used to test the Manganate(VII) Manganese(II)
presence of oxidizing agent. ions ions
Purple Colorless
2-add acidified potassium dichromate(VI)
solution. Oxidizing agent

Color change from orange to green

so KMnO4 and K2Cr2O7 are used to test the

presence of reducing agent.

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 Topic 7: Metals and Reactivity Series
A) Physical properties of metals:

1- Solid at room temperature and strong(hard) , not broken easily except group 1 and
mercury (liquid)
2- Silvery grey color except: gold(yellow) and copper(reddish brown)
3- Sonorous (make a ringing sound when struck)
4- Shiny when polished
5- Good conductor of heat and electricity due to the free moving electrons that carry
charge
6- High melting point and boiling point due to the strong attraction between metal
positive ions and free mobile electrons metallic bond except alkali metals
7- High density as ions are packed closely together in a giant lattice except alkali metals
8- Malleable and ductile as when force is applied rows of metal cations (ions) slide over
each other without breaking the structure

B) Chemical properties:
1- Lose electrons to form positive ions and from ionic compounds
2- They react with dilute acids to form Salts & hydrogen gas(bubbles) is given off
Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2
3- React with oxygen to from basic oxides
2Mg + O2 2MgO

N.B: These properties are typical properties of metals, but not all metals share all of these
properties.

As sodium is soft, melts at 98oC and very reactive while gold is hard, melts at 1064 oC and
least reactive.

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Q) How we know the reactivity of each metal?

Reactivity Series

Q) What is meant by a reactive metal?

Means metal has strong drive to give up electrons and form ions forming compounds.

Reaction of metals with cold water, H2O(l) or steam H2O(g):

Metal Reaction with water Products

Potassium (most reactive) Very violent with cold KOH + H2
water H2O(l) and catch fire Soluble hydroxide (Grp 1)
Sodium Violent with cold water NaOH + H2
H2O(l) (soluble)
Calcium Less violent(readily) with Ca(OH)2 + H2
cold water H2O(l) (slightly soluble)
Magnesium - Very slow with cold water -Mg(OH)2 + H2
(insoluble)
-Vigorous with steam -MgO + H2
(hot water)
Zinc Quite slow with steam ZnO + H2
H2O(g) insoluble
Iron(III) Slow with steam H2O(g) Fe2O3 + H2
Lead No reaction -
Copper No reaction -
Silver No reaction -
Gold No reaction -

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What about Aluminum? Aluminum powder is heated in steam producing Aluminium oxide
and hydrogen but reaction is relatively slow because of protective strong layer of Al 2O3

1- Reaction with water:

a) Metals that react with cold water H2O(l)
(K, Na, Ca, Mg)
Metal + H2O(l) metal hydroxide + hydrogen
2Na(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

b) Metals that react steam H2O(g)

(Mg, Zn, Fe)
Metal + H2O(g) metal oxide(insoluble) + hydrogen
Mg(s) + H2O(g) MgO(s) + H2(g)
(Silvery grey) (white ash)
Zn(s) + H2O(g) ZnO(s) + H2(g)

N.B: K, Na, Ca can react with steam H2O(g) but the reaction is too dangerous. Not to be
attempted.

2- Reaction with air: Metal + Oxygen metal oxide

K,Na,Ca 4Na + O2 2Na2O burn in air without heating

Mg 2Mg(s) + O2 2MgO burn in air without heating

White flame/ white ash (MgO)

Al seems to be unreactive as it has a protective layer of Al2O3

Zn to Cu 2Zn + O2 2ZnO burn in air with much more heating
metal glow and form oxide film
Ag to Pt No reaction

3- Reaction with dilute acid:

Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series react with dilute acids and hydrogen
is produced. This is displacement reaction in which metal displaced the hydrogen of
an acid. Metal + Acid salt + Hydrogen
K,Na Na +2 HCl NaCl + H2 (too dangerous, lead to explosions)
Ca Ca + H2SO4 CaSO4 + H2
Mg Mg + HNO3 Mg(NO3)2 +H2
Zn, Fe,Pb Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Pb reacts slowly and only if acid is concentrated

Cu to Pt No reaction (below hydrogen in reactivity series)

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 Remember:

a- It is too dangerous to react potassium and sodium with steam or acids that could
cause explosions
b- Aluminum seems to be unreactive due to protective layer of Al2O3
c- Cu, Ag, Au do not react with water, steam and dilute acids

- Reactions of metals between water and acids is considered 1)displacement

reaction as hydrogen is driven out and the metal takes its place showing that metal
is more reactive than hydrogen also considered 2) redox reaction 3)Exothermic
reduction

Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2

oxidation

Mg -- 2e Mg2+ (oxidation)
2H+ + 2e H2 (reduction)

Making hydrogen in Laboratory: (using displacement reaction)

Hydrogen is prepared in lab by reacting Zn or Mg (reactive metals) with dilute sulphuric or

hydrochloric acid to drive the hydrogen out (displace it). {All metals above hydrogen in
series can displace it from acids} except Na, K will lead to explosions with dilute acids.

Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

Zinc + dilute Sulfuric acid zinc Sulphate + Hydrogen

Tap Delivery tube

funnel/separating
funnel
Gas
jar

Trough

Water

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 4- Reduction of metal oxides with carbon: (competition with carbon)
- Carbon on heating will reduce the oxides of metals below it in
the reactivity series as (ZnO, Fe2O3)
- Oxides of metals above zinc in the reactivity series as (Al2O3,
MgO) cannot be reduced by carbon
Lead(II) oxide + carbon lead + carbon dioxide
2PbO(s) + C(s) 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)
( carbon act as reducing agent)

reduction

2Fe2O3 + 3C 4Fe + 3CO2

oxidation

5- Competition for oxygen:

(Reduction of metal oxides by more reactive metal act as reducing agent)
- A more reactive metal will reduce the oxide of less reactive metal. The reduction
always gives out heat (exothermic)
Iron + copper(II) oxide iron(II) oxide + copper
oxidation
Reducing
Fe(s) + CuO(s) FeO(s) + Cu(s)
agnet
reduction
Fe2O3 + 2Al 2Fe + Al2O3
More reactive

6- Displacement reactions:
(Competing to form ions in solutions)
- Any metal can displace another metal that is lower in the reactivity series from its
aqueous salt solution containing its ions.

- When a piece of zinc is placed in copper(II) sulfate blue solution, reddish brown
deposit of copper forms and the blue color of solution fades away.

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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
 - This is also a redox reaction as zinc oxidized lost electrons while copper is reduced
gained its electrons.
Zinc(s) + copper sulfate zinc sulfate + copper(s)
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
blue solution reddish brown
Ionic equation:
oxidation
2+
Zn(s) + Cu (aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

reduction

Competing for oxygen Competing to form ions in solution

Equation Fe(s) + CuO(s) FeO(s) + Cu(s) Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Half equations :
Electron loss Fe – 2e Fe2+ Fe – 2e Fe2+
Electron gain Cu2+ + 2e Cu Cu2+ + 2e Cu
Reactive metals are good reducing agent
Ionic equation
(add half
equations and Fe + Cu2+ Fe2+ + Cu Fe + Cu2+ Fe2+ + Cu
cancel
electrons)

Finding the order for metals reactivity

(1) Carry out displacement (2) Connect 2 different (3) Add equal mass of metal
reactions with some aqueous metals ( X & Y)as electrodes x & y with an acid at same
salt solutions containing in simple cell temperature; the more
different metals reactive will produce same
volume of hydrogen but in
less time
Things to remember:

1- A metal cannot displace another above it in the reactivity series.

Cu(s) + FeSO4 (aq) → no reaction
2- Any displacement reaction is exothermic ( rise in temperature is observed)
3- The more reactive the metal the more it likes to form compounds by losing electrons
so only copper , gold , silver , mercury are found uncombined ( native ) in earth crust
while other metals are always found as compounds oxides , carbonates, sulphides
and chlorides.
4- The more reactive the metal the more stable its compounds. A stable compound is
difficult to break down and decompose and difficult to extract (only by electrolysis).

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 Summary
K
Na React with cold water to
Electrolysis of give hydroxide + H2
Ca
molten ores React with
Mg
dilute acids
Al
to give salt +
Carbon React with steam
H2
Zn to give oxide + H2
Fe
Oxides Pb
are Hydrogen
reduced Cu
by carbon Ag Found native in
Au nature
Pt

 Thermal decomposition (breaking down of a compound by the effect of

heat)metals sulphates , metal carbonates, hydroxide and nitrates.

Sulphate, carbonate, hydroxide Nitartes

Metal
K Don’t decompose on heating Metal nitrite + O2
Na KOH no Rn 2KNO3(s) 2KNO2(s) + O2(g)
Grp1 Na2CO3 no Rn 2NaNO3(s) 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)
K2SO4 no Rn
Ca  Metal sulphate metal oxide + SO3  Metal nitrate metal
Mg CuSO4 CuO + SO3 oxide+ NO2+ O2
Al  Metal carbonate metal oxide
Zn +CO2 2Ca(NO3)2(s) 2CaO(s) +
Fe CaCO3 CaO + CO2 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
Pb (limestone) (lime/quick lime)
Cu  Metal hydroxide metal oxide + Nitrogen dioxide appears as brown
water gas
Mg(OH)2 MgO + H2O

1- Decompositions get easier down the series.

2- Less heat energy is required down the series.
3- All chloride salts are stable(Don’t decompose on heating) except ammonium
chloride.NH4Cl NH3 + HCl
4- All sodium and potassium compounds are stable except nitrates.

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 Extraction of metals (mining ores)

Metals Method of extraction Examples to study

K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al (Above C) Electrolysis of their molten salt Aluminium from Al2O3 Bauxite
ore

Zn, Fe, Pb (Below C) reduction of metal oxide with Fe from Haematite Fe2O3
carbon in blast furnace Zn from zinc blende ZnS

Cu, Ag, Au, Pt (Below H) Found uncombined in native Copper(refined) purified by

electrolysis

Haematite, zinc blende and bauxite are considered metal ores.

Minerals found in earth crust from which metal is extracted.
 So as we go up reactivity series of metals method of extraction becomes more
expensive and powerful.
A -Extraction of metals by electrolysis → expensive (uses lots of electricity)

B- Extraction of metals from their oxides by reduction with carbon.

The idea is based on , ores of all other metals contain metals as compounds that
have to be reduced to produce metal .
Metal compound reduction with carbon → metal + carbon dioxide
Extraction of zinc
1- The ore is zinc blende (ZnS) is roasted (heated) in hot air to give zinc oxide
and Sulphur dioxide.
Zinc sulphide + oxygen (air) → zinc oxide + Sulphur dioxide
2 ZnS(s) + 3O2 (g) → 2 ZnO (s) + 2 SO2 (g)
2- The oxide is reduced with Carbon ( coke ) in blast furnace
Zinc oxide + carbon → zinc + carbon dioxide
2ZnO (s) + C (s) → 2Zn (s) + CO2 (g) or using Carbon monoxide
 Final mixture contains zinc and a slag of impurities, the zinc is separated by
fractional distillation ( boils at 907 oC)
Also can be obtained by electrolysis of molten zinc oxide/zinc sulfate solution
Uses of zinc:
1) Galvanizing : The metal zinc is used to coat steel objects to prevent them from
rusting as the zinc will corrode instead of steel ( sacrificial protection )/( electrolysis ).
2) Making brass : Brass alloy of copper (60%) and zinc (40%) and making batteries.

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 A- Extraction of Iron from its ore Haematite Fe2O3
Iron is extracted from its ore by reduction
with carbon in blast furnace.
1- Iron ore ,coke (made from coal )and limestone
are added to the top of the blast furnace, a blast
of hot air causes the coke to burn which is
exothermic reaction (giving out heat keep the
furnace hot )
Carbon + oxygen → Carbon dioxide
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
{ Carbon (coke) acts as a reducing agent and a
source of heat}
2- The Carbon dioxide rising up in the furnace
reacts with more coke to form Carbon monoxide
which reduce the iron oxide to iron so Carbon
monoxide acts as a reducing agent
Carbon dioxide + Carbon → Carbon monoxide
CO2 + C (s) → 2CO(g)

(This reaction is endothermic takes heat from furnace)

3- The Iron ore is reduced to Iron by Carbon monoxide to Carbon dioxide and iron
As Iron reaches the lower part of the furnace it melts and run to the bottom of the
furnace
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2 Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
2Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) → 4Fe(l) +3CO2(g)

4- The purpose of limestone is to remove the sandy impurities mainly silicon (IV) oxide
( SiO2)
a) Limestone is decomposed by heat of the furnace
Calcium Carbonate → calcium oxide (lime or quick lime) + Carbon dioxide
CaCO3 CaO (s) + CO2 (g) Thermal decomposition
b) The Basic oxide, CaO react with SiO2 ( acidic oxide ) to form a liquid slag which
run down to the bottom and floats on top of iron.
calcium oxide + silicon dioxide/ silica → calcium silicate ( slag )
basic oxide + acidic oxide → salt
CaO (s) + SiO2 (s) → CaSiO3 (s) ( Slag) Acid base reaction

The waste gases hot carbon dioxide and nitrogen come out from the top of furnace.

NB: Nitrogen is coming from the nitrogen of blast air entering furnace.

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Cast / pig iron

The iron produced in blast furnace is called cast iron of little use because it is brittle
and impure (contain about 5% carbon ) and phosphorous , Sulphur and sand
impurities. Most of cast iron is converted into steel.

Making steel from cast iron using basic oxygen converter

 The molten iron from blast furnace is poured into hot furnace called ( basic
oxygen converter ) where a jet of oxygen is blown (heat is applied) to react with
carbon and sulfur forming carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide these gases escape
as fumes and oxygen react with phosphorous forming phosphorous oxide. And
silicon forming silicon dioxide C +O2→CO2 / S+O2→SO2
 Then calcium oxide which is basic oxide reacts with silicon dioxide and
phosphorous oxide as these are acidic solid oxides forming slag on top of iron
which is skimmed off.
 Pure iron remains at the bottom .Controlled amounts of carbon are added to get
the desired steel. As the Carbon content is increased, the steel becomes stronger
and harder. As pure iron is not good for building things as it stretches easily.
Type of steel Carbon Properties Uses
 Mild steel 0.25% Easily shaped Carbodies,
machines
 High carbon steel 0.5-1.5% Hard Railways.bridges,
building
Cutlery, surgical
 Stainless steel Iron + carbon + nickel(10%) + instruments,
(does not rust) chromium(20%) kitchen sinks,
pipes in chemical
plants

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 Making use of metals and alloys
Metals share some properties but each one has a special property that is related to its use.

Metal Used for Property

1- Overhead electricity 1- Good conductor of
cables (with steel electricity (not as
core for strength) good as copper but
1-Aluminium (Al) :most cheaper and lighter),
abundant metal on earth 2- Low density
3- resists corrosion
4- Cooking foils and 1- Non toxic
food containers, 2- Resist corrosion
window frames and 3- Low density
cans
3- making aircrafts 1- Low density
2- Resists corrosion
4- coating CDs & DVDs 1- Can be deposited as
thin film
2- Shiny surface reflects
laser beam
1- Electrical wiring 1- Best conductor of
electricity
2- Ductile(easily shaped)
3- Low reactivity
4- High melting point
2- Copper 5- Cheap
2- Cooking utensils 1- Good conductor of
(saucepans) heat
2- High melting point
3- Low reactivity
3- Making coins and unreactive
pipes
4- Making brass (alloy (brass is stronger than
with zinc) copper)
1- Protect steel from Sacrificial protection (simple
rusting cell)
2- Coating and Resist corrosion (electrolysis)
3- Zinc galvanizing (prevent
rusting)
3- Making dry Outer case act as negative
cells(torch batteries) electrode made of zinc

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 Alloys
 An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals and sometimes the metal is mixed with
another element(carbon) ( not always metal )
 It is prepared by mixing the molten (liquefied) metals together and allowing them to
cool down to solidity.
 Usually turning a metal into an alloy changes its properties and makes it more useful,
stronger and better resistant to corrosion than itself alone

Metal alone Applying force: layers will When metal turn into
Slide over each other alloy, new atoms enter
lattice. The layers won’t
slide past each other

Diagram showing alloy structure

Other metal
atoms

Metal atoms

Name of alloy Composition Use Property

1- Brass Copper 70% Ornaments, door Harder than copper
Zinc 30% knobs, musical Doesn’t corrode
instruments
2- Bronze Copper and tin Ornaments, coins Harder than copper
Doesn’t corrode
3- Steel Fe + C Mild/ high carbon Check it previously
steel
4- Stainless steel Fe + C + Ni + Cr Check it previously
5- Aluminum alloy Al + Zn + Mg + Cu Aircrafts Light but very strong
Doesn’t corrode

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 Recycling of metals
All metals can be recycled as they are collected , sorted , stored , melted down and used
again rather than throwing them away because :

1- These minerals (metal ores) are nonrenewable resources and will

not last forever, so this conserves / saves minerals.
2- It saves money and energy for extraction.
3- It solves the problem of waste disposal. Recycling of metals stops
them from accumulating and polluting the environment.

Also recycling is possible for other materials:

Glass , paper , cloth , plastics can be all recycled e.g. old glass bottles can be melted
down to make new bottles.

This saves the resources and solves pollution problems.

But the quality of metals is reduced over and over by recycling

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 Topic 8: Electrolysis
Batteries and electric current

 The diagram shows how the electrons move through the circuit
 The battery acts as electron pump, the electrons leave it through the negative
terminal travelling through the wire , bulb and carbon rod (graphite) enter the
battery again through the positive terminal.
 As the bulb is lit this shows that electricity must be flowing in the circuit. ( electricity
is a stream of electrons )

Conductors and insulator

Conductors Insulators
Definition Substances that allow Substance that doesn’t allow
electricity to pass through electric current to pass
them(has free moving through
charged particles)
Examples Conduction Conduction  Wood, plastic,
due to free due to free rubber, ceramic
moving moving ions  Non-metals except
electrons graphite
All metals in Ionic  Gases
both solid compounds  Solid ionic
and liquid in aqueous compounds
state or molten  Covalent compounds
& Graphite state

Semi-Conductors: Substances which contains no free electrons and no ions but allow very
small current to pass through them. E.g. Silicon (metalloid) used widely in manufacture of
computer chips.

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Electrolytes and Non-electrolytes
Electrolytes: liquids that can conduct electric current due to the presence of free moving
ions. These are ionic compounds that are either molten or dissolved in a solution.

Non-electrolyte: liquids that cannot conduct electric current due to the absence of free
moving ions. These are covalent compounds such as ethanol, sugar solutions, and petrol.

How to test whether this liquid is electrolyte or not?

The circuit in the apparatus below is dipped in the liquid to be tested?

Bulb: if it glows then

electricity is flowing
through liquid

(+) Anode
(-) Cathode: graphite
rod/electrode

Liquid under test

Electrodes are generally made of graphite or unreactive metal platinum.

If the bulb lights up, this means the solution is electrolyte (allows passage of current)

Type of solution Electrolyte Non-electrolyte

Aqueous solution of acids √
and alkalis

Aqueous solution of salts √

Molten salts √
Ethanol √
Petrol √
Oil √
Sugar solution √
Pure (distilled) water √

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 Electrolysis: The decomposition (breakdown) of an ionic compound
Molten or aqueous solution by passage of electricity.

Cathode Anode

Graphite rods

Attract cations Attract anions

(+ve) ions (-ve) ions

Heat

 Graphite rods are called electrodes which are inactive or inert as the carry the
current into the liquid but remain unchanged. (Electrodes made of platinum are also
inert).
 The electrode attached to the negative terminal of the battery is called Cathode
which attracts positive ions (Cations), where positive ions gains electrons to become
atoms or molecules (reduction occurs).
 The electrode attached to the positive terminal of the battery is called Anode which
attracts negative ions (Anions) where negative ions lose electrons to become atoms
or molecules (oxidation occur).
 Electron flow in the external circuit from anode into the cathode.
A- Electrolysis of molten substances using graphite /carbon:
 Electrolysis break down the molten ionic compounds into its elements, heat
is constantly applied to keep the salt in the molten state. ( this process is
endothermic )
 As the current passes through it , the molten salt is broken into metal ions (
cations )positive ions which move toward the cathode ( -ve electrode ) and
discharged to become metal atoms and also hydrogen ion the only nonmetal
ion discharged at cathode.
 Negative ions which move toward the Anode ( +ve electrode ) to be
discharged and become nonmetal atoms.
Discharge means : ions lose its charge by either gaining or losing electrons.

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 Example 1: Electrolysis of molten lead bromide (PbBr2)

Cathode(-) Anode(+)
2+
Pb Br-

③ Heat
④

①Electrons flow along the wire from the negative terminal of the battery to the
cathode(-ve electrode).
②In the liquid, the ionic compound breaks down by the effect of electricity into its
ions which carry the current and they move to the electrode of the opposite charge.
③At the cathode (-ve), the Pb2+ ions ( cations) will be discharge by accepting
electrons Pb2+ +2e → Pb ( silvery grey drops of molten lead atoms appear at the
cathode → reduction(RIG).
④At the anode (+ve) the Br- ions (anions ) will be discharged by giving up electrons
2Br- - 2e → Br2 reddish brown bubbles appear at the anode → oxidation (OIL).
⑤Electrons flow from the anode along the wire to the positive terminal of the
battery.
Lead bromide decomposed lead + bromine
PbBr2 (l) → Pb(l) + Br2(g)
 Electrolysis is an Endothermic process

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 Electrolyte At the anode(OIL) At the cathode(RIG)
 The bromide ion (Br -
 The lead ions (Pb2+)
) move to the anode move to the cathode
 Each bromide ion  Each lead ion
gives up one accepts two
electron to become electrons to become
bromine atom lead atom
Molten lead bromide  The bromide ions Pb2+ + 2e Pb
PbBr2 will form one  Lead collects as
bromine molecule silvery grey drops of
-
2Br -2e Br2 molten metal
-
2Br Br2 + 2e
 Bromine appears as
reddish brown
bubble
N:B don’t forget the diatomic molecules H2,O2,N2,F2,Cl2,Br2,I2, during electrolysis two of
their ions are discharged to give one molecule.

N:B inert gas (argon or helium )is blown on the reactive metal collected at the cathode to
prevent reactive metal (like Na, Ca) reacting with air and forming the metal oxide .

 Overall electrolysis is a redox reaction; reduction takes place at the cathode and
oxidation at the anode.

Complete the following table:

Molten electrolyte Product at the cathode(-) Product at the anode(+)

Sodium chloride Sodium Chlorine
Na+ + e Na 2Cl- - 2e Cl2
Magnesium chloride
Aluminium chloride
Zinc flouride
B-Electrolysis of aqueous solutions using carbon electrode:
1- Electrolysis of concentrated aqueous sodium chloride ( brine ):
The products from electrolysis of aqueous solution of salt may be different from
those obtained by electrolysis of molten salt this is because water itself will produce
ions which takes part in the electrolysis
H2O→ H+(aq) +OH- (aq)
NaCl →Na+ +Cl-
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Dr.Sarah Abdel Nasser
 As the H+ ions will go to the cathode together with metal ions and OH- ions will go to
the anode together with the nonmetal ions ,only one type of ions will get discharged
( at each electrode )which is the less reactive one.
Rules for electrolysis of aqueous solutions:
1) At the cathode (-): either metal or hydrogen is discharged
the more reactive an element the more it likes to exist as ions so if the metal is
more reactive than hydrogen its ions stay in the solution and hydrogen is
discharged (2H+ +2e → H2)
but if the metal is less reactive than hydrogen the metal is discharged.

Metals (+ve ions) Non-metals (-ve ions)

K SO42-
Discharge
Na NO3-
Ca CO32- become
Discharge
Mg OH- easier
become
Al Cl- down the
easier down
Zn the series Br- series
Fe I-
Pb
Hydrogen
Cu
Ag
Au

2) At the anode (+): nonmetal other than hydrogen

1- If concentrated solution of halide (compound containing Cl- , Br-, I- ions)then
halide ions are discharged instead of OH- ions.
2- If the solution of halide is dilute the OH ions are discharged producing O2
(4OH- (aq)- 4e →2H2O (l) + O2 (g)

Electrolysis of concentrated aqueous sodium chloride:

At the cathode(-) At the anode(+)

From NaCl Na+ more reactive Cl- less reactive
From H2O H+ OH-
Discharged ions 2H+(aq)+2e H2(g) 2CL-(aq) - 2e Cl2(g)
Colorless gas bubbles Green gas bubbles

The solution contains sodium ions and hydroxide ions left forming a solution of NaOH which
is alkaline solution (turn red litmus paper into blue.

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Electrolysis of Dilute solutions of sodium chloride

At the cathode(-) At the anode(+)

From NaCl Na+ Cl-
From H2O H+ OH-
Discharged ions 2H+(aq) +2e H2(g) 4OH-(aq) – 4e 2H2O(l)
Colorless bubbles +O2(g) colorless bubbles

In the dilute solution only H2 and O2 gases are discharged and the solution becomes more
concentrated.

Complete the following table:

Electrolysis of aqueous zinc bromide

Electrolyte Cathode Anode Solution left

ZnBr2 aqueous Free ions present (Zn , H & OH- ,Br-)
2+ +

Product Hydrogen Bromine

Observation Colorless bubbles Reddish brown Zinc hydroxide
bubbles
Equation 2H+ + 2e H2 2Br- - 2e Br2 Zn 2+ + 2OH-

Aqueous silver nitrate AgNO3 {Free ions present (Ag+, H+, NO3-, OH-)}

Cathode Anode Solution left

Product
Observation
Equation
Aqueous copper sulphate {Free ions present (H+, Cu2+ & OH-, SO42-)

Cathode Anode Solution left

Product
Observation
Equation
For dilute solutions:

Electrolyte Cathode(-) Anode(+) Solution left

Dilute sulfuric acid More concentrated
Hydrogen 4OH- - 4e 2H2O(l) sulfuric acid
Dilute sodium 2H+(aq) + 2e H2(g) + O2(g) More concentrated
chloride sodium chloride

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 Electrolysis of brine

 Brine is a concentrated solution of sodium chloride or common salt. It can be

obtained by pumping water into salt mines to dissolve the salt or by evaporating sea
water.
 Electrolysis of brine is used industrially to produce chlorine, hydrogen and sodium
hydroxide. They are the basis of chloroalkali and soap industry.
electrolysis
 2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2g)
Brine sodium hydroxide chlroine hydrogen

(You will not be asked to draw it)

Cathode Anode Solution left

Product H2 Cl2
Observation Colorless gas Green gas bubbles NaOH

Equation 2H+(aq) + 2e H2(g) 2Cl-(aq) - 2e Cl2(g)

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 B- Electrolysis of aqueous ionic solution using Active electrodes:
Inert electrodes: carbon (graphite) or platinum. They do not take part in the
electrolysis.
Active electrodes: copper, silver, zinc, nickel (they take part in the electrolysis and
the active metal anode dissolve pass into solution as ions, in other words, the
mass of active metal anode decreases)

Reminder:

A- The electrolysis of aqueous copper sulphate using carbon

electrode(inert):
At cathode: copper ions discharged (less reactive)
Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s) copper deposit on cathode as brown deposit
At anode: oxygen bubbles appears
4OH-(aq) – 4e 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
Solution left is Sulphuric acid (H+ & SO42-)
The blue color of solution id fade away/ disappear as CuSO4 (blue solution) change
into sulphuric acid solution (colorless)

B- The electrolysis of aqueous copper Sulphate using copper

electrode(active)

cathode

Copper dissolves
and impurities do
not dissolve. Just
drop as anode
sludge

 The anode is made of (impure) copper. The cathode is (pure) copper. The electrolyte
is dilute copper(II) sulfate solution.
 This electrolysis has 2 important uses. 1- refining(purifying) 2- electroplating

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 At anode + (impure copper) At cathode – (pure copper)
 The anode dissolves as copper  Copper deposit on cathode as
passes into solution as ions. (anode copper ions gain electrons to
decreases in mass) become atoms at cathode.
Cu(s) – 2e Cu2+(aq) Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s)
 Anode becomes thinner.  Cathode becomes thicker.(pure
 Impurities don’t dissolve they just copper build up on cathode)
drop to the bottom. (sludge)
 Anode sludge: contains precious
metals such as platinum, gold,
silver that may be recovered and
sold.
Copper ions move from anode to cathode when (metal ions produced at anode are
the same as metal ions present in solution )
The solution color (blue) and concentration doesn’t change as copper ions move from anode
to cathode.

Application of electrolysis
1- Refining of copper by electrolysis:
Copper is present native (uncombined) in nature but it still has impurities. These
impurities should be removed as the purer the copper, the better its conductivity.
- Anode: impure copper
- Cathode: thin sheet of pure copper
- Electrolyte: aqueous solution of copper(II) sulfate
- Impurities: sink to the bottom as anode sludge removed by filtration
- Overall results is that copper move from anode to cathode so the color of and
concentration of the solution remain unchanged
Zinc is refined by electrolysis. Complete the following:
- Anode is made of:………………………………..
- Cathode is made of:……………………………..
- Electrolyte is aqueous:………………………….
2- Electroplating by electrolysis:
Electroplating means using electricity to coat one metal with another why?.
a- To Look better and more attractive
b- To Protect it from corrosion or rusting
e.g: steel tap coated with chromium to look bright and resist corrosion:
- Anode: made of coating metal (copper, silver, tin, chromium)
- Cathode: object that need to be plated
- Electrolyte: solution of soluble compound (solution of salt of the coating
metal)

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At anode: silver dissolves forming silver ions
in solution.
Ag(s) Ag+ + e
(anode need to be replaced after some
time)
At cathode: silver ions are attracted to
cathode. It receive electrons forming a coat
of silver on the jug
Ag+(aq) + e Ag(s)
When the layer of silver is thick enough, the
jug is removed.

For successful plating/paper 6

1- The object that will be plated is rotated for uniform and even coating.
2- Object has to be very clean for metal ions to stick firmly to it. (frequent use of any
plated object might wear off by time) using sand paper

Application of electroplating is Galvanization:

- Protecting iron by coating it with zinc to prevent iron from rusting. It is used for
steel in car bodies by process called galvanizing.
- Galvanizing: the iron or steel is coated with zinc. This is a form of electrolysis
where the iron/ steel is connected to cathode while zinc at anode where the zinc
coats the steel keeping away air and moisture from it.
But if coating gets damaged, zinc will still protect iron by sacrificial protection
(cell)

Cathodic protection: using the basics of electrolysis, iron and steel can be protected from
corrosion by connecting them as cathode in electrolysis. Iron cannot corrode because it
cannot lose electrons as it is connected to the negative pole of battery which is constantly
supplies it with electrons.

3- Extraction of metals from their molten ores by electrolysis:

Reactive metals above zinc in reactivity series (K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al) can be extracted by
electrolysis of their molten compounds as they cannot be extracted by reduction
with carbon since they are above it in the reactivity series.

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 Extraction of Aluminum:
Aluminum is the most abundant metal in the earth crust. Main ore is bauxite (aluminum
oxide Al2O3) and it is mixed with some impurities giving it reddish brown color and when
impurities are removed pure Al2O3 becomes white color.

Substances used in extraction Comment

Name of ore purified: Bauxite Mineral ore= Bauxite= Al2O3
Electrodes used Graphite/ carbon 1..Large steel tank lined with
carbon act as cathode (-)
2.Big blocks (hanging fingers)
of carbon act as anode(+)

Chemicals added - Aluminum is 1.Cryolite and Na3AlF6 added

dissolved in molten to decrease the melting point
cryolite and Na3AlF6 of aluminum oxide from
(sodium aluminum 2045oC to 900oC -1000
fluoride) and the 2.Without cryolite: the process
mixture is kept will be:
molten by electrical A/very expensive as too much
heating electricity will be required
B/.steel tank will melt
C/solid aluminum oxide
doesn’t conduct much
electricity

Once aluminum oxide (alumina) dissolve Al3+ & O2- ions are free to move
At anode(+): At cathode(-):
The oxygen ions loses electrons Aluminum ions gain electrons
2O2-(l) – 4e O2(g) oxidation Al3+(l) + 3e Al(l) reduction
Oxygen gas is produced as bubbles around Aluminum is denser than the alumina and
the anode reacting with graphite (anode cryolite drops to the bottom of the tank and is
fingers) to produce CO2 removed off at regular intervals
Finger like anode must be replaced
frequently as they are eaten away
C + O2 CO2 / and 2F----2e F2
2C+ O2 → 2CO

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Overall reaction: aluminum oxide aluminum + oxygen

2Al2O3(l) 4Al(l) + 3O2(g)

Ionic balanced equation: 4Al3+(l) + 6O2-(l) 4Al(l) + 3O2(g)

N.B: Aluminum is more reactive than iron but we use it for TVs satellite dishes. Why?

Because aluminum protect itself by reacting rapidly with oxygen forming a coat
of Al2O3 which act as a barrier to corrosion that’s why aluminum resist
corrosion
and behave as it is unreactive

Point to remember:

Zinc extraction from zinc blende(ZnS) by two ways

a- by ①roasting in air then ②reducing zinc oxide with carbon/ carbon monoxide
b- by electrolysis: ①this zinc oxide must be melted or in solution but it has very high
melting point (1975oC) and is insoluble in water.
② Instead it is dissolved in dilute sulfuric acid.
As zinc oxide is (amphoteric oxide). It neutralizes the acid giving a solution of zinc
sulfate ZnSO4 which is then electrolyzed producing zinc at cathode (deposits) as
the electrolysis of aqueous copper Sulpahte producing copper at cathode
Zn2+(aq) + 2e Zn(s) reduction at cathode
The zinc is scrapped off cathode and melted into bars to be sold.

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 Topic 9: Acids, Bases and Salts
Acids
 Compounds that dissolve in water (aqueous solutions) to give hydrogen ions (H+).
 Hydrogen ions are also known as protons that’s why acids are called proton donors.
e.g.: hydrochloric acid HCl in water the molecules break down/ dissociate into ions
(which is similar to all acids)
HCl (aq) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) so it produce protons that give them acidity
(proton)
 Solution of acids contain hydrogen ions which:
1- Turn litmus paper (purple) dye into red
2- pH less than 7
3- change color of indicators
 Acids in foods give it sour taste. Most acids are colorless

Common Acids:

Acid Formula Ions present Basicity Strength

- +
Hydrochloric HCl Cl H Monobasic
acid
Nitric acid HNO3 NO3- H+ Monobasic Strong acids
2- +
Sulphuric H2SO4 SO4 2H Dibasic
acid
Phosphoric H3PO4 PO43- 3H+ Tribasic
acid
Ethanoic CH3COOH CH3COO- H+ Monobasic Weak acid
acid(acetic
acid/
vinegar)
 Basicity is the number of hydrogen ions that can be donated to a base (alkali).
 Acid formula HX is monobasic while acid H2X is dibasic.

The difference between strong and weak acids:

Strong acid (HCl): in solution of hydrochloric acid, all molecules of hydrogen chloride have
become ions

HCl (aq) 100% H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) (completely ionized)

But in weak acids as ethanoic acids/carbonic acid H2Co3
less than 100%
CH3COOH CH3COO-(aq) + H+ (aq) (partially ionized)

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So in weak acids only some of the molecules have become ions so in solutions of strong
acids, all molecules become ions and in solutions of weak acids only some do that’s why
strong acids are better conductor of electricity as there are more ions present and have
lower pH because they have more hydrogen ions as the more hydrogen ions the lower the
ph.

Strong acids Weak acids

Completely ionized in solution giving Partially ionized in solution to give low
high concentration of hydrogen ions concentration of hydrogen ions
e.g.: HCl, H2SO4, HNO3 e.g.: ethanoic acid, all organic acids, citric
acid, carbonic acid (H2CO3)
Note about HCl: hydrochloric acid is a solution of hydrogen chloride gas dissolved in water:

HCl (g) HCl(aq) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Covalent ionic

Bases/ Alkalis:
 Compounds that accept hydrogen ions are called proton acceptor.
 All bases are solids either metal oxides, metal hydroxides, metal carbonates and
metal sulphites (metal chlorides and metal sulphates are not bases)
 Bases are insoluble in water but if dissolved in water are called alkalis
 Aqueous solutions produce hydroxide ions (OH-) that’s responsible for having litmus
paper turn blue and producing pH above 7.
 Pure alkalis are solids except NH3 ammonia which is only alkaline gas, when
dissolved in water producing NH4OH solution.
 Alkalis produce hydroxide ions when it dissolve: NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Common Alkalis

Alkali Formula Ions present Strength

Sodium NaOH Na+ OH-
hydroxide
Potassium KOH K+ OH- Strong
hydroxide
Calcium Ca(OH)2 Ca2+ OH-
hydroxide
Ammonium NH4OH NH4+ OH- Weak
hydroxide
(aqueous NH3)
Alkaline solution contain hydroxide ions

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Strong and weak alkalis:

 Strong NaOH/ KOH

 NaOH(aq)100% Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) (completely ionized)
 All sodium hydroxide exit as ions in solutions
 But ammonium hydroxide(aqueous NH3 (NH4OH)

 NH4OH)much less than 100% NH4++ OH- (partially ionized)

 Only some of ammonium molecules form ions, fewer hydroxide ions present in
solution that in sodium hydroxide solution
 So sodium hydroxide solutions is better conductor than aqueous Ammonia and has
higher pH because it contain more hydroxide ions. The higher the concentration of
hydroxide ions is, the higher the pH.
Strong alkalis Weak alkalis
Completely ionized in solution to give Partially ionized in solution to give low
high concentration of hydroxide ions concentration of hydroxide ions
e.g.: NaOH, Ca(OH)2 e.g.: aqueous ammonia

Note about NH3: ammonia is weak alkaline gas (pungent smell) pH10. It dissolves in
water to form aqueous solution of ammonia (NH4OH) known as ammonium
hydroxide
NH3 (g) + H2O (l) NH4 (OH) (aq)
Remember: concentrated acids and alkalis are dangerous, corrosive and need to be
handled carefully.

pH scale and indicators:

pH: the strength of aqueous solutions of acids and alkalis can be measured using a 14 point
scale called pH scale numbers go from 0 to 14.

 Acidic solutions pH number less than 7, the stronger the acid, the lower the pH
 Alkaline solutions pH number greater than 7, the stronger the alkali, the higher the
pH
 Neutral solutions pH is exactly equal to 7

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 pH meter: an instrument than can measure the exact pH of solutions
Indicators: these are substances that change color according to the pH of the
solution indicating if the solution is acidic, alkaline or neutral

Indicator Color in acid Color in alkali

Litmus (violet) Red Blue
Methyl (orange) Red Yellow
Phenolphthalein (colorless) colorless Pink

Universal indicator: it is a mixture of dyes like litmus paper; it can be used as a

solution or a paper strip, its color changes with ph.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Strong acid Weak acid neutral Weak alkali Strong alkali
Red orange Yellow Green Greenish blue- blue Purple
H2SO4/ Ethanoic acid/ water Aqueous ammonia NaOH/KOH
HNO3/HCl carbonic acid/
lactic acid

Increase acidity Increase alkalinity

NB:
 Adding water to an acid will increase the pH(become less acidic)
 Evaporating water from acid will decrease pH (become more acidic)
 Indicators can only tell if you have acidic, alkaline or neutral solution
 Universal indicator can tell if you have strong acid or alkali (strength)
 Strong acids/ alkalis are highly corrosive
 Starch act as indicator for iodine, it gives dark blue color

The reaction of acids and bases:

 When acids react with metals, carbonates and bases, salt is produced is which ionic
compounds as sodium chloride.
 The name of the salt depends on the acid
 Hydrochloric acid gives chlorides
 Sulfuric acid gives sulfates
 Nitric acids gives nitrates
 Ethanoic acid gives ethanoate

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Acidic reactions:
1- Acid react with metals(exothermic / displacement/ redox)
Acid + metal salt + hydrogen (displacement)
Magnesium + sulfuric acid magnesium sulfate + hydrogen
Mg(s) + H2SO4 (aq) MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g) bubbles observed
So the metal drive the hydrogen out of the acid, takes its place, it displaces
hydrogen. A solution of the salt magnesium sulfate is formed (so the metal has to be
above hydrogen in the reactivity series)
Ionic equations: Mg(s) + 2H+ (aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)

2- With bases:
Acid + base salt+ water (neutralization)
Bases might be (metal oxides/ metal hydroxides) while alkalis are soluble bases. They react
with acids to produce salt and water.

 Example of acid and alkali reaction:

Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium chloride + water
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O(l)

 Example of acid and insoluble base:

Sulfuric acid + copper(II) oxide copper(II) sulfate + water
H2SO4 (aq) + CuO (s) CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
Black blue
3- Acids with metal carbonates:
Acid + metal carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide (bubbles/turn
limewater milky

Calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid calcium chloride + water + carbon

dioxide
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

4- Acid + ammonia ammonium salt (only)

HCl + NH3 NH4Cl (white powder)
(acids don’t react with ammonium salts or any other salt)
Remember: hydrochloric acid is a solution of hydrogen chloride gas in water
water
HCl (g) HCl (aq)
Covalent ionic

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How does the strength of the acid differ in the reactions and conductivity?

Strong acid (H+ ions ) Weak acid (H+ ions )

Reaction with metal Vigorous effervescence of Weak effervescence of CO2
carbonate CO2
Electric conductivity Excellent Good
Reactions of bases:
1- Bases react with acids giving salt and water (neutralization)
2- Bases such as sodium, potassium and calcium hydroxides react with ammonium salts
driving out ammonia gas
Calcium hydroxide + ammonium chloride calcium chloride + water+ ammonia
heat
Ca(OH)2 (s) + 2NH4Cl (s) CaCl2 (s) + 2H2O (l) + NH3 (g)
This reaction is used for making ammonia in laboratory.
- Write down the reaction of sodium hydroxide and ammonium chloride.
(workout)

Make use of neutralization to treat acidic soils:

- Most crops grow best when the pH of the soil is close to 7, if the soil is too acidic
(due to acid rain) crops grow badly or not at all. So to reduce the acidity, the soil
is treated with crushed limestone (CaCO3) or lime (CaO) or slaked lime (Ca(OH)2)
where a neutralization reaction take place.
- Lime is more soluble than limestone. Is this an advantage or not?

Acids and redox reactions (just to notice):

- The reaction of acids with metals are redox reactions because electrons are
transferred
Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2
2+
Mg – 2e Mg (magnesium oxidized)
But in neutralization reaction (no electrons are transferred) you can see this by
checking oxidation states in equation
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

+I -I +I -II +I -I +I -II
When no element change in oxidation state so it is not redox
So when checking the reaction whether it is redox or not write down the
oxidation state of each element and check whether it is changed or not.

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Closer look to neutralization reaction:

1- Neutralization of an acid by soluble base (alkali)

Overall equation:
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
Ionic equation for reactions which shows the ions that takes part in reaction.

Steps to write ionic equation:

1- First write all ions present in an equation

H+ (aq) + Cl- + Na+ + OH- (aq) Na+ + Cl- + H2O (l)
2- Now cross any ions that appear unchanged on both sides of reaction
3- Write what is left for reaction (showing change of ions)
H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) H2O (l)
Ionic equation for neutralization reaction where acid donates a proton H + to
hydroxide ions (OH-) forming water molecule

2- Neutralization of an acid by insoluble base

2HCl (aq) + MgO (s) MgCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
Ionic equation:
2H+ (aq) + O2- (s) H2O (l)
Acids are proton donors and bases are proton acceptors

Types of oxides
Oxides are compounds containing oxygen and another element. There are 4 types of oxides:

1- Basic oxides:
 Metals react with O2 forming metal oxides which are basic oxides (ionic
compounds)
 2Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2MgO (s) burn with white flame leaving white ash
 4Fe (s) + 3O2 (g) 2Fe2O3 (s) black solid left
 2Cu (s) + O2 (g) 2CuO (s) black solid ( more heating)

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 The more reactive the metal, the more vigorously it reacts
Name Solubility a)
Potassium oxide K2O Yes pH>7
Sodium oxide Na2O Yes
Calcium oxide CaO Yes
Magnesium oxide MgO No
Copper(II) oxide CuO No
Iron(II) oxide Fe2O3 No
They react/ dissolve in acids forming salt and water

CuO (s) + HCl (aq) CuCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) Neutralization

b) If basic oxides dissolve in water form alkaline solutions

Na2O (s) + H2O (l) 2NaOH (aq)
2- Acidic oxides: usually are oxides of non-metals
 C (s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)
 S (s) + O2 (g) SO2(g)

Acidic oxide Solubility

Carbon dioxide CO2 Yes
Sulphur dioxide SO2 Yes pH less than 7
Sulphur trioxide SO3 Yes
Phosphorus III oxide P2O3 Yes
Nitrogen dioxide NO2 Yes
Silicon dioxide SiO2 No

a) Acidic oxides dissolve in water to form acidic solutions

CO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2CO3 (aq)

Carbonic acid

b) Acidic oxides react with bases from salt and water

CO2 (g) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) CaCO3 (s) + H2O (l)
Limewater

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 3- Amphoteric oxides: these are oxides of certain metals (aluminum and zinc) that
react with both acids and alkalis to form salt and water. e.g.: Aluminum oxide
(Al2O3) and zinc oxide(ZnO)
Aluminum oxide + hydrochloric acid Aluminum chloride + water
Al2O3 (s) + 6HCl (aq) 2AlCl3 + 3H2O (l)
It act as basic oxide with hydrochloric acid producing Aluminum chloride and water

Aluminum oxide + sodium hydroxide sodium Aluminate + water

Al2O3 (s) + 6 NaOH (aq) 2Na3AlO3 (aq) + 3H2O (l)
It acts as acidic oxide with sodium hydroxide giving compound called sodium
aluminate and water

4- Neutral oxide: some of oxides of non-metals are neither acidic nor basic. They are
neutral and don’t react with acids or bases. These gases are carbon monoxide CO,
dinitrogen oxide N2O, and water H2O and nitrogen monoxide NO. (Other nitrogen
oxides are acidic).

Making salts
Salts are compounds formed by reacting acids with metals /insoluble bases /soluble bases
(alkalis) or carbonates. The salt formed depends on the acid.

Acid used Salt formed

Hydrochloric acid Chlorides
Nitric acid Nitrates
Sulphuric acid Sulphates
Ethanoic acid Ethanoate
Some salts dissolve in water easily, they are said to be soluble. Other salts don’t dissolve at
all they are said to be insoluble.

Soluble Insoluble
All Na, K (all grp 1), Ammonium salts
All nitrates
All chlorides Except Silver and lead chloride
All sulphates Calcium, barium and lead sulphate
Sodium, potassium, and ammonium But all other carbonates are insoluble
carbonates

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 Preparation of soluble salts
A) Method A: add Metal/Base (excess powdered solid) with acid

1. Metal 2. Metal carbonate 3. Metal oxide

Until bubbles of H2 gas stops Until bubbles of CO2 gas Until insoluble solid is left
stops

Excess: more than enough/ adding excess to ensure that all acid is used up.

B) Method B (titration)
Neutralization reaction of an acid with an alkali (soluble base). Using indicator to
detect endpoint

Method A:

1- Using excess metal (zinc) reacting with dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
(With stirring zinc start to dissolve)
Steps:
1) Excess zinc is added to dilute sulfuric acid in a beaker with stirring until the
reaction stop fizzing (hydrogen bubbles stop) and some zinc is left. This means
all acid is used up.
2) The excess zinc is removed by filtration. Leaving aqueous solution of zinc sulfate.
3) The filtrate, zinc sulfate solution, is evaporated in evaporating dish to
crystallization point/ (or evaporate water until solution become saturated)
4) Allow the solution to cool. Crystals of zinc sulfate is formed.
5) Separate the crystals by filtration. wash and dry the crystals between two filter
papers ( or in a warm oven)

Heat

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 2- Zinc sulphate can be produced by using insoluble base zinc carbonate instead of zinc.
Using the same method and apparatus but carbon dioxide gas is given off.
ZnCO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) ZnSO4 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
3- Also zinc sulfate can be produced using insoluble base zinc oxide instead of zinc but
warming/ heating is necessary to dissolve zinc oxide to react with acid and no gas is
given off
ZnO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) ZnSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

- Workout: write down the steps for the preparation of CuSO4 crystals from
sulfuric acid and copper oxide
CuO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
Black blue

Method B: preparation of soluble salt by titration using acids and alkalis

NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
Both reactants are soluble producing no gases so the endpoint is detected using
indicator as it changes color when reaction is complete.
Steps:
1) Add 25 cm3 of dilute sodium hydroxide into a flask by using a pipette
2) Add 3 drops of indicator (phenolphthalein), the solution turn pink in alkaline
solution (but colorless in acids or neutral)
3) Burette is filled with dilute hydrochloric acid to zero mark
4) The acid is added drop wise to the alkali until solution color turn colorless
(means that all alkali is neutralized by acid)
N.B: volume of acid from burette used in noted
(Volume of acid needed to completely neutralize the alkali )
5) Repeat the experiment again using the same volume of alkali and the same
volume of acid needed but without the indicator (it would be an impurity if
left)
6) Finally the salt solution(NaCl) is evaporated to the crystallization point, allowed
to cool, crystals are formed, separate crystals by filtration and dry them between
two filter papers

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  How to find concentration of an acid or alkali by titration using a standard solution:

You’re asked to find the concentration of a solution of hydrochloric acid ??using 1 M

of solution (1mol/dm3) of sodium carbonate as standard solution
2HCl (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) 2NaCl (aq) + CO2 (aq) + H2O (l)
First titrate the acid against your standard solution alkali (sodium carbonate)
1- Add 25 cm3 of sodium carbonate into a conical flask using pipette. Add 3 drops of
methyl orange indicator solution turn yellow.
2- Fill the burette with hydrochloric acid, add the acid drop wise to alkaline solution
3- When the color of solution turns red (neutral) stop titration and record the
volume of acid needed (27.8 cm3)
4- So the 25 cm3 of Na2CO3 was neutralized by 27.8 cm3 of hydrochloric acid

Now you can calculate the concentration of acid

2HCl + Na 2CO3 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O

Mr 2 1 2 1 1

Conc. ?? 1mol/dm3

Volume 27.8 cm3 25cm3

No. of moles = conc. x vol.

No. on moles =25/1000 x 1= 0.025 moles

Since MR is 2:1 so the no. of moles of acid is (0.025 x 2)
So the no. of moles of HCl = 0.05 moles
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 Concentration of HCl = no. of moles/Volume = 0.05/(27.8÷1000) = 1.8 mol/dm3

So the concentration of HCl is 1.8 M or 1.8 mol/dm3

Workout: vinegar is a solution of weak acid ethanoic acid. 25 cm3 of acid was neutralized by
20 cm3 of 1M sodium hydroxide solution. What is the concentration of ethanoic acid?

CH3COOH (aq) + NaOH (aq) CH3COONa (aq) + H2O (l)

Making insoluble salts by precipitation

Insoluble salts that don’t dissolve in water have to be made by precipitation process.

Precipitation: is the formation of insoluble salts when two soluble salts are mixed together.

Precipitate: tiny particle of salt that don’t dissolve in the mixture of the solutions,
precipitate make solution cloudy/ turbid.

e.g.: making barium sulfate (insoluble) salt by mixing solutions of barium chloride and
magnesium sulfate.

BaCl2 (aq) + MgSO4 (aq) BaSO4 (s) + MgCl2 (aq)

Soluble soluble insoluble soluble
Ionic equation of insoluble salt/ precipitation reaction:

Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) BaSO4 (s) (white ppt) steps:

1- Mix two solutions of barium chloride and magnesium sulfate. A white precipitate
of barium sulfate is formed
2- Filter the mixture, the precipitate is trapped in filter paper
3- Rinse the precipitate with distilled water to remove any traces of soluble salts
MgCl2
4- Dry the BaSO4 salt between two filter papers/ in a warm oven

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 Water of crystallization:
 Some salts contain water molecules in their crystal lattice; these salts contain water
of crystallization called hydrated salt.
 The mass of water molecules present are included in the formula of the salt.
 Examples of hydrated salts:
Name Formula Number of water
molecules
Hydrated copper sulfate CuSO4.5H2O 5
Hydrated cobalt chloride CoCl2.6H2O 6
Hydrated calcium sulfate CaSO4.2H2O 2

When the hydrated salt is heated, it loses its water molecules in the form of steam and
changes to the anhydrous salt dehydration

Steam given off

Condensation at the top of tube

Color change from blue to white

Hydrated copper
sulfate crystals

dehydration (endothermic)(heat)
1- CuSO4.5H2O (s) CuSO4 (s) + 5H2O (g)
hydration(exothermic) white anhydrous
Hydrated blue
Reversible reaction

remove H2O (endo)

2- CoCl2.6H2O (s) CoCl2 (s) + 6H2O (g)
add H2O (exo)
pink blue

1 & 2 are used as chemical tests for water

Physical test for water: pure water boils at 100oC and freezes at 0oC

Chemical test for water: 1) cobalt chloride paper used to test for water, paper turn pink

2) also copper sulfate

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 Hydrated salt formula salt.x.H2O
How to calculate this x

Example from past papers: Mineral of the type FeSO4.xH2O contain 37.2 % water complete
the calculation to determine x.

Mass of 1 mole of water = 18 g mass of 1 mole of FeSO4= 152 g

Mass of water in 100 g of FeSO4 x H2O = 37.2 g
Since total mass of hydrated salt is 100 so the mass of FeSO4 (anhydrous) =
100-37.2= 62.8 g mass
No. of moles of FeSO4= mass / RMM = 62.8/ 152 = 0.413 moles
No. of moles of H2O = mass/ RMM = 37.2/ 18 = 2.066
No. of moles: FeSO4 H2O
0.413/0.413 2.066 / 0.413
So 1 FeSO4.contain 5 H2O molecules
Formula of hydrated salt is FeSO4.5H2O

Workout: (Nov. 2011 Qs 6c)

Insoluble salts are made by precipitation. An equation for the preparation of barium
chloride is given: BaCl2 (aq) + MgSO4 (aq) BaSO4 (s) + MgCl2 (aq)

This reaction can be used to find x in the formula for the hydrated magnesium sulfate
MgSO4.xH2O

A known mass of hydrated magnesium sulfate MgSO4.xH2O was dissolved in water. Excess
aqueous barium chloride was added. The precipitate of barium sulfate was filtered, washed,
dried and finally weighed.

Mass of hydrated magnesium sulfate = 1.476 g

Mass of barium sulfate formed = 1.398
Mass of 1 mole of BaSO4 = 233g
No. of moles of BaSO4 formed =…………………………………
No. of moles of MgSO4.xH2O =…………………………………..
Mass of 1 mole of MgSO4.xH2O =……………………………..g
Mass of 1 mole of MgSO4 = 120g
The mass of x.H2O in one mole of MgSO4.xH2O = ………
x=……………...

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 Testing for ions in the lab
Cations/ positive ions/ metal ions/ ammonium ions

1- Flame test ( V.IMP)(cations)

Flame test work well for some metal cations especially group 1 with the solid salt
Metal ion Flame color
+
1- Lithium (Li ) Red
+
2- Sodium (Na ) Yellow
3- Potassium (K+) lilac
2+
4- Copper(II) (Cu ) Blue- green
How this is done?
1) Dip a clean Nichrome or platinum wire into concentrated hydrochloric acid
2) Hold it in hot Bunsen flame
3) Moisten wire by dipping it into acid again then into salt
4) Then hold it in a clean part of blue Bunsen flame and observe color

Chemical test for aqueous cations

Cation Effect of aqueous sodium hydroxide Effect of aqueous ammonia
1- Aluminum (Al3+) White precipitate soluble in excess White precipitate insoluble in
giving colorless solution excess
Al3+(aq)+ 3OH-(aq) Al(OH)3 (s)
(soluble)
Al(OH)3 amphoteric hydroxide
2- Ammonium (NH4+) On warming with sodium hydroxide
ammonia gas is given off turning litmus
paper blue /bubbles/pungent smell
NH4+(aq) +OH-(aq) NH3(g)+H2O(l)
3- Calcium (Ca2+) White precipitate insoluble in excess No precipitate or very slight
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Ca(OH)2(s) white precipitate
4- Chromium (Cr3+) Green precipitate soluble in excess Grey green precipitate insoluble
Cr3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) Cr(OH)3(s) in excess
5- Iron(II) Fe2+ Green precipitate insoluble in excess Green precipitate insoluble in
Fe2+(aq)+2OH-(aq) Fe(OH)2(s) excess
6- Iron(III) Fe3+ Red brown precipitate insoluble in Red brown precipitate insoluble
excess in excess
Fe3+(aq)+3OH- Fe(OH)3(s)
7- Zinc (Zn2+) White precipitate soluble in excess White precipitate soluble in
giving colorless solution(amphoteric) excess giving colorless solution
Zn2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Zn(OH)2(s)
8-Copper (Cu2+) Blue precipitate insoluble in excess Blue precipitate soluble in excess
Cu2++ 2OH” Cu(OH)2 giving dark blue solution

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Test for anions

Anion Test Result

1- Carbonate (CO32-) Add dilute acid (hydrochloric acid) Effervescence of carbon dioxide
solid/solution 2H+(aq)+CO32-(aq) CO2(g)+H2O(l) produced (turn lime water
milky)
2- Nitrate (NO3-) (in a 1st add dilute aqueous sodium Ammonia gas is given off
solution) hydroxide
2nd add aluminium foil and heat gently
3- Sulfate (SO42-) (in a 1st (acidify) add dilute hydrochloric acid White precipitate
solution) or nitric acid Ba2+(aq)+SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s)
2nd add aqueous barium nitrate/ Insoluble ppt
Ca 2NO3
4- Sulfite (SO3 ) (in a 1st add dilute hydrochloric acid(acidify),
2-
SO2 gas produced will turn color
solution) warm gently of acidified potassium
2nd test the gas produced(SO2) with manganate (VII) purple into
aqueous potassium manganate colorless
(VII)(purple)
SO32-+2H+(aq) H2O(l) +SO2(g)

5- Chloride(Cl-) (in a Acidify with dilute nitric acid then add White precipitate
solution) aqueous silver nitrate/ lead nitrate Ag+(aq)+Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)
(insoluble)
6- Bromide (Br-) (in a Acidify with dilute nitric acid then add Creamy precipitate
solution) aqueous silver nitrate/ lead nitrate Ag+(aq)+Br-(aq) AgBr(s)
-
7- Iodide (I ) (in a Acidify with dilute nitric acid then add Yellow precipitate
solution) aqueous silver nitrate/ lead nitrate Ag+(aq)+I-(aq) AgI(s)
All silver halides are insoluble
All lead halides are insoluble

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 113
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 Topic 10: Energy changes

Energy changes and reversible reactions:

Energy changes during chemical reaction?

All chemical reactions involve an energy change ( H) where energy is given in or out usually
in from of heat measured in kilojoules (KJ) as reactions are divided into two groups
endothermic and exothermic.

Exothermic reaction Endothermic reaction

Reaction which releases energy to the Reaction which take in energy from the
surrounding. Heat is given out so there is rise surrounding. Heat is taken in so mixture
in temperature. become cold
Energy
Energy/KJ Heat
Heat is /KJ products
taken in
reactants released

Energy
Energy taken in
given
from the
out
products surrounding
reactants

Energy level diagram Energy level diagram

Energy of reactants > energy of products Energy of products > energy of reactants
Reactants product + energy Reactants + energy products
Temperature increase (Rise) Temperature decrease (Fall)
Reaction mixture become hot Reaction mixture become cold
Minus sign shows energy is given out Plus sign shows that energy is taken in
Examples: Examples:
1- Neutralization of acids by alkalis 1- Thermal decomposition
2- Combustion 2- Photosynthesis
3- Displacement 3- Electrolysis
4- Respiration 4- Reactions taking place in cooking
5- Fermentation of sugars
6- Cell
Freezing and cooling one example of Evaporation and melting are one example of
exothermic physical change endothermic reaction

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In Chemical Reactions: bond of reactants are broken and new bonds of products are formed

 Bond breaking requires energy endothermic

 Bond formation release energy exothermic

Bond energies:

 The bond energy is the energy needs to break bonds or released when these bonds
form. It is given in KJ/mole.
 If the energy taken in to break the bond is more than energy released during bond
formation the reaction is endothermic.
 If the energy taken in to break the bond less than energy released to form the bond
the reaction is exothermic.

Energy change ( change=

∆ Energy/Enthalpy H) = energyEnergy
in – energy
in – out
Energy out
IfEnergy
( H) isIn
positive,
> Energythe out=
overallEndothermic
reaction is endothermic

If ( H) is negative, the overall reaction is exothermic

Energy in < Energy Out = Exothermic

How to calculate the energy changes in reactions?

e.g.(1): Hydrogen reacts with chlorine forming hydrogen chloride.

H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)

Bond Bond energy
H-H Cl-Cl H-Cl KJ/mol
Cl-Cl +242
H-Cl H-H +436
H-Cl +431

Use the above data to show that this reaction is exothermic.

Energy change ( H) = energy in – energy out

H-H = 242 2(H-Cl) = 431 x 2 = 862 KJ

Cl-Cl= 436
Energy in= 678 KJ
678 – 862 = -184 KJ exothermic
Result in negative= energy out > energy in= exothermic

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 So the reaction gives out
184 KJ of energy overall

e.g.(2): The endothermic decomposition of Ammonia:

2NH3 N2 + 3H2 Bond Bond energy KJ

H N-H 391 KJ
2 (N H ) N = N + 3 (H-H) N= N 946 KJ
H-H 436 KJ
H

Energy in Energy out

H N= N = 946 KJ

2 (N H ) = 2x3x391 = 2346 KJ 3 (NH-H) = 436x3= 1308

= 2254 KJ
H
Energy in – energy out
2346 -2254 = + 92 KJ endothermic

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Example from the past papers Specimen 2016 7d:

a) Calculate the overall energy change of the reaction between iodine and chlorine
using the bond energy value shown.
b) Draw a labelled energy level diagram for the reaction of iodine and chlorine
I2 + Cl2 2 ICl
Bond Energy KJ per mol.
I–I 151
Cl – Cl 242
I – Cl 208

I2 + Cl2 2 ICl
Energy in Energy out
I – I = 151 Cl – Cl = 242 2 x (208) = 416 KJ
151 + 242 = 393 KJ
a) H = 393 - 416 = -23 KJ exothermic
b) draw energy level diagram

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 1) All neutralization reaction are exothermic
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

21oC 21oC 34oC

Initial temperature Final temperature

o
Temperature rise = 34-21= 13 C (Exothermic)
1- Why is polystrene (plastic cap) is used instead of beaker act as heat insulator
2- Predict what is the temperautre of the reaction mixture in the experiment would
be after one hour?
3- All displacement reactions are exothermic
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g) rise in temp. = 17oC
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g) rise in temp.= 8oC
By measuring the rise in temperature, we can find the order of reactivity of
metals Mg > Zn (greater temp. rise)

Energy from fuels:

Fuel is any substance we use to provide energy. We convert the chemical energy in the fuel
into another form of energy. Most fuels burn (in air or oxygen) to give out energy in the
form of heat.

All combustion and burning are exothermic.

Example of fuels:
Fuel + oxygen
1- Fossil fuel of coal, petroleum and natural
Plenty of
gas.
energy
2- Ethanol (alcohol)
Energy/KJ given out
3- Hydrogen
oxides
4- Nuclear fuel ( U-235) uranium

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 Fire need oxygen, heat and fuel fire triangle

What makes fuel good?

fire

1- How 5- How
2-Does it 3- Is it 4- Easy fuel
much available and safe much it
cause
heat to store cost
pollution
produced

Burning of some fuels and amount of heat released:

a) Natural gas (consists of 90% methane) (CH4) heat given out -55 KJ/mol.

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

b) Ethanol (bio-fuel) can be made from plant materials like sugar cane -86KJ/mol.
C2H5OH(l) + 3O2 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)

c) Hydrogen: (Non fossil fuel)

2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O (g) -143KJ/mol.

- Hydrogen burns explosively in oxygen giving a huge amount of energy. It is used

to fuel space rockets. Hydrogen used in fuel cells (without burning) to give
energy if the form of electricity.
- Hydrogen is called the fuel future. It does not pollute because the only
combustion product is water. It is also considered a renewable source of energy.

Hydrogen fuel for Motor vehicles

Advantages Disadvantages
1- Hydrogen produce more energy than 1- Highly flammable possible
any fuels when burned. disaster and should be handled with
H2> ethanol> methane care
2- Renewable source of energy obtained 2- Not easily stored and transported
(by electrolysis of acidified water) 3- Car engines should be redesigned
3- No CO2 emissions (no pollution) (expensive)

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 d) Nuclear fuel (radioactive isotope. Uranium 235) (non fossil fuel )
Nuclear fuels are not burned. They contain unstable atoms called radioisotopes.
They break down naturally into new atoms giving out radiation and lot of energy.
Uranium 235 used in nuclear power stations to generate electricity as it is forced to
be broken down by shooting neutrons at uranium giving out energy without being
burned or oxidized.
Two new unstable atoms krypton and barium

Nuclear fuel advantages: 1- huge amount of energy produced.

2- No CO2 or other polluting gases produced.

Nuclear fuel disadvantages: might lead to spread of radioactive material over a huge area.

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 Electricity from chemical reactions (electro-chemical cells)

- Electricity is a current of electrons like heat. It is a form of energy

- A cell: a device to produce electrical energy from a chemical reaction (where a
redox reaction is giving out energy in the form of current/electricity)
- This is the reverse of what happens during electrolysis where chemical reaction is
brought by the use of electrical energy.
Electrolysis (endothermic)
Electrical energy Chemical reaction
Cell (exothermic)

1) Simple cells:

 The bulb is lit without a battery so the current is flowing and hydrogen bubbles
formed at the copper strip.
 Magnesium strip is dissolving. Why?
1- Magnesium is more reactive than copper, it has strong drive to form positive
ions(react readily) so when it is connected to the copper strip it gives up
electrons and goes into solutions as ions and decrease in mass by time (dissolves)
Mg(s) Mg2+(aq) + 2e (oxidation)
2- Electrons flow along the wire to the copper strip as a current. The bulb lights up
as the current flow through it.
3- The solution contains Na+ and Cl- ions from sodium chloride and H+ and OH- from
water. Hydrogen is less reactive than sodium so the H+ ions accept electrons
from the copper strip.
2H+(aq) + 2e H2(g) (reduction)

So the difference in reactivity has caused a redox reaction that gives out energy in form of
electricity.

A simple cell consists of two different metals in an electrolyte. Electrons flow from the
more reactive metal so it is called the negative pole the other metal is the positive pole.

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Workout:

Simple cell of zinc and copper dipped into copper sulphate solution and draw cell

1- Direction of electron flow?

2- Half ionic equation of redox reaction?
3- Which electrode will increase in mass and which one will decrease in mass?

Using other metals in simple cells:

The further apart the metals are in the reactivity series the higher the voltage will be.

(NB: voltammeter
measures the push/ voltage
that make electron flow)

For example:

1- 2.7 v for Cu/Mg

2- 0.47 v for copper/lead

2) The hydrogen (fuel cell)/ flameless cell / -143KJ

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 Hydrogen (fuel) cell: hydrogen and oxygen combine without burning it is a redox
reaction. The energy is given out as electric current
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
(Details of construction and operation of fuel cell are not required)

3) Dry cell (batteries)

Zn -2e Zn2+(oxidation) // Mn4++ e Mn3+(reduction)

 Batteries are convenient source of energy because they are portable and small used
in toys, torches
 It does not contain liquid electrolyte. It has an electrolyte paste (allow ions to flow)
that will not leak/ spill.
 Battery dies when the reaction stops.

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Application for idea of cell /sacrificial protection of iron with more reactive metals

 Iron used in many big structures as oil rigs and strips but it has one big drawback it
reacts with oxygen and water forming iron (III) oxide or rust.
 Sacrificial protection is mainly used in ships, under water pipelines and oil rigs.
 To prevent this iron is teamed up/ welded with blocks of more reactive metal for
example Zn or Mg to the sides of ships.
 The blocks of zinc or magnesium are oxidized in preference to iron or steel. Zinc
loses electrons to form positive ions.
(Zn – 2e Zn2+)(Gives ions to Fe2+ to reduce it back after it is oxidized)
Zinc corrodes (and dissolves) instead of iron while iron cannot corrode because it
does not lose electrons.
 Zinc sacrificed to protect iron.
 Blocks of zinc or magnesium have to be replaced periodically before it all dissolves.
 Sacrificed protection is an example of cell.

Remember: Galvanizing:

 This another way to protect steel/ iron with zinc but in galvanizing the iron is
completely coated with zinc (not just blocks attached) this is carried out by a form of
electrolysis where iron is dipped in a bath of molten zinc.
 Zinc coating keeps air and moisture away but if coating gets damaged zinc will still
protect the iron by sacrificed protection.

Remember: Aluminum is protected from corrosion because of its oxide layer that act as
barrier for O2 and water that is why aluminum seems to be unreactive although it is more
reactive than iron.

Corrosion and rusting

Corrosion: is the disintegration of metals due to reaction with air and water.

Rusting:

1- Famous form of corrosion is iron and steel

2- Rust is the red brown flaky solid which forms on iron and steel
3- Rusting is the slow oxidation of iron to form hydrated iron(III) oxide. This is the
chemical name for rust. (Fe2O3.2H2O)
4- Both air and water are needed for rusting to occur.
Iron + oxygen + water hydrated Iron(III) oxide
5- Rusting occur quickly in salty water/ acids (salts speed up the oxidation)

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An experiment to investigate rusting:

Standard three identical nails in 3 test tubes.(paper6)

Result: after several days, the nails in the test tubes 1 & 2 show no sign of rusting but
the nail in tube 3 has rust on it because rusting require O2 and water
4Fe(s) + 3 O2(g) + 4H2O(l) 2Fe2O3.2H2O (s)

How to prevent rusting:

1- Painting
2- Greasing
Cover iron to prevent air and
3- Oiling
water from reacting surface
4- Galvanizing (coating iron with zinc)
5- Electroplating ( coating iron with chromium/ tin)

Sacrificial protection: workout:

 P6 June 2012 Q 6 (rusting)

 P6 Nov. 2007 Q 7 (energy from fuels)

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 Topic 11: Rate of chemical reactions
Rate of chemical reaction

The rate of chemical reaction is the measure of how fast a reaction takes place. Some
reactions are fast as explosions, others are slow as rusting

 The rate is the measure of the change that happens in a single unit of time.
 In general: to find the rate of a reaction, you should measure the amount of the
reactant used up per unit of time or the amount of product produced per unit of
time.

Plotting graphs of reaction rates:

A) Measuring the rate by measuring the volume of gas produced per unit time:
The reaction between magnesium and the excess dilute hydrochloric acid
Mg(s) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Magnesium + hydrochloric acid magnesium chloride + hydrogen
Here the hydrogen is the easiest substance to measure because it is the only gas in
the produced in the reaction and can be collected in a gas syringe where volume
measured and noted at certain intervals by a stop clock.

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Notice these things about the results:

 Note that this method can be used for any reaction

where one product is a gas.
B) Measuring the decrease in mass of reactants with time :
 Excess calcium carbonate (base) is added to dilute
hydrochloric acid in an open conical flask sitting on
top of a pan balance.
 Carbon dioxide produced escapes from the flask
through cotton wool
 Cotton wool prevents loss of reactants due to the
splashing of the liquid but allow carbon dioxide to
escape.
 The mass of the flask on the balance is noted at intervals by stop clock.
CaCO3 (s) + 2 HCl (aq) ͢ CaCl2 (aq) +CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
Mass(g)

fast
x

slow
x

time
Time/minute 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Mass of flask /grams 100 90 85 82 81 80 80

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  The reaction is complete when all the limiting reactant is used up (hydrochloric acid)
no more decrease in mass is observed.
 When the reaction finish after 5 minutes the curve becomes flat ( plateau )

The factors affecting the rate of the chemical reaction

1) Concentration
2) Temperature
3) Size of particles ( changing surface area )
4) Using a catalyst
5) Pressure ( applied in gaseous system only )
6) Light ( special reactions )

1- Effect of concentration
Repeat the same experiment (A) using the same Mg ribbon and dilute hydrochloric
acid but different concentrations using twice the concentration of acid in A.
Mg (s)+ 2 HCl (aq) ͢ MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

For fair comparison use

1) same volume of acid

2) temperature
3) mass ( size of magnesium ribbon must be same in A and B)

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 Notice these things about the results:

The reaction goes faster when the concentration of one of the reactants is increased;
this means that you slow down the reaction by decreasing the concentration.

2- Effect of temperature

The effect is examined here by reacting Sodium Thiosulphate with hydrochloric acid. The
formation of yellow precipitate of Sulphur is used to measure the rate of the reaction.

Na2S2O3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) 2NaCl (aq) +S(s) +SO2 (g)+H2O (l)
1- Mark a cross on a piece of paper
2- Place a beaker containing Sodium Thiosulphate solution on top of the paper so
that you can see the cross through it from above.
3- Quickly add hydrochloric acid, start a clock at the same time, and measure the
temperature of the mixture.
4- The cross goes fainter as the precipitate forms, stop the clock the moment you
can no longer see the cross and note the time.
5- Now: repeat steps (1-4) 4 times changing only the temperature and keeping all
the variants constant. You do this by heating the sodium Thiosulphate solution to
different temperatures.

The higher the temperature the faster the cross disappears.

 The cross disappears when enough Sulphur has formed to hide it , this
took 200 seconds at 20°c but only 50 seconds at 40°c so the reaction is
four times faster at 40°c than at 20°c.
 A reaction goes faster when the temperature is raised. When the
temperature increases by 10°c the rate generally doubles.

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 3- Effect of particle size ( surface area ):
 Reaction between same masses of calcium carbonate but with different particle size
1) Small chips ( larger surface area )
2) Large chips (smaller surface area) with equal volumes of hydrochloric acid for fair
comparison.
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) +H2O (L)
Carbon dioxide escapes against certain time which is noted and the decrease in mass
which is recorded.

1. Curve A is steeper than curve B, reaction is faster with smaller chips .

2. In both experiments the final loss in mass is 2.0 grams.
2.0 grams of carbon dioxide is produced
3. Small chips reaction is complete in 4 minutes, while large chips reaction is complete
after 6 minutes.
Rate of reaction increases when the surface area of the solid (reactant) is increased
(the smaller the particle size the larger surface area )

Rate of reaction increases by increasing

1) Temperature
2) Concentration increase of all these might lead to an explosion
3) Surface area

Example: Explosions

 Flour mills and coal mines there is always a risk of explosions due to rapid
combustion of the very small particles (fine particles) which have a very large surface
area to react.
 In coal mines (methane) CH4 and other flammable gases collect together in the air.
 At certain concentrations they form an explosive mix with air, just a spark is enough
to form an explosion.

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 Collision theory
Magnesium and dilute hydrochloric acid react together:

Mg (s) +2HCl (aq) MgCl2(aq) +H2(g)

In order for the magnesium and the acid particles to react together:

1. The particles must collide with each other.

2. The collision must have enough energy to be successful; in other words enough
energy to break bonds to allow reaction to occur.
This is called collision theory.

The rate of the reaction depends on how many successful collisions are there in a
given unit of time.

Relation between factors affecting the rate of the reaction and collision theory

1- If the concentration of the acid is increased the reaction goes faster as more
particles are present in the same volume, colliding more the reaction goes faster.

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 2- When the temperature increases the rate increases, on heating all particles take in
heat energy having enough energy to collide more and more of colliding molecules
have sufficient energy (activation energy) to react.

3- Increasing the surface area increases the rate of the reaction

The reaction between magnesium and acid is much faster when the metal is powdered .As
the smaller the particle size of the solid reactant the larger surface area exposed for
particles collision leading to more frequent collisions.

4- Reaction involving gases only ( increasing pressure ͢ increases the rate )

When you increase the pressure on the 2 reacting gases it means you squeeze more
gas molecules into a given space so there is a greater chance for particles to get
closer together, so greater chance for successful collisions ; if the pressure increases
the rate of the gaseous reaction increases too .

5- Catalysts increase the rate of the reactions :

 A catalyst is a substance that speeds up the rate of the chemical reaction (by
lowering activation energy) but remains chemically unchanged itself.
 Remember : transition metals and their compounds are famous as catalysts example
the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
 Hydrogen peroxide is a colorless liquid that break down very slowly to water and
oxygen.
2H2O2 (l) 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)

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 a) If a catalyst called Manganese (IV) oxide MnO2 (black solid) is added to the
decomposition the process takes place very rapid ͢ rapid effervescence of oxygen
gas is produced.
b) The mixture is filtered, wash residues with distilled water and dries the solid (MnO2)
and reweigh it, the mass of manganese (IV) oxide (MnO2) didn’t change after the
reaction finishes.
c) Increasing the mass of the catalyst or using powdered catalyst increases the rate of
the reaction; this is because the catalyst in both cases has larger surface area.
d) Catalysts , collision theory , catalyst helps getting the reactant particles close to
each other( reacting in a way that requires less energy ) during chemical reaction it
also lowers the activation energy of the reaction ensuring more successful collision

With catalyst

Without catalyst

A) Describe an experiment to show that manganese (IV) oxide is a catalyst for the
above reaction
1- Add known mass of manganese (IV) oxide to a measured volume of hydrogen
peroxide solution in a conical flask, bubbles of gas are produced.
2- Test gas with a glowing splint, the splint relights indicating the gas is oxygen.
3- The mixture is filtered, wash the residue with distilled water and dry the solid
and reweigh it.
4- The mass didn’t change, as it is a catalyst.
A) Workout:
Plan an experiment to find out which of these oxides manganese (IV) oxide or
copper (II) oxide is a better catalyst for the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.

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Enzymes: (biological catalysts)

1- Enzymes are proteins made by cells in living organisms.

2- Temperature and PH sensitive: as enzymes denature at high temperature and if
placed in strong acids and alkalis .Enzymes are inactive at cold temperature.
3- Reaction specific: (amylase enzyme in saliva) speed up the breakdown of starch in
your food.

Catalysts in chemical industry:

Industrial Ammonia Sulphuric acid Hardening of Cracking of

process production contact process oils oils
Catalyst Iron Vanadium(V) Nickel Aluminum
oxide oxide
The more catalyst the faster reaction.

6- The effect of light ( photochemical reaction ):

Some reactions needs light to start the reaction these are called photochemical reactions,
example 1) photosynthesis and 2) reactions that occur in film photography

Example 1) photosynthesis: reaction between carbon dioxide and water in the presence of
chlorophyll and sunlight to produce glucose and oxygen.
light chlorophyll
6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l) C6H12O6 (aq) +6O2 (g)
Glucose oxygen
 Chlorophyll is the green pigment in leaves is a catalyst for the reaction.
 Sunlight provides energy for this endothermic reaction.
 Photosynthesis can be speeded up by increasing the light intensity.

Respiration is the reverse of photosynthesis, this is an exothermic process. It is the

production of energy from food by living things (cells)

Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O

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 Example 2: Photography

Black and white film photography relies on photochemical reaction.

The film is coated with silver bromide which decomposes by the effect of light.
2AgBr (s) light 2Ag(s) + Br2 (l)
Creamy white black
2AgCl 2Ag + Cl2 (silver halides decompose by the effect of heat)
White black

This reaction is both photochemical and redox

Silver ions reduced 2Ag+ + 2 e’ 2Ag (electron gain)

Bromide ions oxidized 2 Br_ Br2 + 2e’ (electron loss)

The decomposition of silver bromide depends upon light intensity

black
Not covered

Covered with grey

thin paper

Covered
thick cans white

 Bright light ( high intensity light ) faster decomposition more silver

produced ( darker )
 Dim light ( low intensity ) slower decomposition less silver produced
(brighter)
 No light no decomposition no silver produced ( white )
 As the light intensity increase the decomposition becomes faster.

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 Reversible reactions
A reversible reaction is one which can go either forward or backward direction
depending on the condition of the reaction.
A +B forward reaction C+D
backward reaction

Example 1 : heating hydrated salt ( water of crystallization )

CuSO4. 5 H2O (s) (endothermic reaction ) CuSO4 + 5H2O

(Exothermic reaction)

A reversible reaction is endothermic in one direction

take in heat and exothermic in other direction gives
out heat.

In a reversible reaction the energy change is the

same in both directions.

Example: heating ammonium chloride

NH4Cl (heating) NH3 (g) + HCl (g)

White solid alkaline gas acidic gas turns
Turns litmus blue litmus red

Chemical equilibrium

 In a reversible reaction, when the rate of forward reaction is equal to the rate of
backward reaction the reaction is said to be at equilibrium ( no overall change ).
 Definition of Equilibrium :The rate of forward reaction equal the rate of backward
reaction and the concentration of reactants and products doesn’t change

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Factors affecting the position of equilibrium

1) The effect of concentration change

Change in concentration of a Effect on equilibrium of the reaction
substance : A+B C +D
1) Increase in the concentration of Equilibrium shifts to the direction that
the reactants ( A or B ) increases the concentration of
products by using up more of the
reactants
Equilibrium shifts to the right ( yield
product will increase)

2) Increase in the concentration of Equilibrium shifts to the direction that

products ( C or D ) increases the concentration of the
reactants using up more of the product
Equilibrium shifts to the left
( products will decrease / yield
decrease)

N2 + 3H2 2 NH3 (g)

Reactants product

Increasing the concentration of nitrogen gas (reactant) will shift the equilibrium forward
which is the direction producing more ammonia products and decreasing nitrogen reactant.
%NH3

Nitrogen gas concentration

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 2) Effect of temperature change :

Increasing the temperature makes the equilibrium move into the direction of taking
in heat (endothermic reaction /the side which favor high temperature)

If the forward reaction is : effect on equilibrium

reaction Increasing temperature
A+B C+D
Exothermic Equilibrium shifts to the Reactants increase
endothermic direction, Product decrease
equilibrium shifts to the Yield will decrease
left ( backward )
Endothermic Equilibrium will shift to Product increase ( yield
the right. As it moves increase )
forward to the direction Reactants will decrease
that favors high
temperature (
endothermic )

Examples of exothermic reactions Examples of endothermic reactions

(exo)
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
(endo) N2 + O2 (endo) 2NO
(exo) (exo)
2SO2 + O2 2SO3
(endo)

Draw Draw
%NH3

%NO

temperature temperature


(exo)
 N2 + 3H2 2NH3
(endo)

Q) What happen to the yield and the rate of this reaction when temperature increases?

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 3) Effect of pressure change ( for gaseous reactions ):
Increasing the pressure shifts the equilibrium into the direction in which there is
decrease in volume( the direction which contains fewer gas moles (molecules )
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
1 mol + 3 moles 2 mol
This side has 4 moles of gas this side has 2 moles of gas

So:
1) Increasing pressure will shift the equilibrium to the side of less gas moles ( less
volume ) so will shift to the right so the product will increase ( yield increase ).
2) Decreasing pressure will shift the equilibrium to the side of more gas moles (more
volume) so will shift to the left decreasing the product yield and increasing
reactant.

Workout: what is the effect of increasing pressure on this equilibrium?

N2 + O 2 2NO

Remember: catalysts only increase the rate but don’t affect the equilibrium.

Note about rate:

1- Increasing temperature and increasing pressure both increase the rate

Particles get more heat get closer
Move faster collide more
Collide more reaction is
faster
But their effect on the yield (amount of product produced) depends on which side
is endothermic ( favoring high temperature) and which side has less gas moles (
less volume ) favoring high pressure.

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 Topic 12: Air and Water
Water
Water simply is drawn from rivers, lakes or from ground water (underground water) the
water is stored in reservoir (impure) impurities may be:

1) bacteria ( microorganisms)
2) dissolved substances ( salts from soil , gases from air )
3) solid substances ( mud , sand )

Purification process:
1) Coarse sand filtration → trap the large particles of insoluble suspended solids.
2) Sedimentation: chemicals are added (coagulant) small particles stick together
and settle down at the bottom of the tank . ( sediment )
3) Fine sand filtration → trap any remaining fine insoluble suspended solid (
charcoal)
4) Chlorination → chlorine is added to water , it dissolve to kill bacteria (
disinfection )

Water is collected in service reservoir pumped to home and factories suitable for drinking.

Desalination: The process where pure water is obtained from sea water by distillation but
it is very expensive process.

Water
Home Industry
1- Drinking 1- Coolant (factories built near rivers)
2- Washing 2- Solvent (paper industry)
3- Cooking 3- Manufacturing of H2 & O2 by
electrolysis of acidified water

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Electrolysis of water
Pure water is very poor conductor of electricity to enable water to conduct electricity
better, some dilute H2SO4 is added (acidified water)

Hydrogen gas formed at the cathode and oxygen gas at the anode.

Tests for water:

Chemical tests 1- turn cobalt (II) chloride from blue to pink.

2- Turn anhydrous copper (II) sulfate from white to blue

exo
1) CuSO4(s) + 5 H20 (l) CuSO4 .5 H20
endo
White blue

2) COCl2 + 6H2O (l) exo COCl2. 6H2O

Blue endo pink
Both reactions are reversible / hydration reverse is dehydration

Physical test for water:

Pure water boils at 100°c and freeze at 0°c.

So everyone needs water?

At home On farms Used as solvent Power stations

We need it for Drink for animals and To wash things and Is heated to steam
drinking, cooking and crops irrigation to keep hot reaction then steam drives
washing things tanks cool (coolant) the turbines that
generate electricity

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 Air
Air is a mixture of gases

But air is not always clean and dry it contains some water vapor and may contain
some pollutant as carbon monoxide, Sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and lead
compounds given out by factories and power stations.

Separation gases from air:

compress -196oC Nitrogen 1st
Air liquid air fractional Distillation
-186 oC Argon 2nd
o
-183 C Oxygen 3rd
Krypton 4th
Xenon 5th
As gases have different boiling points, the gas with lowest boiling points distills first.

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 A) Oxygen 21% ( the gas we most need )
Oxygen is a very reactive colorless gas , it allows substance to burn
Uses of oxygen:
1) Respiration :
Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy
This energy from respiration keeps us warm and allows us to move.

2) In hospitals, patients with breathing problems are given oxygen through an

oxygen mask or in an oxygen tent, this is a plastic tent that fits over the bed,
oxygen rich air is pumped into it and also astronauts and divers use it

3) Also in welding and cutting: a mixture of oxygen and acetylene (C2H2) is

used as the fuel in oxy-acetylene torches for cutting and welding metal when
this gas mixture burns it gives a very hot flame that melts metal.
4) Making steel from cast iron ( basic oxygen converter )
5) Many elements burn in oxygen to produce oxides.

Measuring the percentage of oxygen in air:

The result: starting volume of air 100 cm3.Final volume of air 79cm3 so the
volume of oxygen in air (100 -79) = 21 cm3

Percentage of oxygen 21/100 X 100 = 21%

Workout:

What is the amount of oxygen (consumed) if the volume of air entering the tube
was 150 cm3?

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 B) Argon (0.97%)
Unreactive colorless gas used as inert atmosphere for filling light bulbs. (Filament
lasts longer)

C) Carbon dioxide (0.04%)

 Carbon dioxide is a colorless ,odorless gas, denser than air and slightly soluble in
water to give a solution of weak acid carbonic acid ( H2CO3)
 Acidic oxide that react with alkalis :
C02 +Ca (OH) 2 → CaCO3 + H2O
Lime water milky /turbid
 One of main products of respiration
Sources of carbon dioxide other than air:
1) Complete combustion of carbon containing substances / fuel like methanol and
ethanol:
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
(Methanol)

C2H5OH (l) + 3O2 (g) →2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (g)

(Ethanol)
Some fuels as candle wax also produce a deposit of carbon (soot) this proves that
the air supply was insufficient to oxidize all the carbon in the hydrocarbon fuel to
carbon dioxide (CO2). This is another product of incomplete combustion which is
carbon monoxide (CO) poisonous gas produced due to incomplete burning of carbon
containing fuels.
2CH4 (g) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO (g) + 4 H2O (g)
This happens in car engines where some carbon-monoxide produced from some
unburnt hydrocarbons and some soot is produced.

2) As product of respiration (check it before)

3) Reaction between metal carbonates with acids

MgCO3 + 2HCl → MgCl2 + CO2 +H2O

4) Thermal decomposition of metal carbonates

CaCO3 ∆→ CaO + CO2
5) Fermentation of sugars by yeast (organic)
C6H12O6→ 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

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Uses of carbon dioxide:
1) Carbonate drinks to make them fizzy.
2) Fire extinguishers, the gas denser than air so it smoothes the fire preventing air from
getting into it.
3) Refrigeration and freezing (dry ice).

D) Nitrogen 78%:
Unreactive colorless gas doesn’t allow substances to burn.

Uses of nitrogen:

1) Liquid nitrogen is very cold (boil at – 196 °c) so it is used for quick freeze food
in factories (as it is unreactive it is flushed through food packaging to remove
oxygen and keep food fresh) and used in hospitals to store tissue cells.
2) Manufacture of ammonia
Properties of Ammonia:
1- Ammonia (NH3) colorless gas with pungent / chocking smell.
2- Ammonia is less denser than air ( collected by upward delivery tube ) and
very soluble in water giving alkaline solution ( show fountain effect )
3- It is made in industry by reaction nitrogen with hydrogen.

Manufacture of ammonia (NH3) by Haber process:

Sources of nitrogen and hydrogen:

1) Nitrogen: obtained from air by fractional distillation of liquid air (or by reacting O2
with H2 leaving N2 and small amounts of gases.
2) Hydrogen obtained by :
a- Reacting natural gas methane with steam.
CH4 (g) + 2H2O (g) catalyst CO2 (g) + 4H2 (g)
b- Also made by cracking hydrocarbons from petroleum
C2H6 (g) catalyst C2H4 + H2
Ethane Ethene
c- Electrolysis of water ( H2 is produced at the cathode )
d- By reacting a reactive metal with dilute acid to drive / displace hydrogen out
Zn (s) + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2

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Haber process:
exo
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)
endo
4 molecules 2molecules

i- This reaction is reversible.

ii- Forward reaction is exothermic, gives out heat.
Conditions: → Temperature 450 °c
Pressure 200 atmosphere.
Catalyst Iron

Ammonia is liquefied first by cooling the unreacted gases (N2 & H2) are recycled by
passing over catalyst again.

Since the reaction is reversible, a mixture of two gases will never react completely. The
yield will never be 100 %, but the yield can be improved by changing the reaction
conditions to shift equilibrium towards the product.

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The chosen conditions:
The temperature and pressure: as you can see the highest yield on the graph at X at
350oC and 400 atmospheres. But the Haber process uses 450 oC and 200 atmospheres, at
Y on the graph. Why? Because at 350 oC, the reaction is too slow. 450 oC gives a better
rate.

And second, a pressure of 400 atmospheres needs very powerful pumps and very strong
pipes and tanks and a lot of electricity. 200 atmospheres is safer and saves money.

So the conditions inside the converter do not give a high yield. But then the ammonia is
removed every now and then in order to shift reaction forward producing more
ammonia. And the unreacted gases are recycled over again for another chance to react
so the final yield is high.

The catalyst: iron speeds up the reaction. But it does not change the yield.

Making ammonia:
exo
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
endo
4 molecules 2 molecules

 To improve the yield :

1- Quite high pressure.
2- Remove NH3 ( to shift the equilibrium to the right , producing more NH3 )

 To get decent reaction rate :

1- Moderate temperature 450 °c
2- Use a catalyst ( iron )

Uses of ammonia:
1) Making fertilizers such as ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 and ammonium sulfate ( NH4
)2SO4
2) Making nitric acid (HNO3) → TNT explosives.

Ammonia in laboratory:

1- Ammonia is a colorless gas with pungent smell which is formed whenever an

ammonium compound is warmed with an alkali
NH4Cl (s) + NaOH (aq) → NH3 (g) + NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
Turning red litmus paper into blue (this method is used to produce NH 3 in lab)

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 2- Ammonia very soluble in water producing aqueous ammonia which is a weak alkali
(pH=9 or 10)
NH3 (g) + H2O (l) → NH4OH (aq)
3- Ammonia is an alkali it neutralize acids producing ammonium salts.
NH3 + HNO3 → NH4NO3
2NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4) SO4

Fertilizers (N/P/K)

1- Fertilizers are substances added to the soil to promote growth of plants & increase
the crop yield.
2- The major plant nutrients include Nitrogen (N) , phosphorous (p) , and potassium
(K)
3- Nitrogen is the most of the 3 elements that plants take it in as nitrates ions and
ammonium ions to make chlorophyll and proteins.
(All fertilizers need to be soluble to be absorbed by the plants roots)

Nitrogenous fertilizers: Ammonium nitrates ( NH4NO3)

Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4

Ammonium phosphate (NH4)3PO4

Urea CO(NH2)2

How to make synthetic fertilizers?

 NH3 (aq) + HNO3 (aq) → NH4NO3 (aq) then solution is evaporated to dryness to obtain solid.

Q) Workout: what is the % of N in NH4NO3 & (NH4)2SO4 ?

Which one contain high % of N?

Two natural ways in which nitrogen is converted to nitrates:

a) Lightning discharge through the air. Nitrogen is forced to combine with oxygen to
form nitrogen dioxide (NO2) which reacts with water to form the nitrate ion.
b) Bacteria found on the roots of some plants can convert nitrogen into nitrates which
can be used by the plants they are living on. They are known as nitrogen fixing
bacteria.

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 Air pollution
Apart from the gases normally found in air other gases such as sulfuric dioxide, oxides of
nitrogen and carbon monoxide. These gases can cause air pollution and are called
pollutants. Most come from burning of fossil fuels.

The fossil fuels are coal, petroleum (crude oil) and natural gas mainly methane CH4. Coal and
petroleum are mixtures of hydrocarbons (contains carbon and hydrogen) only but some
contain other elements such as sulfur.

The main air pollutants are:

Pollutant How it is formed? What harm does it do?

1- Carbon monoxide Incomplete combustion of Poisonous (toxic) gas even in
CO: colorless gas, carbon containing fuels. low concentration it can
insoluble (Fossil fuels burning in cause death as it reacts with
no smell limited supply of air). Much hemoglobin in the blood and
of CO comes from prevent it from carrying
incomplete combustion of oxygen.
petrol in car engines/ car
exhausts.
2- Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Burning of fossil fuels Main cause of acid rain
Acidic gas with sharp containing sulfur. Factories (dissolve in rain) irritating
smell and power stations burn coal the eyes and throat causing
which contain Sulphur. They breathing (respiration)
send SO2 into the air. Main problems
source of SO2 is burning coal.
3- Oxides of nitrogen Form when oxygen and Cause respiration (breathing)
(NO,NO2) acidic gases nitrogen react at high problems
temperature like inside car Acid rain
engines and hot furnaces.
Main source of the oxides of
nitrogen are car exhausts,
factories and fires.
4- Unburnt Inefficient combustion of Carcinogenic (increase the
hydrocarbons (CxHy) petrol, diesel inside the car risk of cancer)
engine Contribute to smog
5- Lead compounds Burning petrol containing Damage to brain cells
(from leaded petrol) lead additives (tetraethyl particularly in young children
lead) is added to petrol to (CNS damage)
improve performance. Main Also damage kidney and
source of lead compounds is Nervous system
car exhausts (use unleaded petrol)

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Car exhausts: contain carbon monoxide, carbon, oxides of nitrogen and lead compounds.

Reducing air pollution:

A) Catalytic converter: catalytic removal of oxides of nitrogen and carbon monoxide

from car exhausts
Catalytic converter is now being fitted in the exhausts of cars where the toxic gases
are converted in the presence of transition metals. Catalysts, usually (platinum,
palladium and rhodium) that are coated onto a ceramic honeycomb or ceramic
beads to give larger surface area for absorbing the harmful gases and transferring
them into harmless gases nitrogen and carbon dioxide.

Oxidized

Overall reaction: 2CO (g) + 2NO (g) 2CO 2 (g) + N2 (g)

Reduced
Part A → harmful compounds are reduced
2NO (g) → N2 (g) + O2 (g)

Part B → harmful compounds are oxidized using oxygen

2CO (g) + O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) (contribute to global warming)
Unburnt CxHy area also oxidized to CO2 and H2O
 Catalytic converters require the use of unleaded petrol as lead compound poison
the catalysts.
 Catalytic converters don’t work when they are cold.
B) Banning leaded petrol ( use the lead free petrol )
C) Slaked lime treatment Ca(OH)2 in modern power stations and factories , waste gases
containing acidic oxides, gases like Sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen are
neutralized using alkaline solution of slaked lime ( calcium hydroxide )

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 Acid rain
Harmful effects of acid rain

NO/NO2 Dissolve in water vapor in Sulfuric acid and nitric

air converting then into acid present in the cloud
acids
SO2

Harmful effects of acids rain:

1) Acid rain make pH= 4, lakes too acidic for fish to live.
2) It removes minerals from soil & increasing the acidity of the soil.
3) Acid rains damage trees and buildings
4) Acid rains can speed up corrosion of metals, if a bridge is built near factories that
burn fossil fuels, the bridge will corrode faster.

It is important to control soil acidity using CaO (lime)

Ca(OH)2 slaked lime
CaCO3 (limestone)
Greenhouse effect & Global warming:

Greenhouse gases are naturally occurring atmospheric gases such as carbon dioxide,
methane that trap energy from the sun and prevent it from radiating back into space; this
keeps the planet warm to support life on it.

Greenhouse gases Sources in atmosphere

1) Methane (CH4) 1- Decomposition of vegetation.
2- Digestion products of cow & sheep
( animals)
2) Carbon dioxide (CO2) 1- Respiration
2- Burning of fossil fuels

If the concentration of these gases increases, the planet gets warmer causing global
warming (the average temperatures around the world are raising)

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 The concentration of carbon dioxide has been kept constant by a balance between
respiration and combustion on one side and photosynthesis on the other side.
CO2
Respiration photosynthesis

Combustion
CO2

 The excessive burning of fossil fuels & deforestation of tropical rain forests has
led to an increase in the level of CO2 which increase greenhouse effect & global
warming.

Dangers of global warming:

1) Ice on north and south poles will melt. Waters in oceans will expand. Sea levels will
raise cause flooding of low lying cities, pacific island countries will disappear.
2) Global climate changes leading to extreme weather conditions like storms, draughts
and floods.
3) Extinction of some species due to climate change as ( polar bears )

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 Topic 13: Carbon and Sulfur
Sulfur
 Sulfur is a non-metal yellow solid at room temperature, has low melting point 115°c.
 A molecule of sulfur it has 8 atoms so its molecular formula of sulfur is S8 but it is just
called (S) in equations.

Sources of sulfur:

1) Large amounts found in certain volcanic regions of the world.

2) From sulfide ores (ZnS ( zinc blend ) and Galena PbS )
3) Underground deposits in United States, Mexico & Poland.
4) From sulfur compounds from natural gas & petroleum.
Ex. (natural gas contains hydrogen sulfide 30%)
H2S is separated from methane and reacts with oxygen in the help of catalyst
H2S (g) + O2 (g) → S (s) + 2H2O (l)

Properties of sulfur:

1) Yellow brittle solid.

2) Low melting point.
3) Doesn’t conduct electricity (non-metal ).
4) Insoluble in water ( non-metal )
5) React with metals to form sulphides .
Fe(s) + S(s) → FeS (s)
6) Burn in oxygen to form SO2
S + O2→ SO2

Main uses of sulfur:

1- Make sulfuric acid.

2- Cosmetics, dyes & pesticides

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Sulfur dioxide
Acidic gas formed where burning sulfur in air:

S (s) + O2 (g) → SO2 (g) S

O O

1) Colourless gas heavier than air (downward delivery ) with strong , choking smell .
2) Acidic oxide soluble in water giving sulfurous acid .
H2O (l) + SO2 (g) H2SO3(aq)

3) Can act as bleach as it removes the colour from coloured compounds by reducing
them.
4) It can kill bacteria.
5) Main cause of acid rain (attack building structures) & attack lungs causing breathing
problems.

Remember Test for SO2 ( which is reducing agent )pass it through potassium manganate
(VII) ( oxidizing agent ) turn colour purple to colourless & turn potassium chromate VI
from orange to green .

Uses of sulfur dioxide

1) Food preservative → kill bacteria and mould that spoils the food by passing gas over
food.
2) Bleaching wood pulp → ( white paper manufacture )

As when wood has been broken down to pulp ( brown colour ) it is bleached by passing
gas through (it turn white ).

3) Making sulfuric acid → contact process.

Making sulfuric acid by contact process:

 Sulfur obtained from sulfides ores ( ZnS ,pbS ).

a) Sulfur burned / roasted in air to obtain sulfur dioxide.
S (g) + O2 (g) → SO2 (g)
b) Sulfur dioxide and more air are reacted together.

2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) exo 2SO3(g) (it has conditions)

endo

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This reaction is reversible SO3 is constantly removed to increase the yield (favoring the
forward reaction) shift equilibrium to right.

Conditions:

1) Temperature is 450°c → temperature is high for fast reaction (↑rate) but the yield
will be low as the forward reaction is exothermic.
2) Pressure → ( 2 atm )( adjust for gas circulation) no need for high pressure to reduce
cost & minimize safety problems ( more economic ) although high pressure will
increase the yield as the forward reaction has less gas moles .
3) Catalyst: vanadium (V) oxide V2O5 which increase the rate of reaction without
affecting (yield) (catalyst only works at temperature above 400°c).
c) In theory: if sulfur trioxide is dissolved in water, sulfuric acid is produced but this
is not done in practice because the reaction is too violent (thick dangerous mist is
formed). ( SO3 + H2O → H2SO4 ) Ҳ Ҳ

So:

i) The sulfur trioxide is dissolved first in concentrated sulfuric acid to form oleum.
SO3 (g) + H2SO4 (l) → H2S2O7 (l) (oleum)
ii) Oleum (thick liquid) is diluted with correct amount of water to produce
concentrated sulfuric acid.
Oleum + water → sulfuric acid
H2S2O7 + H2O (l) →2 H2SO4 (l)

Since all the three reaction are exothermic , the whole process produce heat energy the fact
that energy is produced rather than needed means that the sulfuric acid can be produced
cheaply.

Large scale uses of sulfuric acid:

1) Making fertilizers. (NH4)2SO4

2) Making detergents.
3) Making paints.
4) Car batteries.

Concentrated sulfuric acid is particularly dangerous to handle because it is powerful

dehydrating agent of gases ( acidic gases), it remove water( H & O ) & when H 2SO4 react
with water this reaction produces huge amount of heat.

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 Carbon
Carbon cycle:

Carbon moves between the atmosphere, ocean and living things inform of carbon dioxide.

Carbon dioxide:

1- Removed from atmosphere by: a) photosynthesis

b) Dissolving in the ocean
2- Added to it by: c) respiration
d) Combustion of fuels containing carbon

Charcoal: form of graphite made by heating coal/wood in a little amount of air.

a) Photosynthesis: (remove CO2)

light chlorophyl
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 (oxygen)

b) By dissolving: (remove CO2)

Only certain % of carbon dioxide will dissolve. A balance reached between its concentration
in the air and the ocean. Just enough to provide carbonate ions necessary for shellfish to
make shells as shells are made of calcium carbonate.

c) Respiration: (produce CO2)- in our cells

C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g) 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) + energy

Glucose from food needed to keep body warm

d) By combustion of fuels: (produce CO2)

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + energy

Important source of carbon:

 In the ocean, the remains of dead organisms fall to the ocean floor and are buried.
Over millions of years their soft parts turn into petroleum (oil) and natural gas (hard
shells turn into limestone rock)
 Trees and other vegetation get buried in warm swamps turn into coal
 In this way CO2 in air end up as fossil fuels and when burnt, they release energy.

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Some carbon compounds:

1- Carbon dioxide:
a) Occurs naturally in air
b) Heavier than air/ no smell/ slightly soluble in water to give carbonic acid H2CO3
c) Things will not burn in it. Does not support combustion (fire extinguishers spray
out CO2)
2- Carbon monoxide:
- Source: incomplete combustion of carbon compounds ( insufficient oxygen)
- Poisonous gas
- No smell
- 2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) 2CO(g) + 4H2O(l)
3- Carbonates:
Compounds containing carbonate ions (CO3)2- as CaCO3 (limestone/ chalk/ marble)

a) insoluble in water b) all carbonates c) decompose on

reacts with acids heating
Except: Na, K, NH4 Except: Na, K,
Carbonates Salt + CO2+ H2O carbonate (thermal
stability)
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
Limestone lime
4- Methane:
a) Found in gas deposits in oceans and on land as natural gas (used as fuel)
b) Also formed when bacteria breaks down plant material in absence of oxygen
c) Some animals as (sheep, goats) give out methane as waste gas from digestion
(bacteria break down food and produce methane (CH4) as waste gas)
5- Organic compounds:
 All organic compounds contain carbon and most contain hydrogen. Some contain
elements as S, N too. Many are found in or derived from living things.
 Methane is the simplest organic compound; there are millions of non-organic
compounds (inorganic).
1) Proteins, carbohydrates and fats in our body.
2) Hundreds of different compounds in petroleum and coal.
3) Plastics and medical drugs made from compounds in petroleum.
Study of these compounds is called organic chemistry.

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 Limestone
Most creatures that live in the sea have shells or skeletons made of CaCO 3

Limestone, lime and limewater (slaked lime):

Name Formula Chemical name Color

Limestone CaCO3 Calcium carbonate White
Lime (quick) CaO Calcium oxide White
Slaked lime/ lime Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide White
water

Lime
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2 (g)

Limestone lime

 The lime kiln is heated. Limestone is end in one end and lime comes from the other
end.

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  The reaction is reversible so the calcium oxide and carbon dioxide could combine
again. But air is blown through the kiln to carry the carbon dioxide away before it has
a chance to react

Slaked lime
exo
CaO + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2

Lime slaked lime

 Slaked lime is used to neutralize acidity in soil and lakes.

 Calcium hydroxide solution is called lime water. When CO2 is bubbled through it, it
forms insoluble calcium carbonate appearing as white suspension; lime water turn
from clear to milky. This type of reaction is called precipitation and neutralization.
CO2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
Acidic alkaline
Gas solution

Cement: limestone heated with clay strongly in a kiln adding gypsum (hydrated calcium
sulfate) and grinding up the final solid to give powder.

Flue gas Desulfuration:

 Means the removal of sulfur dioxide from the waste gas of power stations before
they go out of the chimney.
 It’s usually carried out using a runny mixture of powdered limestone or slaked lime
and water. The mixture is sprayed through the waste gases or the gases are bubbled
through it.
Ca(OH)2(s) + SO2(g) CaSO3(s) + H2O(l)
Calcium sulfur calcium water
Hydroxide dioxide sulfite

2CaSO3(s) + O2(g) + 4H2O(l) 2CaSO4.2H2O (s)

Hydrated calcium sulfate
Hydrated calcium sulfate known as gypsum used in making cement plaster board,
plaster for broken limbs.

CaCO3 is better than CaO to control acidity:

CaCO3 insoluble CaO soluble

cannot be washed away by rain can be washed away by rain
Cannot be absorbed by plants Can be absorbed by plants
pH cannot go above 7 pH can go above 7

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 Topic 14: organic chemistry
 Organic chemistry includes the study of all carbon compounds except the very
simple ones such as CO2, CO and carbonates.
 The term organic means living. At first the organic chemistry was the study of carbon
chemicals from plants and animals, now it is known that complex carbon compounds
can be made artificially.
 Organic compounds are grouped into classes (families) such as hydrocarbons,
alcohols, organic compounds, etc.

For these families the organic compound Name tells you:

1) The functional group of this organic compound.

2) Which family it belongs to.
3) How many carbon atoms are present in it?
4) General formula of this organic compound.
5) Structural formula (molecular/ structural) of it.

1- Functional group: is the part of a molecule that largely indicates how the
molecule will react. ( show characteristic properties of compound )
For example: alkene ( = double bond) / alcohol (hydroxyl group OH)/ organic acid
(carboxyl group COOH)
Ethanol: C2H5OH → hydroxyl group is the functional group of alcohols.
Propanoic acid: C2H5COOH → carboxyl group is the functional group of organic acids.

2- Which family it belongs to (from name of the compound)

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 3- How many carbon atoms are in it ( from name of the compound )

4- General formula for organic compound :

Chemical/General formula used for a series of compounds that differ them from each
other by constant unit (homologous group) is called general formula.

Homologous group General formula

Alkanes CnH2n+2
Alkene CnH2n
Alcohols CnH2n+1OH
Organic acids CnH2nO2
Alkynes CnH2n-2
5- Structural formula :
Structural formula is the graphical representation of the molecular structure; it shows
how the atoms are arranged & the bonds between the atoms in one molecule.

Molecular formula Structural formula

CH4
H
Name: Methane H–C–H

General formula :CnH2n+2 H

Nomenclature: Naming organic compounds

Butene H H H H Functional group :Double bond/position 1
C4H8
H–C–C–C–C
H H H

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 How to write its Name?

1) Prefix: count the number of carbon atoms in the chain (But).

2) Suffix: identify the functional group and its position (1-ene).
But-1-ene

4 carbon atoms Position of double bond Double bond/ alkene

{prefix} { Suffix }

Homologous series:

It is a family of a similar organic compound with similar chemical properties due to the
presence of the same functional group.(General characteristics of a homologous series)

1. Same general formula.

2. Similar chemical properties → (same functional group).
3. Different physical properties show gradual increase in density (melting & boiling
point) as we go down the group
4. Each member in the same homologous series differ from the next member by CH 2

Homologous groups → 1) Alkanes

→ 2) Alkenes

→ 3) Alcohols

→ 4) Organic acids

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 Hydrocarbons
Organic compounds containing carbon and hydrogen only

Saturated hydrocarbons Unsaturated hydrocarbons

Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes
Molecules containing only Molecules containing at least Molecules containing at least
single covalent bonds one double covalent bond one triple covalent bond
between carbon atoms between carbon atoms between carbon atoms

Alkanes: (containing C & H only)

 They have single bonds between their carbon atoms : saturated

 General formula Cn H2n+2
 (n= is the number of carbon atoms)
 Functional group: none.

Name Number of Molecular Structural formula Boiling

carbon formula points
atoms
Methane 1 CH4 H -164
(gas) H–C–H
H
Ethane 2 C2H6 H H -87
(gas) H – C – C – H (CH3–CH3)
H H
Propane 3 C3H8 H H H -42
(gas) H – C – C – C – H (CH3–CH2–CH3)
H H H
Butane 4 C4H10 H H H H -0.5
(gas) H – C – C – C – C – H (CH3–CH2–CH2–CH3)
H H H H

Pentane 5 C5H12 H H H H H
(L) H–C–C–C–C–C–H
H H H H H

Hexane 6 C6H14
(L)

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Note:

 Simplest alkane is methane.

 As the hydrocarbon chain increases (number of carbon atoms increases), the density
boiling point & viscosity increase down homologous group.
 Flammability decrease as the chain increase the compounds burn less easily.
 The first 4 members of the series are gases at room temperature, the 5-15 liquids
above 15 carbons are waxy solids (for hydrocarbons).
 Natural gas (CH4) burning at cooker.
 Butane (butagas) fuel for cooking & heating.

Isomerism:
Definition: Isomers are organic compounds which have similar molecular formula but
different structural formula.

Butane C4H10

Butane 2-methyl propane

Some molecular formula C4H10 C4H10
Straight chain Branched chain
Boiling point 0°C --10°C

Isomers
Why?

As branched isomers have lower boiling point because the branches make it harder for the
molecules to get close so the attraction between them is less strong and less heat is needed
to overcome it.

Workout: Draw the isomers for pentane & hexane?

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Alkenes:

 Hydrocarbons that contain one double bond between two carbon atoms (Carbon-
Carbon double bond) unsaturated.
 General formula: CnH2n n= number of carbon atoms.
 Functional group: double bond between two carbon atoms.

Name Number of Molecular Structural formula Boiling

carbon formula point
atoms
Ethene (g) 2 C2H4 H H - 102
C–C
H H
Simplest alkene CH2 – CH2
Propene (g) 3 C3H6 H H H - 47
C–C–C–H
H H
CH2 – CH – CH3
Butene (g) 4 C4H8 H H H H - 6.5
H–C–C–C–C
H H H
CH3 – CH2 – CH – CH2
H H H H H -
Pentene (L) 5 C5H10 H–C–C–C–C–C
H H H H
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH – CH2

Note:

As hydrocarbon chain increases (number of carbon atoms increases) density, boiling point,
viscosity increases down homologous series.

Isomers in alkene:
Butene (position of double bond)

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Alcohols/ Alkanols:

 They are considered as alkanes where one hydrogen atom is replaced by hydroxyl
group (OH) they are named after alkenes just replace ane with anol.
 Functional group : hydroxyl group (not hydrocarbons)
 General formula : CnH2n+1OH / CnH2n+2O
Name Number Molecular Structural formula Boiling
of carbon formula point
atoms
Methanol 1 CH3OH H 65
(L) H – C – OH
H
Ethanol 2 C2H5OH H H 78
(L) H – C – C – OH
H H
CH3 – CH2 – OH
Propan-1- 3 H H H
ol H – C – C – C – OH
Isomers H H H
C3H7OH CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – OH
H OH H 87
Propan-2-
ol H–C–C–C–H
H H H
CH3 – CH(OH) – CH3
Butan-1-ol 4 carbons - - 117
Butan-2-ol Isomers
-

 Complete the table to Hexanol.

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Alkanoic acids/ carboxylic acids:

 These are organic compounds characterized by the presence of carboxyl group.

O
C – OH (COOH) /(CO2H)
 They are considered alkanes where one hydrogen atom is replaced by carboxyl
group (COOH) named after alkanes instead of ane (oic acid)
 General formula: / CnH2nO2.
 Functional group: carboxyl group (COOH).

Name Number of Molecular Structural formula Boiling

carbon formula point
atoms
Methanoic 1 HCOOH O 101°c
(L) CH2O2 H – C – OH
Ethanoic (L) 2 CH3COOH H O 118°c
or H – C – C – OH
C2H4O2 H
Propanoic 3 CH3CH2COOH H H O 141°c
(L) C2H5COOH H – C – C – C – OH
C3H6O2 H H
Butanoic 4 - - 164°c
acid

 Complete table to Hexanoic acid

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Finding Empirical formula:
Empirical formula: of a compound shows the simplest ratio of the number of atoms of
different elements

Molecular formula: shows the actual number of atoms of different elements present in the
compound.

Compound Molecular formula Empirical formula

Ethane C2H6 CH3
Benzene C6H6 CH
Methane CH4 CH4
Ethanoic acid C2H4O2 CH2O
Glucose C6H12O6 CH2O

e.g.: 32grams of sulfur combine with 32 grams of oxygen to form an oxide. What is the
empirical formula?

Elements that combine Sulfur Oxygen

Masses that combine 32g 32g
Ar 32 16
Moles of atoms that combine 32/32 32/16
Ratio in which atoms combine 1 : 2
Empirical formula SO2
e.g.: Compound Y contains 80% carbon and 20% hydrogen. What is its empirical formula?

Elements that combine Carbon Hydrogen

Masses that combine 80g 20g
Ar 12 1
Moles of atoms that combine 80/12 20/1
Ratio in which atoms combine 6.67 : 20 (÷6.67)
1 : 2.99 ≈ 3
Empirical formula CH3
Workout: Oxalic acid is found to contain 26.7% carbon, 2.2% hydrogen by mass and the rest
is oxygen. Mr of oxalic acid is 90. Find the empirical formula and molecular formula.

Elements that combine Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen

Masses that combine 26.7% 2.2% 100-(26.7+2.2)= 71.1%
Ar 12 1 16
Moles of atoms that combine 26.7/12 2.2/1 71.1/16
Ratio in which atoms combine 2.2 : 2.2 : 4.4 (÷2.2)
1 : 1 : 2
Empirical formula CHO2
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To find the molecular formula:

3- Calculate the Mr of the compound then Mr (molecular formula) (this gives n)

Mr Empirical formula
4- Multiply the numbers in the empirical formula by (n)

To get the molecular formula:

Empirical formula CHO2
Mr of empirical formula 12+1+(2 x 16)= 45
Mr of molecular formula 90 = 2
Mr of empirical formula 45
Multiply each element in empirical formula by 2 CHO2 x 2= C2H2O4
Mr of C2H2O4 = (2 x 12) + 2 + (4 x 16)= 90 √√

Workout:

Compound containing 72% magnesium and 28% nitrogen. What is its empirical formula?

N.B: In the ionic compounds, the empirical formula is the same as the molecular formula.

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 Fossil fuels
The fossil fuels are petroleum (or crude oil), coal and natural gas. They are called fossil fuels
because they are remains of plants and animals that lived millions of years ago.

Fossil fuel Appearance What is contains?

1- Natural gas Colorless gas Mainly methane CH4 90%
2- Crude oil Dark brown liquid Mixture of hydrocarbons (mainly
(petroleum) alkanes)
3- Coal Black solid Mainly carbon

Hydrocarbons can exist in 3 different shapes

Pentane C5H12 C6H12 cyclohexane Methyl hexane

Straight chain Ring shape Branched chain

 Coal, crude oil and natural gas are non-renewable resources as we are using it up
faster than it can form.
 Fossil fuels contain sulfur as impurities which form acidic gas sulfur dioxide SO 2 when
the fuel is burnt. (leading to acid rain)
 Also burning of fossil fuels produce CO2 → global warming.
 Methane is produced from decomposition of vegetation & as waste gases from
digestion in animals (cows) →biogas

Refining of petroleum by fractional distillation of crude oil:

 Petroleum is a mixture of alkanes of different sizes to make best use of oil is

separated by fractional distillation into useful fractions according to the boiling point
range of the fractions.
 Fraction: a group of molecules with similar boiling points which distil at the same
place in the fractionating column.
1- Each fraction forms at a different temperature and condenses at different
heights in the column.
2- Smaller molecules with lower boiling point condense higher in the column and
larger molecules with higher boiling point condense lower in the column.

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Comparing fractions:

 As the molecules get larger, the fractions get less runny or more viscous from gas at
the top to the solid at the bottom; they also get less flammable so the last two
fractions in the table are not used as fuels (lubricating fraction and bitumen).
 In fact the demand of lighter fractions (petrol, paraffin)is greater than the supply
from the distillation of crude oil.
Fortunately, lighter fractions can be made from heavier fractions by a process
called cracking.

Cracking:

 Is the process of breaking long-chained hydrocarbons molecules into shorter ones.

The process is carried under high temperature and a catalyst (Al2O3).
 Alkenes are always formed as one of the products of cracking.
Long hydrocarbon High temperature Short chain alkane + alkene
molecules catalyst OR Alkene + hydrogen gas

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  C10H22 catalyst C8H18 + C2H4
Decane 540oC octane ethene

 C8H18 catalyst C6H14 + C2H4

Octane 500oC hexane ethene

 C10H22 catalyst C10H20 + H2

Decane 500oC decene hydrogen

Cracking of hydrocarbon in the lab:

Importance of cracking:

1- Convert long chains alkanes (less useful/ high boiling point/ not flammable) to
shorter alkane as petrol (more useful/ low boiling point/ flammable)
2- Produce alkenes which are very useful for making plastics
3- Hydrogen gas could be obtained during the cracking of alkanes
Cracking the naphtha fraction:

1) Cracking ethane, ethane has very short molecules but even it can be cracked to
give ethene and hydrogen

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 Chemical reactions of organic compounds
Alkanes
Properties of alkanes:

1- The first four alkanes are gases, the next fifteen are colorless liquids and the rest are
solids.
2- Alkanes are generally unreactive since they are saturated.
3- Like all hydrocarbons, they undergo burning giving CO2, H2O and heat energy used as
fuels.
4- They undergo only Substitution reaction.

A) Burning:
1- Alkanes burn in air (good supply of O2) with smoky flame giving CO2, H2O and
heat energy. They are good fuels
 Complete combustion:
Methane: CH4 (g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + heat energy
Propane: C3H8 (g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l) + heat energy

 Incomplete combustion:
NO enough oxygen→ carbon monoxide produced (poisonous)
 2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) →2CO(g) + 4H2O(l) + less heat energy
 2x( C4H10 + 4.5O2 →4CO(g) + 5H2O )+ less heat energy
 2C4H10 + 9O2 →8CO + 10H2O + less heat energy

B) Substitution:
 Alkanes are generally unreactive. They only undergo substitution.
 When a chlorine (or any halogen) react with an alkane in the presence of
light (UV) a photochemical reaction occur where one of the hydrogen atoms
can be substituted with a halogen atom and if there is enough chlorine all the
hydrogen atoms will be replaced with chlorine atoms and a mixture of
products are obtained.

1)
Cl – Cl CH3Cl /chloromethane + hydrogen chloride

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 2)

CH2Cl2 dichloromethane + hydrogen chloride

Workout: tricholromethane & tetrachloromethane

Similarly

H H H Cl
light
H – C – C – H + Cl2 H – C – C – H + HCl
H H H H
Ethane chloroethane

H H Cl
Cl – C – C – C – H + HCl
H H H
H H H 1- chloropropane
light
H – C – C – C – H + Cl2 2 isomers
H H H 2- chloropropane
propane H Cl H
Also dichloropropane can be produced H – C – C – C – H + HCl
H H H
 The light energy is needed to break the bonds in the chlorine molecules to start off
the reaction.

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 Alkenes

 Alkenes (ethene, propene/ etc.) are produced in large quantities in industry from
larger molecules in oil fractions by the process of cracking.
 Like alkanes, first four members are gases.

A) Burning:
They burn with smoky yellow flame. They are not used as fuels.
 Complete combustion:
Ethene: C2H4(g) + 3O2(g)→ 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

Addition reactions:
The double bond in alkenes makes them very reactive. Any unsaturated
hydrocarbons undergo addition reactions.
a) Addition of H2 (hydrogenation): alkene + hydrogen→ alkane
b) Addition of Br2 (bromination): alkene + bromine→ dibromo-alkane
c) Reaction with steam (hydration): alkene + steam(water)→ alcohol/ alkanol
d) Reaction with HCl: alkene + hydrochloric acid → chloro-alkane
e) Polymerization: alkene+ high pressure/ heat→ polyalkene
 All addition reactions turn unsaturated alkenes into saturated
compounds.

a) Addition of hydrogen (hydrogenation)

H H H H
nickel catalyst
C – C + H2 H–C–C–H
H H H H
Ethene Ethane
Unsaturated C2H4 saturated C2H6

Ni
C3H6 + H2 C3H8
Propene Propane

 This reaction is used to make margarine.

The molecules of the vegetable oils contain several double bonds. These are
polyunsaturated by reacting them with hydrogen and a catalyst (nickel), these are
made saturated so the liquid oil become solid fat (margarine) with higher melting
point the process called hardening of oils.

Ni catalyst
Vegetable oil (unsaturated) + hydrogen Margarine saturated solid

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 b) Addition of bromine water (aqueous Br2) → test for double bond and unsaturated
compounds
Test for unsaturation: alkenes react with a solution of bromine in water:
The red-orange color of bromine in water decolorizes (goes colorless)
Bromine water remains red with saturated compounds (like alkanes)

C3H6 + Br2 → C3H6Br2

Propene Dibromopropane
 Similarly ethene adds chlorine to form dichloroethane.

c) Reaction with steam (addition of water)

Alkene + water (steam) → alcohol
- Reaction take place at high temperature 250oC and phosphoric acid as catalyst
H H H H
C – C + H – O – H 250°C Phosphoric acid H – C – C – OH
H H H H
Ethene C2H4 Ethanol C2H5OH
Workout:

Propene + water → ?

 Since a water molecule has been added to the double bond in ethene , the reaction
is called hydration forming ethanol , the reverse reaction is dehydration , elimination
of water molecule from ethanol.
 C2H5OH → C2H4 + H2O
Ethanol Ethene + water
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Dehydration can be achieved by:

1- Heating ethanol with excess sulfuric acid (dehydrating agent).

2- Passing ethanol vapor over hot aluminum oxide.

d) Addition of hydrogen chloride gas:

H H H H
C–C + HCl H – C – C – Cl
H H H H
Ethene C2H4 Chloroethane C2H5Cl

e) Addition polymerization (making plastics):

 Polymerization is the process in which many small molecules (monomers) join
together to make a large molecule (macromolecule) which is called polymer.
 The polymerization is done at high temperature and in the presence of a catalyst.
 Monomer : a small molecule which can be polymerized (joined together to form a
polymer)
 Polymer: a macromolecule made by polymerization (joining together of monomers).

The product poly(ethene), the chain can be many thousands of carbon atoms along but it is
simply written as:

H H
–C–C–
H H
n

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n= stands for a large number it could be many thousands.

The catalyst for the reaction is usually a mixture of titanium & aluminum compounds.

Polymerization of alkenes is considered an addition reaction as the double bond C=C in the
ethene molecules break allowing molecules to add on each other so it is called addition
polymerization (monomer must have C=C)

Polyethene is used to make plastic bags, plastic sheets, gloves and bonds.

Examples of addition polymers & their uses:

1) Chloroethene (vinyl chloride) → polychloroethene or polyvinylchloride (PVC).

H Cl H Cl
C=C polymerization –C–C–
H H H H n
PVC used in electrical wire insulation, used for hoses and water pipes.

2) Propene → polypropene

H CH3 H CH3
C=C polymerization –C–C–
H H H H n
Polypropene used to make plastic sheets, electric insulators, bottles plastic ropes and
crates.

3) Tetrafluoroethene → polytetrafluoroethene → PTFE

F F F F

C=C polymerization –C–C–

n
F F F F

PTFE (Teflon) uses as nonstick coating in frying pans (Tefal), windscreens and flooring.

4) Phenylethene (styrene) → polyphenylethene or polystyrene

H C6H5 H C6H5
C=C polymerization –C–C–
H H H H n
Polystyrene is used for packaging (foam) & insulation mainly in fast food cartoons.

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 5) Acrylonitrite → polyacrylonotrite

H CN H CN
C=C polymerization –C–C–
H H H H n
Polyacrylonitrite used for synthetic fibers

 Most polymers are used in the plastic & synthetic fibers industry.

Identifying the monomer:

1) If you know the structure of the addition polymer you can identify the monomer by
identifying the repeating unit (it has 2 carbon atoms side by side in the main chain) &
draw brackets around it.
2) Then draw the unit but put the double bond between the two carbon atoms.

For example:

Polypropene Propene

Plastics are synthetic polymers.

Plastics: Good or Bad?

Advantages Disadvantages
1) Quite cheap and easily made 1) Plastics cause pollution problems because
a) They cannot be degraded (broken down )
by microorganisms (bacteria –fungi) as they
are non-biodegradable so the persist in
environment.
2) Lighter than metal 2)Trying to dispose plastics produce harmful
gases
3) Unreactive, the don’t corrode in air a) Toxic gases when burnt PVC gives out
or water, many are not affected by fumes hydrogen chloride when it
acids or alkalis. burns.
4) Don’t conduct heat or electricity so b) Visual pollution.
can be used as insulators. c) Occupation of land fill sites
5) Can be molded into any shape, can
be colored.
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  The best way of disposing of plastics is recycling to form new plastics. This also
conserves petroleum (as plastics come from cracking petroleum fractions to give
alkenes)
 Research nowadays produce plastics that are biodegradable
1- Some plastics contain starch additives that bacteria can feed on.
2- Others are photo biodegradable contain additives that breakdown sunlight.

Alcohols (example ethanol)

Making ethanol for industry(Rich countries)

a) Catalytic addition of steam to ethene (hydration of ethene)

H H H H
C = C (g) + H2O(g) 250°C phosphoric acid (catalyst) H–C–C–H
H H H OH
Ethene Ethanol
This reaction is reversible and exothermic

b) Making ethanol by fermentation (Poor countries)

 Fermentation is the process where sugars (glucose) are converted to ethanol and
carbon dioxide by enzymes (biological catalyst) present in yeast. The process works
best at 30°c to 40°c.

This process is exothermic

 It is important that fermentation is carried out in the absence of air (anaerobic

respiration) otherwise ethanol will be oxidized to ethanoic acid (C2H5OH
O2
→CH3COOH).
 Yeast can only produce a solution containing 10-15% ethanol, after that the high
concentration of ethanol poisons (kill) the yeast (enzymes in yeast denatured).
 Also any increase in temperature above 40°C, the enzymes are denatured & reaction
stops

This reaction can start with anything that contains sugar starch or cellulose all break down
to give glucose then glucose can be used to make ethanol.

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 The apparatus below can be used to ferment glucose

Airlock: allows carbon dioxide to escape but prevents air getting in. Allows
fermentation under anaerobic conditions.

water

Fermentation jar: yeast + water + glucose

During fermentation two things are observed:

1) A rise in temperature (exothermic) 2) Froth as yeast multiply

3) Bubbles of colorless gas that turn lime water milky → CO2.

The ethanol is separated from the final mixture by fractional distillation (technique used to
concentrate aqueous ethanol)

Properties of ethanol:

1) A colorless flammable liquid with disinfectant/ antiseptic odor that mixes readily
with water.
2) Low boiling point 78°c volatile.
3) Neutral pH=7.
4) It burns in air with a yellow blue flame to form CO2 and H2O and energy → used as
fuel it has less impact on CO2 level than fossil fuels do ,as ethanol produced by
fermentation burns to give CO2 but CO2 is also taken in plants (photosynthesis) being
to be fermented & make ethanol (biofuel) (it can help to fight against global
warming)
C2H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 +3 H2O + energy.

5) It undergo dehydration & converted to ethene when heated with concentrated

sulphuric acid (dehydrating agent).
C2H5OH (l) → C2H4(g) +H2O (g)
 The methods used to manufacture ethanol depend upon the materials available.
1) In countries where there are large amounts of ethene available making ethanol
from ethene would be preferred (continuous process).
2) In countries which don’t have crude oil but do have sugar produced from sugar
cane in large amounts. Fermentation would be preferred (batch process)

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Outline the advantages and the disadvantages of each method: 1- Advantages

Ethanol by fermentation Ethanol from ethene

1) Uses renewable resources e.g. sugar 1) The reaction is fast.
cane (maize) 2) Continuous process you can run it out
continuously , just keep removing the
ethanol
2) You can use waste plant material too. 3) Gives pure ethanol, no need for
fractional distillation.
4) Doesn’t need large reaction vessels.

Disadvantages

Ethanol by fermentation Ethanol from ethene

1) Fermentation is slow. 1) Ethene made from oil is non-
2) You need a lot of plant material to renewable resource.
make a litre of ethanol, so a lot of
land needed to grow enough crops.

3) Needs large reaction vessels. 2) A great deal of heat is needed to

make the steam & keep the reaction
running at high temperature (570°c)
expensive.
4) Fractional distillation is expensive. 3) The reaction is reversible the yield is
5) When the ethanol reaches certain not high at 570°C/ 250°C but rate is
concentration, the reaction stops as high so to keep the yield high you
yeast dies. must keep recycling the unreacted
ethene & steam and use them over
again.
Ethanol used as: 1- solvent
2- fuel
3- Alcoholic drinks

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 Carboxylic acids (ethanoic acids)
Ethanoic acid is usually called acetic acid/ vinegar is 5% solution of ethanoic acid that’s why
it has odor of vinegar.

1) Formation of ethanoic acid from ethanol.

a) By oxidation with atmospheric oxygen
Vinegar is made by exposing ethanol to the air in the presence of bacteria,
ethanol is oxidized to ethanoic acid .

This another example of biotechnology (as when ethanol is left standing in air, bacteria
bring about its oxidation to ethanoic acid → called (acid –fermentation)

H H H O
H – C – C – OH + O2 H – C – C – OH + H2O
H H H
Ethanol Oxygen Ethanoic acid Water
Ethanol + oxygen → ethanoic acid + water

That’s why when wine (ethanol) is exposed to air will go sour(tastes sour) as ethanoic acid /
vinegar forms.

b) Oxidation by heating with an oxidizing agent.

oxidation
Generally alcohol carboxylic acid

Ethanol acidified potassium manganate (VII) Ethanoic acid

or acidified potassium dichromate (VI)
Ethanol is a reducing agent it reduces both oxidizing agents and change their colours.

Oxidation of propanol gives …………

Oxidation of pentanol gives …………..

2) Reaction of ethanoic acid

 Ethanoic acid (as all carboxylic acid) is a weak acid i.e. partially ionized in aqueous
solution , ethanoic acid is a monobasic acid.
 pH value of ethanoic acid is 5 it turns litmus red and the colour produced on adding
drop of universal indicator to ethanoic acid is yellow.

Ethanoic acid is just like any other acid, it reacts with:

1) metals to form a salt + hydrogen.

2) bases to form a salt + water.
3) carbonates to form salt + water + carbon dioxide.

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The salt produced is called (ethanoate)

1) 2CH3COOH +Mg →(CH3COO)2Mg + H2

2) CH3COOH (aq) +NaOH (aq)→ CH3COONa +H2O

Ethanoic acid + sodium hydroxide →sodium ethanoate + water

 6CH3COOH + Al2O3→ 2 (CH3COO)3AL + 3H2O

Ethanoic acid + aluminium oxide →aluminum ethanoate + water
3) 2 CH3COOH + CaCO3 → (CH3COO)2Ca + H2O + CO2
Ethanoic acid + calcium carbonate → calcium ethanoate + water + carbon dioxide

Why the reaction of ethanoic acid is slower than any other acids as sulfuric acid??

 Test for carboxylic acids(react with carbonates) → effervescence of CO2.

Differentiation between ethanol and ethanoic acid:

Test Ethanol Ethanoic acid

Odour Disinfectant odour Vinegar
Litmus paper No colour change Turns red
Sodium carbonate No reaction Effervescence of CO2
Potassium dichromate orange→green No colour change
Lighted splint Catches fire Doesn’t catch fire

Ester
Organic acids like ethanoic acid react with alcohols to form compounds called esters in a
reaction called esterification.

Organic acid (carboxylic acid) + alcohol ester + water

 Two molecules have joined together to make a larger molecule, with the loss of
water it is called condensation reaction.

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  The reaction is reversible, concentrated sulfuric acid (dehydrating agent) is added to
remove water act as a catalyst.
 The alcohol part comes first in the name but the name of the acid comes in the
second place.
 Methanol + ethanoic acid → methylethanoate + water
 Propanol + methanoic acid → propylmethanoate + water
 Butanol + propanoic acid → butylpropanoate + water

The reverse of esterification is called hydration:

Ester + water → organic acid (carboxylic acid) + alcohol

 Ethyl ethanoate has a characteristic pleasant fruity smell. Many fruits smells are
caused by esters (usually used in shampoos and soaps)

Workout: Name the reactants that can produce the following:

O
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – C
O – CH2 – CH3
 Alcohol
 Acid
 Ester

Condensation polymerization:

 Condensation polymerization takes place between two monomers react by

eliminating water molecules (H2O) to form polymer
 Unlike addition polymerization/ no double bonds break in the process

There are two types of polymerization:

Addition polymerization Condensation polymerization

 Monomers must have C == C  Does not depend on the C == C
double bonds double bond
 Double bonds in the molecules break  Monomers with two functional
and the molecules add on to each groups join together to form polymer
other by eliminating water
 One product (polymer only)  Two products (polymer and water)
Polymers could be naturally occurring (biological polymers) such as starch and protein. They
are biodegradable otherwise Polymers could be synthetic (man-made) such as nylon
(polyamide)and Terylene (polyester). They are non-biodegradable.

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 Natural polymers
1) Carbohydrates (biological polymer) CHO
 Carbohydrates are a family of energy foods including starch and sugars
 These compounds consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen and
oxygen atoms are present in the same ratio as in water (2:1) - what characterize
CHO
 Examples of carbohydrates → (saccharide is also used for sugars and starches)

Monosaccharide Disaccharides Polysaccharides

Simple sugars glucose Sucrose Complex carbohydrates such
C6H12O6 Maltose as starch and cellulose
(simple sugar unit) (two sugar units)

 Starch molecule consists of long chain of glucose molecules. Glucose is a monomer

represented as (HO OH) can be joined to form starch (polymer) by
condensation polymerization (elimination of water).

 Condensation is also made by the condensation polymerization of glucose (cell walls

in plants are made of cellulose)
 Starch hydrolyzed in our body by catalyst amylase
 Starch can be hydrolyzed into glucose molecules by boiling with dilute hydrochloric
acid
dilute HCl (hydrolysis) glucose
Starch (simple sugars)

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 2) Proteins (biological polyamide):
Proteins are natural macromolecules (polymers) built up from molecules of amino acids
(H2N COOH) that are monomers amino acids have carboxylic group and amino group. Only
these 2 groups take part in polymerization and the rest of the amino acids remain as it is.

H O
Amino group H – N C – OH Carboxylic group

How amino acids make protein? By condensation polymerization

 When proteins are formed an amino group from one amino acid reacts with the carboxyl
group from another amino acid (by elimination of water) to form amide linkage.
 This process can be continued repeatedly to produce long chain macromolecule.

H O H O H O
H–N– – C – OH + H – N – – C – OH + H – N – – C – OH

Condensation
Hydrolysis
polymerization

H O H O H O
(– N – –C–N– –C–N– – C )n + n H2O

Amide linkage

 The linkage between amino acid in protein is called amide (peptide) linkage
 Proteins are broken down by hydrolysis into their amino acids. This process occurs
when protein foods are digested by enzymes (proteases) biological catalysts
 In laboratory, proteins can be hydrolyzed into amino acids by heating with dilute
acids (HCl, H2SO4)
 The products of the hydrolysis of proteins and carbohydrates can be separated and
identified by chromatography but the products (spots) are colorless so need spraying
a locating agent to be seen on chromatogram.

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 1) Fats (biological esters): O
(not polymers)
C–O Ester linkage

 Fats and vegetable oils are important constituent of our food

 They are naturally occurring esters
O
Contain ester group
C–O
A fat molecule is made of an alcohol part (glycerol) and 3 fatty acids

Glycerol H O
H H–C–O–C–R
H – C – OH O R stands for
H – C – OH H–C–O–C–R 3 fatty acids the rest of the
H – C – OH O molecule
H H–C–O–C–R
H
Alcohol Ester
Part linkage
Making soap (saponification)

Soap is producing by heating vegetable oils or animal fats with an alkali like sodium
hydroxide solution, the ester groups present are broken to give glycerol and soap. This
process is called alkaline hydrolysis of fats where soap is sodium salt of fatty acids (long
chain carboxylic acids)
heat
Fats + sodium hydroxide soap + glycerol

CH2OCOC17H35 CH2OH

CH2OCOC17H35 + 3 NaOH CH2OH + 3 C17H35COONa

CH2OCOC17H35 CH2OH
Fat Glycerol (tri-ol) Soap (sodium salt of fatty acid)

Glycerol is 1,2,3 prop- trio- ol meaning it has 3 Cs, 3 OHs located at each carbon (1,2,3)

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 Synthesis polymers (man-made)

1) Nylon (synthesis poly amide)

 Nylon man-made fiber (poly amide)which contain amide linkage
 The monomers of synthesis poly amides by reacting diamine monomers (two NH2
groups) with dicarboxylic acids monomers (two COOH groups)
O O H H
H–O–C– – C – OH N– –N
H H
Dicarboxylic Diamine
The polymer is made of condensation polymerization

O O H H O O
HO – C– – C – OH + N – – N + HO – C – – C – OH
H H
Dicarboxylic Diamine

-H2O

O O O O
(– C– –C–N– –N–C– – C)n + n H2O
H H
Amide linkage

Nylon: nylon can be drawn into tough strong fibers that don’t rot away so it is used for
thread, ropes, fishing nets (textile fiber industry)

2) Terylene (polyster made by condensation polymerization):

Polyester (terylene), containing ester linkage, man-made fibers used for clothing,
carpets as the resulting fabric is more hard wearing than cotton and doesn’t crease
easily. Terylene also used as polyester thread.
The monomers are dialcohols (two OH groups) and dicarboxylic acids (two COOH
groups)
O O
HO – C – – C – OH + HO – – OH
Dicarboxylic (diacid) diol (dialcohol)

Eliminating
water
O O
(– C – – C – O –– – O –)n + n H2O

Ester linkage (terylene)

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 Linkage
O O H
C – O Ester linkage Amide C – N
Natural Synthetic Proteins Nylon
Fats Terylene (natural) (synthetic)
(polyester) Polyamide
Workout:

A condensation polymer can be made from the following monomers:

HOOC (CH2)4COOH and H2N(CH2)6NH2

Draw the structure of polymer

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 Colors in chemistry

 All metals are silvery grey except copper (Reddish brown) and Gold is (yellow)
 Non Metals: Boron white solid, carbon black solid, phosphorous (Red/yellow solid),
sulfur yellow solid,
 Halogens (Non Metals/ diatomic ): 1-flourine yellow gas /2-chlorine Green gas /

3-Bromine reddish brown liquid/ 4- Iodine dark grey solid (I2 purple gas ,I2 aqueous
brown) 5-Astatine black solid

 H2,CO2,CO,N2 ,SO2,NH3 these are colorless gases except NO2 produce Brown fumes
 All Group 1,2,3 salts are white solids when dissolved in water produce colorless
solution
 All Ammonium salts are white solids when dissolved in water give colorless
solutions
 All Iron (II) Fe 2+ salts are green
 Iron(III) Fe 3+ salts are reddish brown
 All chromium(III) Cr 3+ salts are green
 Manganese salts are purple KMnO4
 Zinc(II) Zn 2+ salts are white
 CuO copper oxide are black solids
 FeO & MnO2 are black solids
 CuCO3 copper carbonate salts are green
 CuCl2/,Cu(NO3)2/Cu(OH)2/CuSO4 are blue salts
 Anhydrous copper sulphate is white while hydrated salt is blue
 Anhydrous cobalt chloride is blue when water is added it turns pink
 Silver and lead chlorides are white salts
 Silver and lead bromides are creamy salts
 Silver and lead iodides are yellow salts
 Potassium dichromate color orange turn to green

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