Lesson 2:

Different types of
plate Boundaries

1. There are three main types

of plate boundaries:
1. Convergent boundaries- where two plates are
colliding. Subduction zones occur when one or
both of the tectonic plates are composed of
oceanic crust.
2. Divergent boundaries- where two
plates are moving apart.

3. Transform boundaries-
where plates slide
passed each other.

What is an Earthquake?
➢ It is a natural vibration of the ground or the earth
crust produced by forces or seismic forces.

➢ It is what happens when two blocks of the earth

suddenly slip past one another.
 Causes of Earthquakes
Earth’s major earthquakes occur mainly in belts coinciding with the margins of
tectonic plates. This has long been apparent from early catalogs of felt
earthquakes and is even more readily discernible in modern seismicity maps,
which show instrumentally determined epicentres. The most important
earthquake belt is the Circum-Pacific Belt, which affects many populated
coastal regions around the Pacific Ocean—for example, those of New
Zealand, New Guinea, Japan, the Aleutian Islands, Alaska, and the western
coasts of North and South America. It is estimated that 80 percent of the
energy presently released in earthquakes comes from those
whose epicentres are in this belt. The seismic activity is by no means uniform
throughout the belt, and there are a number of branches at various points.
Because at many places the Circum-Pacific Belt is associated with volcanic
activity, it has been popularly dubbed the “Pacific Ring of Fire.”

A second belt, known as the Alpide Belt, passes

through the Mediterranean region eastward
through Asia and joins the Circum-Pacific Belt in the East
Indies. The energy released in earthquakes from this belt
is about 15 percent of the world total. There also are
striking connected belts of seismic activity, mainly
along oceanic ridges—including those in the Arctic Ocean,
the Atlantic Ocean, and the western Indian Ocean—and
along the rift valleys of East Africa. This global seismicity
distribution is best understood in terms of its plate
tectonic setting.
Earthquakes, or tremors, occur when a rapid
release of energy beneath the surface of the
Earth creates a seismic wave. Earthquakes
cause the ground to shake and can trigger
tsunamis, landslides, fires, volcanoes and
other major disasters. The five stages of an
earthquake are based on the elastic rebound
theory, which geologist Henry Fielding Reid
devised after the great 1906 San Francisco
earthquake.

What are earthquakes

caused by?
Earthquakes are mostly caused by the
movement of tectonic plates, though
other forces can cause them. These
forces include volcanoes, collapses
occurring underground, and explosions
of nuclear or chemical devices.
 FIVE STAGES OF AN
EARTHQUAKE
➢ Elastic Buildup

The elastic rebound theory is based on the concept that

the earthquakes result from forces nowhere near the actual
earthquake. The first stage of an earthquake is the gradual
buildup of elastic strain, which occurs over thousands of
years. When both sides of the fault move, the elastic strain
builds up in the rocks slowly, compressing the rock
particles together.

➢ Dilatancy

Stage two occurs when the rocks in the Earth are packed
together as closely as possible. The rocks must then
expand by way of cracking to increase the amount of
space they occupy. This process is called dilatancy. As
small cracks form, the water inside the pores of the
rocks is forced out and air is let in. As a result, the rocks
become stronger. The process allows the rocks to hold
even more elastic strain.
➢ Influx of Water
Stage three occurs when the water that has seeped
out of the rocks is forced back in because of
surrounding pressure, similar to the way water fills a
hole in sand. As the water is forced back in, the rock
loses its strength. The rocks are significantly strained
by this. The influx of water keeps more cracks from
forming, which causes the rocks to stop expanding. The
water later eventually serves as a lubricant when the
elastic strain that has been building up over time is
released.

➢ Earthquake

Stage four is the actual earthquake. Because the

rocks can no longer resist the elastic strain, a
sudden fault rupture occurs. The stored energy in the
rocks is now forced out and released in the form of
heat and seismic waves. Seismic waves are large
waves of energy that flow outward through the
Earth's crust, like ripples in a pond. The waves cause
a sudden, often violent shaking of the ground.
 ➢ Aftershocks

Stage five is the final stage during which a sudden

drop in stress causes small aftershocks, which are
smaller earthquakes or ruptures. The aftershocks release
the remaining elastic strain. Aftershocks are often
unpredictable and can occur years after the initial
earthquake. Depending on the size of the main
earthquake, the size and frequency of aftershocks can be
significant. Eventually the strain decreases, allowing
normal conditions under the surface to return.

SPECIFIC LOCATIONS

Scientist often discuss the epicenter and focus of

an earthquake when discussing its location. These
are different measurements. The epicenter is the
surficial expression of the earthquake. It is
located directly above the focus, which is the
location at depth. The hypocenter is another term
that is often used to describe the location of an
earthquake. It is another term for the focus, and
the two can be used interchangeably.
 The hypocenter or focus is the point deep in
the crust where the earthquake started.

The epicenter is the point on the surface

directly above the hypocenter where the
shaking will be most felt.

EARTHQUAKE WAVES

There are four distinct types of earthquake, or seismic waves. Each

has its own properties and behaviors.
•Primary (P-) waves
• Compressional or longitudinal (oscillate in the direction the
wave travels)
• Fastest of all the waves
• Arrives at seismographs first
• Body wave (travels through the interior layers of the Earth)
•Secondary (S-) waves
• Transverse (oscillate in the directions perpendicular to the
direction the wave travels)
• Arrives at seismographs second, following P-waves
• Body wave
• Rayleigh waves
• Longitudinal, like a P-wave
• Causes elliptical shaking of the Earth
• Get weaker with depth
• Surface Wave (travels only on or near the surface of the
earth)

• Love Waves
• Transverse, like an S-Wave
• Causes shear, or side-to-side, shanking of the Earth
• Surface Wave

Seismology - involves the scientific study of all aspects of

earthquakes, has yielded answers to such long-standing
questions as why and how earthquakes occur.

Seismometer is the internal part of the seismograph, which may

be a pendulum or a mass mounted on a spring; however, it is
often used synonymously with "seismograph".

Seismographs are instruments used to record the motion of the

ground during an earthquake. They are installed in the ground
throughout the world and operated as part of a
seismographic network.
 ❑ The earliest "seismoscope" was invented by the Chinese
philosopher Chang Heng in A.D. 132. This did not, however,
record earthquakes; it only indicated that an earthquake was
occurring. The first seismograph was developed in 1890.

Seismogram is the recording of the ground shaking at the

specific location of the instrument. On a seismogram, the
HORIZONTAL axis = time (measured in seconds) and the
VERTICAL axis= ground displacement (usually measured in
millimeters). When there is NO EARTHQUAKE reading, there is
just a straight line except for small wiggles caused by local
disturbance or "noise" and the time markers. Seismograms are
digital now - there are no more paper recordings.

10 Strongest earthquake in the

Philippines:
1. Moro Gulf Earthquake (1976) 8.1
2. Luzon Earthquake (1990) 7.8
3. Lanao Earthquake (1955) 7.5
4. Casiguran Earthquake (1968) 7.3
5. Bohol Earthquake (2013) 7.2
6. Mindoro Earthquake (1994) 7.1
7. Panay Earthquake (1990) 7.1
8. Ragay Earthquake (1973) 7
9. Negros Oriental Earthquake (1990) 6.9
10. Palimbang Earthquake (1990) 6.8
 What is and what causes a tsunami?

➢ A series of waves caused by an earthquake,

underwater volcanic eruption, landslide or other
abrupt disturbance.

➢ It is a series of extremely long waves caused by a

large and sudden displacement of the ocean,
usually the result of an earthquake below or near
the ocean floor. This force creates waves that
radiate outward in all directions away from their
source, sometimes crossing entire ocean basin.

What causes volcanic eruptions?

Deep within the Earth it is so hot that some
rocks slowly melt and become a thick flowing
substance called magma. Because it is lighter
than the solid rock around it, magma rises and
collects in magma chambers. Pressure builds
up until the gases escape violently and explode.
Eventually some of the magma pushes through
vents and cracks in the Earth’s surface causing
volcanic eruption to occur.
 The most destructive volcanic eruptions in
the philippines
. 1. 1871 Hibok-Hibok Eruption

In recorded history, Hibok-Hibok has erupted only five times, the first
recorded one was in 1827. The volcano is located on the small island of
Camiguin in Mindanao.
In 1871, the volcano displayed unprecedented levels of unrest, causing
massive earthquakes and numerous volcanic fissures on the island.
These were preludes to the continuous flow of lava from its main vent,
which would form what is now known as Mt. Vulcan. The earthquakes
triggered by the volcanic eruption was so severe that it sunk a portion
of the town containing a cemetery.
Today, Camiguin’s Sunken Cemetery is a tourist attraction and a chilling
reminder of the volcano’s violent past. It is marked with a black-and-white cross
facing the volcano.
 1754 Taal Volcano Eruption

2.) 1754 taal volcano eruptions

1965 Taal eruption, which was one of its more
violent eruptions. But it dwarfs in comparison to
a previous eruption. Taal Volcano’s most
destructive eruption happened 265 years ago in
1754. The volcano system erupted for 7 months,
burying four Batangas towns in the process. As
much as 40 inches of ash were recorded in some
areas.

3.) 1814 mayon eruption

The 1814 eruption of Mayon was also one of its
deadliest: Ballistic projectiles from Mayon were sent
hurtling toward the unsuspecting town of Cagsawa, killing
1,200 locals. Those who survived escaped and resettled
in the town of Daraga.
Historically, Mayon spews ash that is characteristically
dark, which means the materials are rich in iron and
magnesium. This is also evidenced by the car-size
boulders strewn around Cagsawa, the town it devastated
in 1814. Beaches around Legazpi also have dark sand,
which formed from the basalt or dark molten glass rocks
ejected from the volcano.
 4.) 1991 Pinatubo Eruption
The Pinatubo eruption is considered to be the most
powerful volcanic eruption of the 20th century.
Thankfully, it was also the eruption that the
Philippines was most prepared for, thanks to the
joint efforts of the PHIVOLCS and the United States
Geological Survey.

Pinatubo is one of those volcanoes that erupt once

every several thousand years. It erupted in circa
15,000 B.C., then in 7000 B.C., 3000 B.C., 300 B.C.
1500, and 1991. Every eruption was a world-
shattering event.

In its last eruption, the volcano spewed out 10 billion tons

of magma and ash, and 20 million tons of sulfur dioxide. The
resulting ashfall buried some parts of Pampanga under 10
feet of ash. There was so much particulate in the atmosphere
that it filtered out sunlight, cooling global temperatures by 0.5
degrees Celsius.

When all of the ash came down, it desolated much of the

province of Pampanga, burying 364 towns. Ashfall was
recorded as far as Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia,
and Cambodia. It also resulted in the abandoning of the U.S.
airbase in Clark, which was one of the largest overseas bases
of the Americans.
 Plate boundaries

These are the edges where two plates meet.

Most geologic activities, including volcanoes,
earthquakes, and mountain building, take
place at plate boundaries.

Why are plate boundaries

important?
Plates cover the entire Earth, and their boundaries play an
important role in geologid happenings. The movement of these
plates atop a thick fluid “mantle” is known as plate tectonics
and is the source of earthquakes and volcanoes. Plates crush
together to make mountains, such as the Himalayas. It also form
a mountain chain known as a ridge. One example of a ridge is the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge, an undersea chain of mountains that formed
as two pairs of tectonic plates spread apart: the North
American Plate and the Eurasian Plate in the north, and the
South American Plate and the African Plate in the south.
What are oceanic plate?
Oceanic plates are formed by divergent plate
boundaries. These zones, located along midocean
ridges, represent areas where upwelling magma
creates new oceanic crust. As lava flows from
these volcanic ridges, it quickly cools, forming
extrusive igneous rock.

What are continental

plates?
A continental plate is exemplified by the North
American Plate, which includes North America as
well as the oceanic crust between it and a portion
of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The latter is an
enormous submarine mountain chain that extends
down the axis of the Atlantic basin,
 Features of the Earth’s surface:

1. Folds – is a stack of originally planar surfaces, such as

sedimentary strata, that are bent or curved during
permanent deformation. Folds in rocks vary in size from
microscopic crinkles to mountain-sized folds. They
occur as single isolated folds or in periodic sets.

2. Faults – is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a

volume of rock across which there has been
significant displacement as a result of rock-mass
movements.

Features of the Earth’s surface:

3. Mountain ranges – is a series of mountains or hills ranged in a line

and connected by high ground. A mountain system or mountain belt
is a group of mountain ranges with similarity in form, structure and
alignment that have arisen from the same cause, usually an orogeny.

4. Continents – is one of several large landmasses. Generally identified

by convention rather than any strict criteria, up to seven regions are
commonly regarded as continents. Ordered from largest in area to
smallest, these seven regions are: Asia, Africa, North America, South
America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia.
 Features of the Earth’s surface:

5. Earthquake belt or seismic belt – is a narrow geographic

zone on the Earth's surface along which most earthquake
activity occurs. The outermost layer of the Earth
(lithosphere) is made up of several large tectonic plates.
Island arcs, mountain chains, volcanism, deep ocean
troughs, and oceanic ridges are often features of seismic
belts.

Remember these:
❑ Tectonic plates are big pieces of moving rock that make up the
earth’s crust. The two main types of tectonic plates are oceanic
plates and continental plates. The former makes the
continents. They are made out of rocks, igneous, sedimentary,
and metamorphic rocks. The latter makes the ocean floor. At a
transform plate boundary, plates move pass one another
horizontally. Plates move because of the slow motion of the hot
mantle(magma) that is located under the lithosphere known as
convection currents. Lastly, when the plates rub against each
other at a transform plate boundary, they cause huge stress
that causes earthquakes, tsunamis and faults.
❑ There are 3 types of plate boundaries: convergent where two
plates collide with each other; divergent where 2 plates move away
from each other; and transform where 2 plates slide past with each
other.

❑ The area where the plates intercept with each other is called triple
junction.

❑ Tectonics is the study of the source and arrangement of the broad

structural features of the earth’s surface, including folds and
faults, mountain ranges, continents, and earthquake belts.

❑ The movement of the plates is caused by the convection current

inside the earth’s mantle.

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THANK YOU!!!

Prepared by:
Ms. Rosavilla G. Aquino, LPT
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