IQ1 Causes of Infectious Disease: How are diseases transmitted?

a) Classifying different pathogens

- Infections are caused by cellular or non-cellular infectious agents called pathogens if
micro-sized or parasites if macro-sized
- The organism affected by the disease is known as the host
- A pathogen is considered virulent when it reaches a large enough population to infect
and cause disease
- If a disease can be passed from host to host, it is contagious
- Some diseases are more contagious than others, and some are not contagious at all (e.g.
infection in a wound) and are known as non-communicable

- Infectious microbes include bacteria, fungi, protozoa, viruses, and prions

o Bacteria: Single-celled prokaryotes (0.5 to 5um) with a nucleoid region and plasmid DNA;
they infect and reproduce inside hosts, and may produce toxins or alternately be harmless –
examples include strep throat and anything treatable by antibiotics

o Viruses: DNA and RNA wrapped in a protein coat called a capsid which can be rod-shaped,
spherical or polyhedral; they hijack and reproduce in host cells but are obligate parasites
(only dangerous inside a host) unless crystallised – examples include HIV and influenza

o Prions: Ordinary proteins folded wrong, capable of inducing other proteins to fold wrong;
they are undetectable and incurable and cause holes in the brain – examples include BSE
(mad cow), Scrapie (sheep), CJD, Kuru, and Fatal Familial Insomnia (human)
 o Fungi: Heterotrophic multicellular eukaryotes which live in the dark and feed off the host by
releasing enzymes to break them down. Fungal diseases affect external or internal moist
areas such as the lungs and feet. Amphibians and plants are also vulnerable.

o Protista: Single-celled eukaryotes which don’t fit in the other kingdoms; they reproduce and
infect similarly to bacteria, can be hetero- or autotrophic, usually quite large (100um), live in
water or moist soil – examples include malaria and amoebic dysentery

o Macroparasites: Can be seen unaided, are animals, metabolically dependent on the host,
aim to cause little harm, not immune-targeted – examples include ectoparasites (live outside
and drink blood) e.g. lice, and endoparasites (live inside i.e. in the intestines) e.g. worms

- Animal pathogens include all classes of pathogens and parasites and can infect many
types of animal issue, causing a variety of symptoms. They can be transmitted in a
variety of ways and affect the host internally or externally.
- Plant pathogens include all classes of pathogens except for prions; they are also attacked
by insects and viroids (similar to viruses). No plant diseases affect non-plant organisms.

Plant Virus

Insects 

Fungus
b) Investigating methods of transmission
- Diseases can be transmitted directly (via contact or bodily fluids) or indirectly e.g.:
o Airborne transmission where infectious agents remain in the air
o Contaminated objects e.g. a doorknob or a non-sterilized medical tool
o Dirty water or improperly-prepared food e.g. salmonella in eggs
o Environmental reservoirs such as soil and vegetation e.g. tetanus in soil
o Animal reservoirs which transmit to humans via biting etc. e.g. rabies
- Diseases that can be passed from animal to human are zoonotic
- Vector organisms can also transmit disease without being infected themselves (i.e.
malaria mosquitoes) and are sometimes necessary in the life cycle of the pathogen

Pathogen Adaptations to enter host Transmission Examples

Prions They can bypass the digestive system, Direct transmission; Mad cow
alter other proteins to ‘copy’ ingestion of infected disease (BSE),
themselves, not targeted by the meat, crossing placenta, Fatal familial
immune system or blood transfusions insomnia
Viruses Non-living, capable of hijacking host Can be direct, indirect, or Flu, HIV, Zika
cells, can crystallise outside the body, via vectors
mutate and multiply quickly and easily
Bacteria Can live inside and outside the host Airborne (coughing, Tetanus,
with ease, protected by a capsule, can sneezing), waterborne, meningitis
form dormant spores, mutate and via soil, via contaminated
multiply swiftly, swap genetic material, food, through open
produce toxins, antibiotic resistance wounds, and many more
Fungi Can live inside and outside the host Microscopic spores Athlete’s foot,
with ease, can form dormant spores, (airborne, soil, water), thrush
form colonies direct contact with skin
Protists Sexual and asexual reproduction, Contaminated food/ Malaria,
eukaryotic (complex) cell, multi-stage water/soil, or vectors amoebic
life cycle in many hosts  (e.g. mosquitoes) dysentery
Ectoparasites Aim to cause no harm/trauma to hosts, Direct contact, Lice, mites
bloodsucking (inject anti-coagulant/ contaminated objects
anaesthetic), reproduce quickly
Endoparasites Aim to cause no harm/trauma to hosts, Faeces, contaminated Tapeworm
masters of disguise (antigens etc.), no food/water/soil,
symptoms, reproduce quickly, multi- vectors/direct contact
stage life cycle with animal hosts

c) Investigating the transmission of a disease during an epidemic

- A sporadic disease occurs infrequently; an endemic disease exists permanently in stable
numbers of infected; an outbreak or epidemic disease suddenly explodes in infected
population; and a pandemic disease is an epidemic which spreads globally.
- Epidemics and pandemics occur when an infectious agent mutates to become more
virulent or to access new modes of transmission, or when it is introduced to a new or
more susceptible population of hosts.
- Epidemiologists study the distribution and control of infectious and non-infectious
diseases as well as health-related ‘incidents’ such as car accidents and suicide.
- They collect large amounts of data about the disease and the features of people affected
(sample size 100+), and use statistical analysis to determine government response
(management plans, prevention and treatment programs) to public health issues.
Epidemiological studies may take many years or decades to complete.

- Retroviruses are RNA wrapped in enzymes. These enzymes allow the RNA to infect cell
cytoplasm and enter the nucleus, where it fuses to make DNA. This DNA then instructs
the cell to create more RNA and enzymes to infect more cells.
- HIV targets a type of immune cell called Helper T Cells, which die and leave the rest of
the immune system unable to respond to threats. When the immune system is wiped
out, the host can easily die of secondary infections – this is what is called AIDS.
- HIV/AIDS spreads via bodily fluids, as it exists inside any cells in the body and if those
cells are transferred from person to person, the virus will spread too.
- Now that an anti-retroviral therapy exists to stop people dying of AIDS, awareness of HIV
is decreasing and it is able to spread more easily as people fail to observe safe practices.

d) Koch and Pasteur

- Koch (1843 – 1910) invented the agar plate and worked with sheep and cattle,
investigating the disease Anthrax bacillus in an attempt to isolate the infectious agent
- He developed four postulates to identify a disease-causing organism:
1) The same micro-organism must be present in all diseased hosts, but not healthy hosts
2) The micro-organisms must be separated from the host, cultured, and recorded
3) Each different culture must be re-inoculated into a separate healthy host
4) If the host displays symptoms after inoculation, the bacteria must be separated, cultured,
and compared to the original bacteria. If it is the same, you have found the correct bacteria!
- Pasteur (1822–1895) investigated the microbes responsible for spoiling milk and meat
broth, and for fermenting and spoiling alcohol.
- He performed the famous swan-neck flask experiment and established the young idea of
germ theory to contradict the widely-held belief in ‘Spontaneous Generation’ which was
prevalent at the time.
- He discovered that micro-organisms were the cause of disease through studying
silkworms, and established the practice of sterilization via rapid heating/cooling
(Pasteurisation).
- He contributed to the discovery of how immunity works and pioneered vaccines for
anthrax and cholera.

e) Cause and impact of agricultural disease

- Australia maintains a strict quarantine to keep out exotic diseases which may affect our
agricultural production or natural environment (e.g. guava rust which affects eucalypts).
Due to our isolation, it has been largely successful
- The effects of agricultural disease include reduced productivity, increased production
costs, loss of breeding stock, negative impacts on international and local trade, and
impacts on the environment/biodiversity (i.e. bee diseases)

- Plant diseases cause a loss of approximately 20 – 40% of horticultural (garden) crops and
10 – 15% of mass-farmed grains on average per year. Some plant diseases include:
o Panama Disease: fungus, multiple strains, causes wilt, affects banana roots
o Citrus Canker: bacteria, imported to Central Queensland, degrades fruit

- Animal diseases mainly affect intensively-farmed livestock such as chickens, pigs, and
dairy cattle. Farmers attempt to prevent it by vaccination, drenching, dipping, paddock
rotation, and antibiotics in feed. Some animal diseases include:
o Q Fever: bacteria, affects cattle and most other
extensively-farmed animals, zoonotic
o Anthrax: bacteria, affects sheep and other extensively
farmed animals, exists as spores in the soil

IQ2 Responses to Pathogens: How does a plant or animal respond to infection?

a) Investigating plant response to infection
- Yellowed and crinkled leaves and stunted growth are a sign of viral infections, while
blotchy or mildewed leaves and wilting are a sign of fungal infections.
- Australian native plants are susceptible to a variety of native and foreign pathogens,
predominantly fungal infections. These include:
o Fungal pathogens: Myrtle rust disease (Austropuccinia psidii), spreads easily,
affects bottlebrush, eucalypts, and tea tree, causes leaf deformation and
eventual death, can enter through the stomata.
o There are no specific viruses which affect Australian native plants!
- Plants also have multiple barriers to protect them from the attack of these pathogens.
These include:
o Physical barriers: Cellulose cell walls, thick waxy cuticles, bark, leaves hanging
down to prevent water build-up, closed stomata
o Chemical barriers: Saponin (disrupts fungal cell membranes), caffeine/tannins/
citronella (repels insects in various plants), defensins (repels microbes in grain)
o 4-Stage immune response system: R-genes (pathogen-specific resistant genes),
basal resistance (cell walls become impenetrable and cell junctions stiffen),
hypersensitive response (pathogens are trapped inside cells which then die), and
Systemic Acquired Resistance (using salicylic acid to inform the whole plant that
the previous 3 stages have all failed).

- The immune system in humans/mammals is divided into two main parts:

o Innate/Non-Specific: natural defences you are born with (lines 1 + 2 of defence)
o Adaptive/Acquired/Specific: only results upon exposure to a specific foreign
agent (3rd line of defence)

First Line: Barriers to the Environment

- Skin: Intact (keeps out external environment), dry (non-conducive to pathogen growth),
produces sweat and oils as chemical barriers.
- Mucous Membrane: The epithelial cells coat the surface of non-skin areas exposed to
external environment (e.g. digestive and excretory tracts) and produce mucous (to trap
pathogens).
- Hair/Cilia: Macroscopic and microscopic hairs lining the respiratory system, ear canals,
and around the eyes to keep out mucous (containing trapped pathogens).
- Fluids: Saliva and tears contain lysozyme which destroys pathogens, the digestive and
reproductive tracts are protected by acid, sweat and fatty acids from the skin’s
sebaceous glands are acidic and antibacterial, mucous contains antibodies, bile is
alkaline, and urine is sterile and acidic.
- Microbial Barriers: Non-pathogenic microflora which coat all environment-exposed
surfaces of the body outcompete pathogenic bacteria.
Second Line: Internal Defences
- Inflammation: Mast cells release histamine to let white blood cells and fluid through the
capillaries and cause swelling, heat, and redness of blood vessels.
- Leukocytes: ‘White blood cells’, manufactured in bone marrow, 4 main types with 4
different roles (neutrophils, agranular monocytes, eosinophils, basophils).
- Phagocytosis: Leukocytes (neutrophils and macrophages) surround pathogens, engulf
them, and destroy them through endocytosis.
- Complement Proteins: Over 30 types of proteins produced by macrophages and the
liver, they can bind with microorganisms or interfere with viral replication.
- Clotting Elements: Platelets move out of the capillaries to block the wound, which along
with cell death and fibrinogen, blocks off the area.

- Antigens: All cells in the body have proteins, polysaccharides, and sometimes
lipids/nucleic acids on the surface of their cell membranes.
- All foreign cells also have these antigens, and these antigens are marked as ‘foreign’ by
the immune system and destroyed by the second line’s other elements.
- Some harmless substances such as food contain antigens which the body accidentally
reacts to, causing allergies. The third line of defence is also concerned with antigens.

IQ3 Immunity: How does the human immune system respond to exposure to a pathogen?
- Third Line: Specific/Acquired/Adaptive
- Activated by the innate response failing to contain the pathogen, comes from the lymph
nodes, and comprised of B and T cells:
o B Cells: B for ‘bone marrow’, clone themselves and produce antibodies
(antibody-mediated response)
o T Cells: T for ‘thymus’, includes Helper T Cells (CD4), differentiate to attack
certain antigens (cell-mediated response)
- The lymphatic system is comprised of the spleen, thymus, and 600 lymph nodes; it
produces immune cells and processes the interstitial fluid (between cells).
- We acquire the adaptive immune system through our mother’s placenta, through
getting infected, and through vaccinations.
 The different steps of the 3rd Line are:
o 2nd line macrophages/dendrites clip broken-down antigens on their surface with
MHC II to tell 3rd line what specific pathogens invaded  Designation
o A naïve Helper T (CD4) detects the specific pathogen and is activated
(differentiates).
o The differentiated CD4 becomes a Th, specialised
for virus, bacteria, etc.
o The Th multiplies and produces cytokine (signal
protein e.g. interleukin II) to activate other
lymphocytes  Recruitment
o B-Cells differentiate into plasmas/specialised B and
produce specific antibodies (immunoglobin) which
can block pathogen receptors and glue them into clumps.
o Clonal selection is how specificity occurs.
Elimination o Cytotoxic/Killer T Cells are activated by CD4, bind to antigens on infected/cancer
cells or pathogens, and attack with perforin to make holes in the cells.
o Suppressor T Cells (T8) turn off the immune system once everything is destroyed.
o Memory B and T Cells exist in the spleen/lymph nodes and can differentiate back
to other B and T Cells upon decades-later infection  Prevent reoccurrence

IQ4 Treatment and Control: How can the spread of an infectious disease be controlled?
- The spread of infectious diseases has increased as the human population has grown and
become more globalised and interconnected (travel, agricultural trade, urbanisation)
- The most effective method of preventing the spread of infectious disease is VACCINES!
- Over 95% of people need to be vaccinated to create herd immunity  if 100% of people
are vaccinated, the disease can be eradicated i.e. smallpox
- Active Immunity: You get antigens  your third line makes antibodies
o Natural: Infection and recovery
o Artificial: Vaccine
- Passive Immunity: You get antibodies  they only last a short time
o Natural: Breast milk/Placenta
o Artificial: Blood plasma injection

a) Investigate procedures, environmental management and quarantine used to prevent

the spread of disease and control an epidemic
- Hygiene: ‘A set of practices performed to maintain good health and minimise the spread
of pathogens’. It can be:
o Personal: Washing hands/body/hair/clothes, using tissues/face masks/bandaids
o Communal: City planning to reduce overcrowding, safe work practices, disposing
of waste through closed bins/flush toilets  rubbish dumps/sewers, sterilisation
of medical equipment
o Food-Related: Refrigerating/sterilising food, drinking water sanitisation/
filtration, keeping raw food away from cooked food, cooking at high temperature

- Quarantine: ‘A strict isolation imposed to prevent the spread of pathogens’ involving

inspection, restriction of movement, and even enforced destruction of disease hosts.
Examples include state and international border quarantine (Biosecurity Australia,
airport security, mail etc.) and individual quarantine (Ms Forsyth’s corner, staying home
from work).

- Public Health Campaigns: Posters, adverts, and publications help direct people in
identification and disease management (spreading awareness), health authorities must
be notified of certain outbreaks (whooping cough, mumps, measles, tetanus etc.).

- Pesticides: Fungicides/insecticides/herbicides can prevent plant/animal/human

pathogens (aphids, head lice, tapeworms etc.), remove pathogen vectors e.g. malaria
(DDT, mosquito nets), dangers of chemical resistance.

- Genetic Engineering: Altering the genome of species by including other-species genes to

create transgenic organisms which are disease-resistant or infertile (such as in the Aegis
Aegyptus Zika-carrying mosquito), occurs in plants and animals but not humans (due to
ethics), it can be controversial as side-effects are unknown.

b) Analyse the wide range of factors limiting local, regional, and global spread of disease
- Ebola Background: Ebola virus disease (EVD) is a haemorrhagic fever identified in 1986.
There are 4 strains, all containing only a single strand of RNA, with the most dangerous
being Zaire Virus (EBVD). It is hosted by fruit bats and possibly pigs, apes, and antelopes.
- It is spread through bodily fluids including blood, vomit, saliva, tears, urine, mucous, and
breast milk, and can also be spread by dead bodies (a problem due to burial rituals).
Entry points include mouth, nose, broken skin, and sexual contact. People who have
recovered from the disease can still be infectious.
- Ebola is particularly dangerous as it attacks dendritic cells, making them tell immune
cells to kill themselves rather than to attack. It also infects macrophages, making them
tell the circulatory system to leak blood and fluid, leading to dehydration and low blood
pressure. It then attacks organs such as the liver, causing catastrophic organ failure.
- Fatality level is between 25% and 90%

- Local: At the local level, Ebola has always been endemic to a variety of African countries
and has had various local outbreaks since 1976.
- In the short term, the consideration is the use of controls including strict hygiene
practices/training/ workspaces, waste management, ventilation control, sterilization
(anything with patient contact), protective equipment, patient isolation (separate rooms
or 3 meters apart), same staff treating same patient. Lab workers are also at risk and
must use controls.
- Over the long term, different controls include isolating families for 21 days, continuing
hygiene/waste management programs for several years after the outbreak, changing
local burial customs.
- Regional: In 2014, Ebola spread to the national/regional level and became an epidemic.
Attempts to stop it spreading further included border checkpoints with armed guards.
- Global: Travel bans, screening of international passengers for symptoms (thermal
cameras etc.), passengers without symptoms still monitored/isolated.

c) Pharmaceuticals
- Antivirals are used to treat diseases such as HIV, Herpes, Hepatitis C and D, and seasonal
influenza. They inhibit the replication of viruses and thus prevent transmission, but they
are not a cure as the virus still lives.
- Antibiotics are designed to kill bacteria but not humans. The main problem with them is
antibiotic resistance. They do not work against viruses as viruses are non-cellular and
bacteria are designed to destroy cells.

d) Interpret data about prevalence of infections

- It is essential to record the decrease of incidence, not just mortality, in order to ensure
that the prevention methods (e.g. vaccination) are actually working.
- Examples of this include whooping cough and polio, which became less fatal due to the
increased technology and availability of hospitals. However they were still PREVALENT,
and they only began to decrease (and in the case of polio, be eradicated) post-vaccine.
- Factors which may exacerbate the prevalence of a disease must also be considered – for
instance, dengue fever is becoming more prevalent due to climate change (more
mosquitos with greater spread) and urbanisation (more people in the affected areas).

e) Evaluate historical and culturally diverse strategies to control disease

- In ancient times, various cultures formed links between cleanliness and health – for
instance, ancient Chinese knew that water contaminated with faeces caused disease and
ancient Hebrews knew that undercooked pork could cause tapeworm.
- The ancient Greeks thought that ‘bad air’ or miasma was the cause of disease,
particularly malaria and cholera. This theory prevailed in the West for hundreds of years.
- Malaria was well-known in ancient times and the two main cures were Quing-hao (170
BC, China) and Cinchona bark (1737 AD, Ecuador). These turned out to contain
artemisinin (1972, China) and quinine (1820, France) respectively – both effective drugs.
- Cholera was less common, but it has caused two major historical pandemics: the first
originated in India in 1817 and spread along trade routes to South-East Asia, Africa, and
the Middle East before being stopped by colder temperatures. The second originated in
1829 and spread through Europe, but was halted in Britain by successful quarantining.
- Cholera has also caused several more modern pandemics in the developing world!

- Prior to the development of germ theory and the discovery of the etiology (specific
pathogenic cause) of each disease, it was much more difficult to control the spread of
diseases. In addition, the invention of modern technologies have improved our disease
control skills so we do not have to rely on inferences.

f) Investigate contempory Aboriginal protocols

- Bush medicine is a combination of practices and beliefs in which plant (and occasionally
animal) products are used in the maintenance of good health, based on thousands of
years of accumulated Aboriginal knowledge and varying among clans. Some include:
o Tea Tree Oil: An antiseptic from the endemic Melaleuca alternifolia, made into
paste by Aboriginals and containing terpineol products as active ingredients.
o Eucalyptus Oil: An antiseptic and antimicrobial agent containing 1,8-cineol
o Kakadu Plum: Vitamin supplement with 50 times more Vitamin C than an orange
o Emu Bush: An antiseptic and antibiotic agent made into solution by Aboriginals
and so effective that it can be used to sterilise artificial joints
o Kangaroo Apple: An anti-inflammatory agent used as a pulp on swollen joints by
Aboriginals and containing a steroid which increases cortisone production.

- In modern times pharmaceutical companies have begun to isolate active ingredients

from bush medicine to make more reliable and commercialised products, creating
ethical issues relating to Aboriginal intellectual property.
- One example of this is smoke bush, a ‘panacea’ plant used by Aboriginals to heal many
aliments, and in the modern day considered a possible cure for diseases such as cancer
and HIV. It was tested in the USA from the 1960s to the 1980s and does not cure cancer.
- However, it does contain conocurovone, a chemical which destroys the HIV virus!
- This caused a bio-piracy debate as the pharmaceutical company which patented it did
not give any credit to the Aboriginal people or even ask their permission, as the patent
was bought from the WA State Government with no Indigenous involvement.