BUYOGA TVET School/ PAVEMENT LAYERS CONSTRUCTION

MODULE RCTLC301: PAVEMENT LAYERS CONSTRUCTION

Competence: Conduct Pavement Layers Construction

Elements of competence and performance criteria

Elements of Performance criteria

competence
1. Plan and prepare 1.1. Proper interpretation and application of compliance documentation
for work relevant to the work activities.
1.2. Efficient verification and confirmation of safety equipment in
accordance with the site safety management plan
1.3. Proper Selection of material, tools and equipment in accordance with
the job requirements
construct subgrade a. Adequate cut and fill of subgrade materials based on surveying data
layer
b. Accurate grading of subgrade layer based on surveying data

c. Proper curing and compaction of subgrade layer in accordance with

layer specifications.

d. Efficient checking of subgrade level in accordance with subgrade

specifications.
3. construct sub 1.1. Careful dumping of sub-base material according to the thickness of
base layer sub-base layer.

1.2. Accurate grading of sub-base layer according to the layer

specifications.

1.3. Proper curing and compaction of sub-base layer according to the

layer specifications.

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1.4. Efficient checking of sub-base level in accordance with subgrade

specifications.
4. construct base 4.1 Careful dumping of base material according to the thickness of base
layer layer.

4.2 Accurate grading of base layer according to the layer specifications.

4.3 Proper curing and compaction of base layer according to the layer
specifications.

4.4 Efficient checking of base level in accordance to the layer

specifications.
5. Construct 5.1 Proper spraying of prime coat according to the layer specifications.
asphalt wearing
course 5.2 Proper spraying of tack coat according to the layer specifications.

5.3 Proper spreading of asphalt according to layer specifications.

5.4 Accurate manual leveling according to layer specifications.

5.5 Proper paver screeding of asphalt according to layer specifications.

5.6 Proper compaction of asphalt according to the layer specifications.

6.1 Proper preparation of concrete work based on the design

LU.6. construct
concrete pavement
layer

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6.2 Adequate preparation of steel framework and wood formwork works

according to the design

6.3 Proper installation of formwork as per design specifications.

6.4 Careful casting of concrete according to the standard procedures.

6.5 Proper leveling and scratching of pavement as per specifications

6.6 Proper sealing of pavement joints according to the specifications.

6.7 Proper curing of concrete according to the standard procedure.

7. Clean up 7.1 Careful clearing of the work area in accordance with environmental
impact assessment.
7.2 Careful removal material as per environmental impact assessment
7.3 Proper maintenance of tools and equipment in accordance with
manufacturer recommendations and standard work practices.
1.1. Interpret and apply compliance documentation
Interpretation of tender document

NTRODUCTION
The key successful project often lies in the understanding and cooperation that is essential from
all participants, each must be clearly aware of his duties and rights. The documentation is the
vital link between design and construction. Here, tenderers will assess the quality of
documentation partly because poor information can add to the time wasted by site supervisors
and partly because unreliable information can lead to claims. If a contractor has enough
information he can avoid guesswork, include all the important items in his tender and will not
need to add global sums for poorly defined elements of work. You must know that the main way
a building contractor obtains work is via the preparation and submission of tenders.

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2.2. METHODS OF TENDERING

Known that the object of tendering is to select a suitable contractor at a proper time and to obtain
an acceptable offer to execute construction work. There are three methods of tendering in
common use: open tendering, selective tendering, negotiated tendering and one known as serial
tendering.
i) Open tendering: Architect or client place an advertisement in newspapers and construction
journals inviting contractors to tender for a particular project. Interested contractors will apply
for the contract documents and prepare and submit a tender within a specific time period. At the
close of this tender period the quantity surveyor will open all the tenders and make
recommendations to the architect and client as to the most suitable contractor’s expertise and his
tender price.
Advantages
 Very competitive tenders are obtained
 Only interested firms will submit tenders
 New firms are able to obtain work and prove themselves
Disadvantages
 Some firms may not be well equipped either materially or financially to execute the
work.
 If a very low tender is submitted and accepted it may cause difficulties throughout the
contract
 Submitting tenders costs time and expense and this cost needs to be recovered.
ii) Selective tendering: Architects establish a list of contractors with the expertise to carry out a
specific project and will ask them to submit tenders for it.
Advantages
 Only firms capable of executing the work will be selected
 Selected firms will probably have already proved themselves
 Reduction in the time and overall cost of tendering
Disadvantage
 The price may not be as competitive
 Can lead to cover prices being submitted
 Difficult for new firms to obtain work easily

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ii) Negotiated contract: Here the architect selects and approaches suitable contractors and ask
them to undertake the project. If the contractor is willing to undertake the project they will
negotiate with the quantity surveyor to reach an agreed price.
Advantages
 Contractors can be selected early in the design stage and can assist in the design stage and
can assist in the contract planning.
 Useful for extension of contracts
 Useful for a job of a difficult or unusual nature
 Useful where there is insufficient time to prepare full tender documentation
 Establishes good relationships between client and contractor
 Low overall cost of tendering
Disadvantages
 The price may be higher than in open tendering
 The design could be influenced by the selected contractor
 Difficult for new firms to obtain work
iii) Serial tendering: This method of tendering is done for the large
projects and complex which will have different domains and therefore this project should be
executed in a long period. So it has the following:
Advantages:
 A competitive price may be obtained.
 The contractor is able to plan a long term program
 The experience obtained in earlier projects may be used to the advantage of both parties
for the future projects.
Disadvantages:
 If the contractor initially produces unsatisfactory work the client may be committed to a
long term programme.

Documents Comprising the Tender

The Tender shall comprise the following:

1) Letter of Tender and Appendix to Tender

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2) Completed Schedule of Prices / Bill of Quantities

3) Alternative Tenders

4) Tender Prices and Discounts

5) Currencies of Tender

6) Documents Establishing the Qualifications of the Tenderer : specify the items of plant
and equipment for which the Employer requires Manufacturer’s Authorisation form In
the event if the Employer intends to permit Tenderers to claim the experience and
capability of their parent companies for the purposes of meeting the qualification criteria,
a clear statement to this effect must be made in the tender documents. The tender
documents shall also specify the minimum requirements for acceptance of the Tenderers’
parent company guarantee by the Employer. The main purpose of such parent company
guarantee would be to ensure that the contract will be performed satisfactorily i.e. the
contractor’s parent company will provide the necessary resources and is fully committed,
along with its subsidiary, to ensuring such performance

8.Period of Validity of Tenders :Insert the number of days deemed appropriate by the Employer.
The period should be sufficient to permit completion of evaluation and comparison of
tenders, review of the evaluation report by the Bank (if so required), obtaining of all
necessary approvals, and notification of the award. Normally, the validity period should be
90 days. For major and complex contracts, the validity period should be longer. A realistic
period should be specified in order to avoid the need for extensions.

9.Tender Security :Insert the amount deemed appropriate by the Employer. The amount shall be
expressed as fixed amount. Tender security will be normally in the range of 2-5 per cent of
the estimated cost of the Works.

10.Format and Signing of Tender

11.Health and safety plan

12 Techniques references (Experience)

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13.Contractor’s address

14. Certificate of visiting the site

15. Equipment or machine plant list in possession or in renting or hiring

16 Line of credit (financial banking)

17Clearance certificate of social security fund (assurance)

18. Clearance certificate of Rwanda revenue authorite.

19.List of professional worker man and their experience

20. Working drawings

21. Certificate of buying the tender document

22. Foreign or expert workermanship list

Note: Engineering contract documents, usually contain the following elements:

1. Title page. It has the name of work contract agreement number, estimated amount put to
tender.
2. Index page. It shows contents and page reference.
3. Tender notice. It contains essential information in standard printed form such us name of
the work, its location, estimated cost, date and time of tender, time of completion,
accepting authority etc.
4. Tender form. It gives general directions for guidance of contractor’s brief description of
the work, bills of quantities, contractor’s rates, conditions of contract etc.
5. Letter of acceptance of a tender and written order to commence work.
6. Conditions of contract
7. Schedule of item of works
8. Schedule of issue of materials and tools and plants.
9. General specifications and detailed specifications.
10. Working drawings.

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Note: Engineering contract documents, usually contain the following elements:

1. Title page. It has the name of work contract agreement number, estimated amount put to
tender.
2. Index page. It shows contents and page reference.
3. Tender notice. It contains essential information in standard printed form such us name of
the work, its location, estimated cost, date and time of tender, time of completion,
accepting authority etc.
4. Tender form. It gives general directions for guidance of contractor’s brief description of
the work, bills of quantities, contractor’s rates, conditions of contract etc.
5. Letter of acceptance of a tender and written order to commence work.
6. Conditions of contract
7. Schedule of item of works
8. Schedule of issue of materials and tools and plants.
9. General specifications and detailed specifications.
10. Working drawings.

Pavement surface characteristics:

The important surface characteristics of the pavement are:

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 Friction
 Unevenness
 Light reflecting characteristics
 Drainage of surface water

ii. Width of Pavement or Carriageway:

It is total width of road on which vehicles are allowed to move.
 The width of pavement depends on width of traffic lane and number of lanes.
 Width of lane is decided based on maximum width of heavy commercial vehicle
(HCV) which is legally permitted to use the roadway.
The width of carriageway for various classes of roads standardised by Indian Roads Congress
(IRC) are given below:

iii. Cross Slope or Camber:

Cross slope or camber is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse direction to
drain off the rain water from the road surface.
 Drainage and disposal of water from pavement is considered important because of
the following reason:
a) To maintain stability, surface condition and increase life of pavement.
b) To prevent stripping of bitumen from aggregates.
c) To prevent slipping of vehicles running at high speed.
• The rate of camber or cross slope is usually designated by 1 in n or may also be expressed as a
percentage.

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• The required camber of a pavement depends on type of pavement surface and amount of
rainfall
The values of camber recommended by IRC for different types of road surfaces are given
below:

Shape Of Cross Slope:

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iv. Median or Traffic Separator:

Median is provided between two sets of traffic lanes intended to divide the traffic moving in
opposite directions.
 The main function of the median is to prevent head-on collision between vehicles moving
in opposite directions on adjacent lanes.
 The traffic separators used may be in form of pavement markings, physical dividers or
area separators.
The width of medians for roads standardised by Indian Roads Congress (IRC) are given below:

v. Kerbs:
Kerb indicates the boundary between the pavement and median or foot path or shoulder.
• Kerbs may be mainly divided into three groups based on their functions:
a) Low kerb
b) Semi-barrier type kerb
c) Barrier type kerb

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vi. Road Margins:

The various elements included in the road margins are:
A. Shoulder
B. Guard rail
C. Foot path
D. Drive way
E. Cycle track
F. Parking lane
G. Embankment slope.
vii. Width of Formation or Roadway:
Width of formation or roadway is the sum of widths of pavement or carriageway including
separators, if any and the shoulders.
• Width of roadway are standardised by the Indian Roads Congress.

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Overtaking Sight Distance:

The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle intending to overtake slow
vehicle ahead with safety against traffic of opposite direction is known as minimum overtaking
sight distance or safe passing sight distance available.
Factors on which overtaking sight distance Depends
Minimum OSD required for the safe overtaking depends on:
a) Speed of overtaking, overtaken vehicle and vehicle coming from opposite direction if
any.
b) Skill and reaction time of the driver.
c) Distance between overtaking and overtaken vehicles.
d) Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle
e) Gradient of the road if any
Design of Horizontal Alignment:
Various design elements to be considered in the horizontal alignment are :
a) Design speed
b) Horizontal curve
c) Super elevation
d) Type and length of transition curves
e) Widening of pavement on curves
f) Set-back distance
a. Design speed
The design speed is the main factor on which geometric design elements depends.
The design speed of roads depends upon
I. Class of the road
II. Terrain
Classification of Terrain

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Design Speed On highways

Horizontal curve
A horizontal highway curve is a curve in plan to provide change in direction to the central line of
a road.
o When a vehicle traverses a horizontal curve, the centrifugal force acts horizontally
outwards through the centre of gravity of the vehicle.
o The centrifugal force is given by the equation:
P = Wv²∕gR
where,
P=centrifugal force in kg

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W=Weight of the vehicle in kg

R=radius of the circular curve in m
v=speed of the vehicle in m/s
g=acceleration due to gravity=9.8 m/s2
• P/W is known as the centrifugal ratio or the impact factor. The centrifugal ratio is thus equal to
v²∕gR.
• The centrifugal force acting on a vehicle negotiating a horizontal curve has two effects:
i. Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about the outer wheels
ii. Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally, outwards
c. Super elevation (e):
In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to reduce the tendency of the vehicle to
overturn or skid, the outer edge of the pavement is raised with respect to the inner edge, thus
providing a transverse slope throughout the length of the horizontal curve.
• This transverse inclination to the pavement surface is known as Super elevation or cant or
banking.
The Super elevation ‘e’ is expressed as the ratio of the height of outer edge with respect to the
horizontal width.

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Analysis of Superelevation

For equilibrium condition,

P cosө=W sinө+FA+FB
P cosө=W sinө+ f.RA + f.RB
P cosө=W sinө+f(RA+RB)
P cosө=W sinө+f(W cos ө+P sin ө)
P(cosө – f sinө)=W sinө+f Wcosө
Dividing by Wcosө,
P/W(1- f tanө)=tanө+f
Centrifugal ratio =P/W= tanө+f /(1-f tanө)
The value of coefficient of lateral friction ‘f’ is taken as 0.15 and tanө i.e. super elevation seldom
exceeds 7-10%.
• Therefore,

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Centrifugal ratio =P/W = tanө+f

P/W = e + f ……i
but P/W = v²∕gR ……ii
• Therefore, the general equation for the design of super elevation is given by,
e + f = v²∕gR
If ‘V’ speed of the vehicle is in kmph,
e + f = V²∕ 127R
where,
e=rate of Superelevation=tanӨ
f = design value of lateral friction
coefficient = 0.15
v = speed of the vehicle, m/sec
R = radius of the horizontal curve, m
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec²
Maximum Superelevation
• Indian Roads Congress (IRC) had fixed the maximum limit of Superelevation in plan and
rolling terrains and is snow bound areas as 7.0 %.
• On hill roads not bound by snow a maximum Superelevation upto10% is recommended.
• On urban road stretches with frequent
intersections, it may be necessary to limit the maximum Superelevation to 4.0 %.
Minimum Superelevation
• From drainage consideration it is necessary to have a minimum cross slope to drain off the
surface water. If the calculated superelevation is equal to or less than the camber of the road
surface, then the minimum superelevation to be provided on horizontal curve may be limited to
the camber of the surface.
Steps For Superelevation Design
Step-I: The superelevation for 75 percent of design speed is calculated, neglecting the friction.
e =(0.75v)²∕ gR …..if ‘v’ is in m/sec
e =(V)²∕ 225R …..if ‘V’ is in kmph
Step-II: If the calculated value of ‘e’ is less than 7% or 0.07 the value so obtained is provided.

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• If the value of ‘e’ exceeds 7% or 0.07 then provides maximum superelevation equal to 7% or
0.07 and proceed with step-III or IV.
Step-III: Check the coefficient of friction developed for the maximum value of e =0.07 at the
full value of design speed.
f =v²∕ gR - 0.07 …..if ‘v’ is in m/sec
f =V²∕ 127R - 0.07 …..if ‘V’ is in kmph
• If the value of ‘f’ thus calculated is less than 0.15, the super elevation of 0.07 is safe for the
design speed. If not, calculate the restricted speed as given in Step -IV.
Step-IV: The allowable speed at the curve is calculated by considering the design coefficient of
lateral friction and the maximum superelevation.
e + f =0.07+0.15=va²∕ gR=Va²∕ 127R
e + f =0.22=va²∕ gR = Va²∕ 127R
• Safe allowable speed (va or Va) is calculated as:

• If the allowed speed, as calculated above is higher than the design speed, then the design is
adequate and provides a superelevation of ‘e’ equal to 0.07.
• If the allowable speed is less than the design speed, the speed is limited to the allowed speed
calculated above and appropriate warning sign and speed limit regulation sign are installed to
restrict and regulate the speed
Attainment of superelevation in the field:
The attainment of superelevation may be split up into two parts:
a. Elimination of crown of the cambered section
b. Rotation of pavement to attain full superelevation
Horizontal Transition Curve:
A transition curve has a radius which decreases from infinity at the tangent point to a designed
radius of the circular curve.

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• The rate of change of radius of the transition curve will depend on the shape of the curve
adopted and the equation of the curve.

Objects of providing transition curve:

A transition curve which is introduced between straight and a circular curve will help in:
a) Gradually introducing centrifugal force.
b) Gradually introducing designed superelevation.
c) Gradually introducing extra widening.
d) To enable the driver turn steering gradually for his own comfort
and safety.
Length of transition curve:
The length of transition curve is designed to fulfill three conditions:
a) Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration to be developed
gradually
b) Rate of introduction of designed superelevation
c) Minimum length by IRC empirical formula
Set Back Distance:
• Set back distance is the distance from centre of horizontal curve to an obstruction on inner side

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of the curve.
• Set back distance is required to provide adequate sight distance on the horizontal curve.
• Obstruction to the sight distance on horizontal curve may be buildings, trees, cut slopes on the
inner side of curve.
On narrow road, the sight distance is measured along the centre line of road.
• On wider road, the sight distance is measured along the centre line of inner side lane.
• Set back distance depends on:
a) Required sight distance, S
b) Radius of horizontal curve, R
c) Length of the curve, Lc
Vertical Alignment:
• The vertical alignment is the elevation or profile of the centre line of the road.
• The vertical alignment consists of grades and vertical curves.
• The vertical alignment of a highway influences:
i. Vehicle speed
ii. Acceleration and deceleration
iii. Sight distance
iv. Vehicle operation cost
v. Comfort while travelling at high speeds
Gradients:
 Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of road with respect to the
horizontal.
 It is expressed as a ratio of 1 in n or also as percentage such as n%.
Types Of Gradients:
• Gradients are divided into four categories:
a) Ruling gradient
b) Limiting gradient
c) Exceptional gradient
d) Minimum gradient
a. Ruling gradient:

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• Ruling gradient is the maximum gradient within which the designer attempts to design the
vertical profile of a road.
• Ruling gradient is also known as ‘Design gradient’.
• For selection of ruling gradient factors such as type of terrain, length of the grade, speed,
pulling power of vehicle etc are considered
b. Limiting gradient:
• Steeper than ruling gradient. In hilly roads, it may be frequently necessary to exceed ruling
gradient and adopt limiting gradient, it depends on
i. Topography
ii. Cost in constructing the road

c Exceptional gradient:
 Exceptional gradient are very steeper gradients given at unavoidable situations.
 They should be limited for short stretches not exceeding about 100 m at a stretch.

d. Minimum gradient:
 This is important only at locations where surface drainage is important.
 Camber will take care of the lateral drainage.
 But the longitudinal drainage along the side drains require some slope for smooth
flow of water.
 Therefore minimum gradient is provided for drainage purpose and it depends on
the rainfall,
 type of soil and other site conditions.

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 A minimum of 1in500 may be sufficient for concrete drain and 1in 200 or 1 in
100 for open soil drains.
Grade Compensation:
When sharp horizontal curve is to be introduced on a road which has already maximum
permissible gradient, then gradient should be decreased to compensate for loss of tractive efforts
due to curve.
• This reduction in gradient at horizontal curve is called grade compensation.
Grade compensation, % = 30+R/R
IRC gave the following specification for the grade compensation:
1) Grade compensation is not required for grades flatter than 4% because the loss of tractive
force is negligible.
2) The maximum grade compensation is limited to 75/R%.
Compensated gradient = ruling gradient – grade compesation
Vertical Curves:
• The vertical curves used in highway may be classified into two categories:
a) Summit curves or crest curves
b) Valley curves or sag curves
a. Summit curves or crest curves:

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b. Valley curves or sag curves:

Length of summit curve:

• While designing the length the parabolic summit curves, it is necessary to consider SSD and
OSD Separately.
Length of summit curve for stopping sight distance (SSD):
Two cases are considered in deciding the length:

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a. When L>SSD
b. When L<SSD
Length of valley curve:
• The important factors to be considered in valley curve design are:
a) Impact free movement of vehicles at design speed or comfort to
passenger.
b) Providing adequate sight distance under head lights of vehicles for
night driving
c) Locating lowest point of valley curve for providing suitable cross
drainage facilities

.
highway geometric design has the following objectives:
1. Determine, within the allowance permitted by the design standard and right-of-way, the
routing of proposed highway.
2. Incorporate, within the design standard, various physical features of the road alignment to
ensure that drivers have sufficient view of the road (and obstacles) ahead for them to adjust their
speed of travel to maintain safety and ride quality.
3. Provide a basis for the highway engineers to evaluate and plan for the construction of a section
of the proposed highway.

Design Process
A highway designer is concerned with at least four major areas of design at different stages
of project planning and design phases:

1. location design
2. alignment design
3. cross sectional design; and
4. access design

Location design takes place at the earlier stage of project planning. It refers to the macro-level
routing of a planned highway connecting two points through the existing highways,

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communities, natural terrain. Normally, information such as lane-use master plan; existing and
projected population distribution; survey maps; maps of existing infrastructure; geology,
ecological, biological, and environmental information; and aerial photographs are among the
essential inputs

Highway Alignment Design

Overall Alignment

The alignment of a highway is a three-dimensional problem because the highway itself

negotiates through
the terrain in connecting two points. The highway may be visualized as segments of connected
horizontal
and vertical curves (or their combination)

The alignment of a highway is best represented by its centre line in a three-dimensional

coordinate system (e.g., longitude, latitude, and elevation).. However, for the ease of
interpretation of the construction drawing, the convention of plan and profile views has been
adopted.

The plan view gives the horizontal alignment of a highway. The length of the highway is
measured along the plan view, on a horizontal plane. The length is expressed in terms of distance
from a reference station, in terms of stations. Each station is 100 m. A highway normally starts
from a fixed reference station. The distance from the reference station, together with the
direction from the reference station or subsequent stations, spells out the horizontal alignment.
The vertical alignment (including the gradients and vertical curves) are represented in a profile
view.
The profile view is the view along the length (including the true length of horizontal curve) of
the highway. The elevations of all the points at regular intervals or when necessary are specified
in the profile view.

Horizontal Alignment

A horizontal curve provides the directional transition on the horizontal plane, between two
straight sections of the highway running in different directions. Horizontal curves are expressed

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as circular curves with constant radii,

or successive curves with different radii. Spiral curves with constant rate of change of radius can
also be found. A curve can be described by its radius or by its degree of curvature. This chapter
covers horizontal curves with constant radii

Figure below shows the properties of a curve with a constant radius ðRÞ connecting two straight
sections of a highway. The curve starts at point of curvature (PC), ends at point of tangent (PT).
The point of intersection (PI) is the intersecting point if the two straight lines are extended. D is
the central angle of the curve, expressed in degrees.
The length of tangent T is

The middle ordinate M is

The external distance E is

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The degree of curvature ðDÞ is the central angle subtended by a 100 m arc of the curve.

The length of the curve L is

A horizontal curve is to be designed to connect two straight sections of a highway. The PI is

originally
determined to be stn 180 + 00, and  is 30o. If the radius of the curve is fixed at 403.15 m, what
are the
station numbers of PC and PT, and the length of the curve?

Vertical Alignment

A vertical curve provides a smooth transition between two tangent grades. There are two types of
vertical
curves: crest vertical curves and sag vertical curves. Example profiles of crest and sag vertical

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curves are
shown in Figure with the initial grade G1; final grade G2; and their signs.

As a departure from the horizontal curve, the points of curvature, intersection and tangent of a
vertical
curve are denoted by PVC, PVI and PVT, respectively. The length of curve L is the distance
between PVC and PVT measured along the horizontal plane. The PVI is at the midpoint between
PVC and PVT
along the horizontal plane.

The verticalcurves are parabolic in form. The parabolic curve has been used for the purpose of
calculation
because it has a constant rate of change of slope and equal curve tangents on both ends of the
curve

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A crest vertical curve is shown in Figure above .Note that an uphill is expressed in a positive
gradient while a downhill is expressed in a negative gradient.
A vertical curve starts at the point of vertical curvature (PVC) and ends at the point of vertical
tangent
(PVT). The length of highway between PVC and PVT is L: The initial and final grades are
denoted by G1 and
G2; respectively, expressed in %. Based on the equation of a parabolic curve, the vertical offset y
at any
distance x from the projected initial gradient is

Negative values of y mean a downward offset from the projected tangent from PVC (as in the
case of crest
vertical curves) while positive values of y mean a upward offset from the projected tangent from
PVC (in sag
vertical curves). The highest or lowest point on the curve is given by

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Example
A highway must traverse a 6% followed by a -2% grade. The length of the crest vertical curve is
2040 m.
Calculate the elevation for the first 600 m of the vertical curve at 100 m intervals, and the highest
point of
the curve

The negative value means that the elevation is measured downward from the projected original
gradient, based on G1:
The highest point on the vertical curve is

Design Elements

Sight Distance
Sight distance is the roadway ahead that is visible to the driver. Various sight distance criteria
exist in highway geometric design to provide drivers with sufficient warning of potential
obstacle or conflict ahead.

Stopping Sight Distance

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Stopping sight distance is the distance traveled during a driver’s brake reaction time plus the
braking distance for the vehicle to come to a complete stop. The equation to compute stopping
sight distance without vehicle skidding is

where V is the design speed, a the constant deceleration rate, G the grade (in decimal, positive
value for upgrade, and negative value for downgrade), and g = 9.81 m/sec2. AASHTO
recommends that t =2.5 sec and a = 3.4 m/sec2 be used in determining the minimum stopping
sight distance.

Decision Sight Distance

Decision sight distance is the distance needed for a driver to detect and perceive an obstacle or
information, and select an appropriate maneuver. This is important when a driver is approaching
a traffic
control device, or posted information signs. Because decision sight distance is for drivers to a
maneuver
or evasive action rather than just to stop, it is greater than stopping sight distance. The decision
sight distance for change in speed, path or direction on rural, suburban, and urban road may be
calculated from

d =Vt
AASHTO (2001) recommends a range of 10.2 ≤ t ≤ 14.5 sec

Passing Sight Distance on Two-Lane Road

In a two-lane road, the sight distance required when pulling out to the opposing lane to pass a
slow
moving vehicle is critical in determining where no-passing zone should exist. The passing sight
distance
is the sum (Figure

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d =d1 +d2 + d3 + d4

where d1 is the initial maneuver distance, which is the sum of distances traveled during
perception and
reaction time plus the initial period of acceleration until the vehicle encroaches the passing lane.
The
corresponding time for this initial maneuver is t1.d1 is given by the expression:

in which v is the average speed of the passing vehicle, and m is the relative speed of the passed
and passing
vehicles, and a is the average acceleration. d2 is the distance traveled while the vehicle is
occupying the passing lane. The corresponding time is t2:

d2 = vt2

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d3 is the clearance length, for margin of safety between the passing and opposing vehicles.
AASHTO recommends that 30 ≤ d3 ≤ 90 m for 56 ≤ v ≤ 100 km/h. d4 is the distance traveled
by the opposing vehicle during the passing maneuver during time t1 + t2: AASHTO recommends
that the opposing vehicle may be assumed to travel with speed v; and d4 may be taken as

For sight distance calculations, the following values usually apply:

* Height of the driver’s eye above road surface = 1.080 m for passenger cars, 2.330 m for trucks
* Height of object: 600 mm for stopping sight distance, 1.080 m for passing sight distance

Radius of Horizontal Curve

The design of horizontal curves should be based on a combination of design speed, curvature,
and superelevation, subject to the laws of physics and limitations of human comfort and
tolerance

The governing equation, based on the law of mechanics, is

where:
e = rate of super-elevation, in decimal;
f = side friction factor between the tire and the
pavement surface;
v = vehicle speed.

R =radius of horizontal curve.

g = gravitational constant = 9.81 m/sec2

Most common values are

e ≤ 0.04 to e ≤ 0.06.

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AASHTO recommends the use of f = 0.10 for v = 110 km/h to

f = 0.15 for v = 60 km/h. When the product of e and f becomes negligible, the above equation
may be
re-written into conservative form of

which governs the minimum horizontal turning radius.

Example

1.2. Verify and confirm safety equipment

 Interpretation of site  safety management plan

1.1 Management and review

This WHS Management Plan has been developed to outline our approach to managing work
health and safety (WHS) at the site

We will:

 make this plan available to all workers and contractors on this project and ensure
they have the opportunity to read, understand, clarify and ask questions

 keep a copy of the WHS Management Plan readily available for the duration of the
project

 review the plan regularly throughout this project and make any revisions known to
those working on the project

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Roles and responsibilities

1.2 Principal contractor

The principal contractor of this project is responsible for:

 preparing, updating and implementing this WHS Management Plan, including all
associated procedures

 identifying and observing all legal WHS requirements

 ensuring that all works are conducted in a manner without risk to workers

 planning to do all work safely

 participating in the planning and design stages of trade activities

 identifying WHS training required for an activity

 ensuring workers undertake identified WHS training

 communicating and consulting with workers

 investigating hazard reports and ensuring that corrective actions are undertaken

 assisting in rehabilitation and return to work initiatives

 dispute resolution

1.3 Contractors

Contractors who are engaged for this project are responsible for:

 fulfilling the duties of PCBU for their own operations

 identifying all high risk construction work associated with their activities and
ensuring safe work method statements are developed and implemented

 complying with the duties as listed under ’Workers’

 following all safety policies and procedures and site rules

 complying with this WHS Management Plan

 complying with any direction given to them by the principal contactor

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 undertaking site-specific induction before starting work and signing off that they
have completed this induction

  Ensuring the workers they engage also undertake the site specific induction.

 ensuring they have the correct tools and equipment and these are in a serviceable
condition for the task

1.4 Workers

All workers on this project (including those employed by contractors) are responsible for:

 taking reasonable care of their own health and safety

 taking reasonable care that their conduct does not adversely affect others

 complying with instruction, so far as they are reasonably able

 cooperating with reasonable notified policies or procedures

Types of road safety equipment

 PPE(personal protective equipment)

 Road safety signs

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Mandatory/regulatory signs:

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Cautionary/warning signs: A few of the Cautionary/ Warning signs

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Informatory signs:

Road Markings

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 Road barriers systems

 firefighting equipment

first aid equipment

1.3.Select material, tools and equipment

 Interpretation of job requirement of materials, tools and equipment

 materials used on road layer construction

 Soil
 Aggregate
 Sand
 Cement
 Bitumen
 Water
 Rock

Paraffin

 Sealing product
 Steel bars
 Binding wire
 Timber
 Master cure
 Geotextile
 Pipe
 Nail
 Admixtures
 disc

Introduction on categories of tools used on road layer construction

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Measurement tools

 Spirit Level
 Folding Steel Rule
 Tape Measure.

Digging tools

 Hoe
 Pick axe
 Other useful tools
 Categories of equipment used on road layer construction

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Excavation equipment

EARTHMOVING EQUIPMENT SELECTION

Earthmoving equipment included in this discussion are:

 Bulldozers
 Front-end loaders
 Motor graders
 Scrapers
 Trucks

BULLDOZERS
A bulldozer is a tractor unit with a blade attached to its front. The blade is used to push,
shear, cut, and roll material ahead of the tractor

FRONT-END LOADERS
Front-end loaders typically are tractor powered and operate on tires. They are typically
articulated and very maneuverable, making them ideal for constricted areas

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MOTOR GRADERS

This type of equipment has been around since the start of road building, though originally
powered by a team of oxen, mules, or horses. The need for a smooth stable travel surface has
always been an important part of a road system This name is appropriate because this equipment
is typically used to maintain
grade and a smooth surface for rural non paved travel roads or haul routes on construction
sites

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SCRAPERS
Scrapers are designed to load, haul, and dump loose material. The greatest advantage is their
versatility. They can be used for a wide variety of material types and are economical for
a range of haul distances and conditions. They are a compromise between a bulldozer, an
excavator, and a dump truck

EXCAVATORS
The excavator combines digging and lifting abilities

Excavators are ideal for underground utility construction. For trenching, the operator
fills the bucket and dumps to the side above grade.

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Excavator parts

Backhoes
Backhoes are probably the most common piece of construction equipment found on
commercial construction projects. They come in many sizes and are ideal for light excavation,
trenching, material moving, and loading.

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Grading equipment

The function of grading equipment is to bring the earthwork to the desired shape and elevation.
Major types of grading equipment include motor graders and grade trimmers

 Paver machine

Compaction equipment

The function of compaction equipment is to produce higher density in soil mechanically.

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Concrete mixer

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Lifting and Erecting

Derricks are commonly used to lift equipment of materials in industrial or building construction.
A derrick consists of a vertical mast and an inclined boom sprouting from the foot of the mast

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Tower cranes are used to lift loads to great heights and to facilitate the erection of steel building

frames.

 Sprayer machine
 Cleaning machine
 Cutting machine

Trucks

TRUCKS
Trucks are an extremely important part of the earthmoving and material-moving process.

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 Concrete vibrator

Rock drill

Pavement Purpose

Typically, pavements are built for three main purposes:

1. Load support.  Pavement material is generally stiffer than the material upon which it

2. is placed, thus it assists the in situ material in resisting loads without excessive
deformation or cracking.

3. Smoothness.  Pavement material can be placed and maintained much smoother than
in situ material.  This helps improve ride comfort and reduce vehicle operating
costs.

4. Drainage.  Pavement material and geometric design can effect quick and efficient
drainage thus eliminating moisture problems such as mud and ponding (puddles).

Learning Unit 2: construct sub-grade layer

The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses from the layers
above. It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed. It should be compacted to the
desirable density, near the optimum moisture content.

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Layer of natural soil prepared to receive layers of pavement placed over the loads on pavement
are received by soil subgrade for dispersion to the earth mass
Materials- Selected Soil , Moorum , Gravel , Aggregate maximum 50 mm.

Construction Method –
•The subgrade is constructed by spreading the loose soil and compacting the same at optimum
moisture content of the soil in layer.
•The maximum compacted thickness of each layer is generally limited to 200 mm as per
MORTH.

2.1. Cut and fill sub-grade materials

 Description of sub-grade layer drawings

 Communication with excavator operator.

2.2. Grade sub-grade layer

 Description of surveying data related to sub-grade layer

 Monitoring of grader machine
 2.3. Cure and compact sub-grade layer
 Description of sub-grade specifications
 Curing methods of sub-grade layer
 Water curing
 Compacting techniques
 Vibrating
 Rolling
 Impact

Check sub-grade level

 Description of sub-grade layer specification

 Checking sub-base level by
 Using pegs based on surveying data
 dipping

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Final check of sub-grade slope and thickness

Learning Unit 3: construct sub-base layer

The subbase course is between the base course and the subgrade.  It functions primarily as
structural support but it can also:

1. Minimize the intrusion of fines from the subgrade into the pavement structure.

2. Improve drainage.

3. Minimize frost action damage.

4. Provide a working platform for construction. 

The subbase generally consists of lower quality materials than the base course but better
than the subgrade soils.  A subbase course is not always needed or used. 

For example, a pavement constructed over a high quality, stiff subgrade may not need the
additional features offered by a subbase course so it may be omitted from design.  However, a
pavement constructed over a low quality soil such as a swelling clay may require the additional
load distribution characteristic that a subbase course can offer.  In this scenario the subbase
course may consist of high quality fill used to replace poor quality subgrade (over excavation).

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Dump sub base material

 Description of sub-base layer thickness

 dumping sub-base materials process
 placing of sub-base materials in one direction
 estimate the spacing distance

3.2. Grading of subbase layer

 Description of sub-base layer specification

 Monitoring of grader machine
 checking sub-base slope

2.3. Cure and compact sub-base layer

Compaction method
 Static
 Impact
 Vibrating
 Rolling
 Curing process

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 Checking of compaction degree

2.4. Check sub-base level

 Checking methods
 dipping
 Measurement tools

Final check of sub-base slope and thickness

Learning Unit 4: construct base layer

Base Course

The base course is immediately beneath the surface course.  It provides additional load
distribution and contributes to drainage and frost resistance.  Base courses are usually
constructed out of:

1. Aggregate.  Base courses are most typically constructed from durable aggregates (see
Figure 2.5) that will not be damaged by moisture or frost action.  Aggregates can be
either stabilized or unstabilized.  ,it may be composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and
other untreated or stabilized materials

HMA.  In certain situations where high base stiffness is desired, base courses can be constructed
using a variety of HMA mixes.  In relation to surface course HMA mixes, base course mixes
usually contain larger maximum aggregate sizes, are more open graded and are subject to more
lenient specifications

Base Material
Base material shall be manufactured from hard, durable stone or recycled building materials free
+of clay lumps, organic matter and other deleterious substances. The material may be crusher run
or screened and recombined. 0788276771

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If materials of different type or from different sources are delivered to the site, they shall be
placed in separate layers or separate lots.

3.1. Dump base material

 Description of sub-base layer thickness

 dumping base materials process
 placing of sub-base materials in one direction

Estimate the spacing distance

3.2. Grading of base layer

 Description of base layer specification

 Monitoring of grader machine
 checking base slope

2.3. Cure and compact base layer

 compaction method

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o Static
o Impact
o Vibrating
o Rolling

 Curing process
 Check compaction degree

Check base slope

2.4.Check base level

 checking methods
 Using pegs and measuring tools based on surveying data
 Digging
 Final check of base slope and thickness

Learning Unit 5: construct asphalt wearing coarse

Surface Course

The surface course is the layer in contact with traffic loads and normally contains the
highest quality materials.  It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, noise control,
rut and shoving resistance and drainage.  In addition, it serves to prevent the entrance of
excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying base, subbase and subgrade (NAPA,
2001).  This top structural layer of material is sometimes subdivided into two layers (NAPA,
2001):

1. Wearing Course. This is the layer in direct contact with traffic loads.  It is meant to take
the brunt of traffic wear and can be removed and replaced as it becomes worn.  A
properly designed (and funded) preservation program should be able to identify pavement
surface distress while it is still confined to the wearing course.  This way, the wearing
course can be rehabilitated before distress propagates into the underlying
intermediate/binder course.

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Intermediate/Binder Course. This layer provides the bulk of the HMA structure.  It's chief
purpose is to distribute load

5.1. Spray prime coat

Description of asphalt layer specifications

Description on prime coat mix design
Heating of prime coat materials

Spraying of prime coat material process

Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent surface like granular
bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides bonding between two layers. Unlike tack coat,
prime coat penetrates into the layer below, plugs the voids, and forms a water tight surface.
5.2.Spray tack coat

Heating of bitumen

Spraying of tack coat material process

Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion diluted with water. It
provides proper bonding between two layer of binder course and must be thin, uniformly cover
the entire surface, and set very fast.

Seal Coat:
Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and to provide skid
resistance.
Surface course
Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally contains superior
quality materials. They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt concrete (AC). The
functions and requirements of this layer are:
 It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc. Also it will prevent
the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying base, sub-base
and sub-grade,

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 It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and skid-
resistant riding surface,
 It must be water proof to protect the entire base and sub-grade from the weakening effect
of water.
Binder course

 This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. It's chief purpose is to
distribute load to the base course The binder course generally consists of aggregates
having less asphalt and doesn't require quality as high as the surface course, so replacing
a part of the surface course by the binder course results in more economical design.
5.4. Spread asphalt material

 dumping asphalt materials process

 placing of asphalt materials in one direction

estimate the spacing distance

5.3. Level asphalt manually

Leveling of asphalt manually

 Asphalt jointing procedure

 Prepare the working area
 Measure the joint
 Estimate the asphalt to be used
 Place the asphalt in joint

Check joint level with layer level

5.4. Screed asphalt

 Monitoring of paver machine

 Leveling of asphalt layer process

5.5. Compact asphalt

 Succession of compaction machines

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 Monitor pass of rolling and vibrating according to the load of machines

Learning Unit 6: construct rigid pavement layer

6.1.Prepare concrete work

-CEMENT
Cement is an essential ingredient in making the concrete as the material hardens with time and
Holds other particles in a definite relationship to each other it is a well binding material
When all the ingredients are mixed, the cement and water react together and the resulting
reaction products bind the sand and coarse aggregate together to form concrete
This reaction process is known as hydration.
There two states of concrete

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 Fresh concrete (plastic)

 Hardened concrete

Plastic state refers to the state of concrete before it has set and hardened.
During this state, concrete is placed in a formwork and compacted. It should be workable so that
it can be easily mixed, placed, compacted and finished at the surface. After the concrete has been
placed in the formwork, it hardens and gains strength. Hardened concrete should be durable,
impermeable and should have adequate strength.

Workability
Is defined as the property of concrete that determines the amount useful interval work needed to
Overcome internal friction between individual particles of mix to produce full compaction.
Factors affecting workability of concrete
 Water cement ratio
 Mix proportion
 Surface texture of aggregates/shape
 Size of aggregates
 Temperature
 Time
 Segregation
It is a separation of coarse aggregate from mortar which results in their non- uniform distribution
(nonhomogeneous).
Causes of segregation
 Difference in sizes of particles ingredients of concrete
 Difference in specific gravities of ingredients of concrete
 Improper mix proportions

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 Incorrect handling of mixed concrete during transportation and placement.

 Over-compaction
Bleeding
Bleeding is the form of segregation in which water in a concrete mix rises to the surface during
its placing.
Causes of bleeding
More water present than which is required for cement paste to lubricate the aggregate particles
and slid constituents of mix cannot be able to hold all the mixing water when they settle down.
 Mixing of cement concrete materials to the required mixing ratio
 Covering of cement concrete

6.2. Prepare steel framework

 Preparation of work place

 Tying of steel bar

6.3. Install formwork and steel framework

 Preparation of the working place

 Installation process
 Installation of support post
 Assembling of wood formwork
 Checking level of formwork
 Install frame work process
 Placing of steel framework on the formwork
 Placing of reinforcement spacer

6.4. Cast concrete

 Casting concrete process

 Preparation of the work place
 Placing of cement concrete

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 Vibrating of cement concrete

Mixing of concrete
A thorough (careful) mixing of the materials is important for the production of uniform
concrete. The mixing should ensure that the mass becomes homogeneous, uniform in color and
consistency.
Concrete may be mixed on the site, or at works for precast concrete or for delivery to the site as
ready mixed concrete.
Methods of mixing concrete
Concrete can be mixed by two methods as follow:
Hand mixing
Machine mixing
1. Hand mixing
It is used for mix for small scale unimportant concrete works
Disadvantages
 The concrete mix is not uniform
 The concrete output is small
 The time consumption is high
 The quality of concrete is poor

2. Machine mixing
It is achieved by the use of concrete mixers at the construction sites for medium and large scale
mass concrete work.
Advantages of machine mixing of concrete
 The concrete mix is uniform
 Concrete output is large
 Time consumption is less
 Concrete quality is excellent
 It is economical for large scale concrete work.

6.6. Level and scratch the pavement

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 Leveling process
 Setting out
 Conduct concrete leveling to the layer level

scratching with different tools and equipment

6.7. Seal rigid pavement joints

 Properties of sealant materials

 Elasticity
 Adhesion
 Modulus
 Compatibility
 Weather ability
 Cohesion
 Types of sealant
 Hot-poured elastomeric sealant

Low modulus

 silicone sealant
 Preformed
 Preparation of working place

Placing sealant in joint process

6.8. Cure concrete

 Curing methods
 Shading of concrete work
 Covering concrete surfaces
 Membrane curing
 Steam curing
 Ponding curing

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 Electrical, oil, microwave, and

infrared curing

Type of equipment used in concrete curing

 Curing tank
 Curing trucks

Field curing chest

Curing of concrete
One of the most important operations in which concrete is kept continuously damp (wet) for
some days to enable the concrete to gain more strength. Under normal conditions it would be
expected to stay plastic for approximately 3-4 hours.
It can be described as the process of maintaining satisfactory moisture content and a favorable
temperature in concrete during the period immediately following placement, so that hydration of
Cement may continue until the desired properties are developed to a sufficient degree to meet
the requirement of service.
Curing replaces the loss of moisture from the concrete due evaporation, absorption and heat of
reaction.

Concrete curing methods may be divided broadly into four categories:

1. Water curing
2. Membrane curing
3. Temperature curing or Application of heat
4. Miscellaneous

Water Curing
This is by far the best method of curing as it satisfies all the requirements of curing, namely,
promotion of hydration, elimination of shrinkage and absorption of the heat of hydration.
Water curing can be done in the following ways:
1. Immersion
2. Spray water at regular intervals

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3. Impounding water in earthen or sandy bunds in squares over the floors slabs
4. Spraying or Fogging
5. Wet Covering by putting saw dust, wet sand

The precast concrete items are normally immersed in curing tanks for a certain duration.
Pavement slabs, roof slab etc. are covered under water by making small ponds. Vertical retaining
wall or plastered surfaces or concrete columns etc. are cured by spraying water. In some cases,
wet coverings such as wet gunny bags, hessian cloth, jute matting, straw etc.,
Membrane Curing

Sometimes, concrete works are carried out in places where there is acute shortage of water.
Curing does not mean only application of water; it means also creation of conditions for
promotion of uninterrupted and progressive hydration.
Temperature curing or Application of heat
The development of strength of concrete is a function of not only time but also that of
temperature.
When concrete is subjected to higher temperature it accelerates the hydration process resulting in
faster development of strength.
The exposure of concrete to higher temperature is done in the following manner:
1. Steam curing at ordinary pressure
2. Steam curing at high pressure
3. Curing by Infra-red radiation
4. Electrical curing.
5. Hot water curing

Miscellaneous Methods of Curing

Application of calcium chloride on the surface will retain the moisture and help in curing.
Calcium chloride is used either as a surface coating or as an admixture. It has been used
satisfactorily as a curing medium. Both these methods are based on the fact that calcium chloride
being a salt shows affinity for moisture. The salt not only absorbs moisture from atmosphere but
also retains it at the surface.
The period of curing depends upon atmospheric condition such as temperature, humidity and
wind velocity.

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The normal period is 10 to 14 days.

Effects of improper curing of concrete
If concrete is allowed to dry uncared, moisture from the surface will evaporate at a faster rate
with the result that insufficient water will be left for hydration.
The followings are the effects of improper curing:
 Minutes cracks will appear on concrete surface
 Internal cracks due to heat of hydration will develop
 Uneven strength across the section will develop resulting in reduction of strength
 Reduced resistance to abrasion(rubbing) at the exposed surface
 Increased permeability of concrete resulting in reduced durability of concrete
 Reduced resistance to frost and weathering action.

1. Finishing of concrete
This is the last operation in production of concrete. Finishing does not apply to all concrete
operations.
For example, finishing may not apply to beam concreting while concrete road pavement
needs finishing.
Concrete is incapable of offering pleasant architectural appearance and finish. This disadvantage
of concrete is now being corrected and concretes these days are made to show pleasant surface
finishes.
The appearance of concrete members is governed by either surface finish, and this is influenced
by three main factors: colour, texture and surface profile.

Learning Unit 7: Clean up

3.1. Clear the work area

 Description of environmental impact assessment

 Description of general safety rules
 Clearing method

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 manual clearing method

 mechanized clearing method

3.2. Remove materials

 Types of waste
 Biodegradable waste
 Chemical waste
 Demolition waste
 E-waste
 Industrial waste
 Recyclable waste
 Removing method
 Manual

Mechanized method

3.3. Maintain tools and equipment

 Description of manufacturer recommendation

 Cleaning method
 Manual cleaning
 mechanized cleaning method
 Requirements of handling and storing tools

What is pavement

 A structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed materials above the natural
soil subgrade, whose primary function is to distribute the applied vehicle loads to the sub-
grade.

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 The ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted stresses due to wheel load are suciently
reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing capacity of the sub-grade.
Types of Pavement

 Two types of pavements are generally accepted namely flexible pavements and rigid
pavements.
PURPOSE OF PAVEMENT-
1. Load support.
2. Smoothness.
3. Drainage.
4. All weather operation.
5. Direction and guidance.
The main determining factors when designing a road pavement are as follows:
• quality of sub-grade soils,
• distance to appropriate building materials – and their resulting costs,
• amount and type of traffic (heavy or light),
• traffic projections,
• weather conditions,
• maintenance demand.
Pavement Types
Rural roads can be categorised according to the main building materials used in the pavement:
 earth,
 gravel or aggregate,
 bituminous mixes,
 concrete, and
 stone or brick.

Ea rt h a nd gravel roads a re of ten referred to as roads with an un-bound surface as opposed to

bound surface treatments, which include bitumen or cement as a binder mixed into to the
aggregate used in the pavement.
Earth Roads

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The term earth road is often used for any road without a bound surface layer, i.e. a road without a
bituminous or cement based surface treatment. Often, gravel surfaced roads are incorrectly
referred to as earth roads.

Flexible pavement
Flexible pavements are those which on a whole have low or negligible flexural strength and
rather flexible in their structural action under load
Load transfer:
The wheel load acting on the pavement will be distributed to a wider area, and the stress
decreases with the depth. Flexible pavement layers reflect the deformation of the lower layers on
to the surface layer

TYPICAL LAYERS OF A FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement includes seal coat, surface course, tack coat,
binder course, prime coat, base course, sub-base course, compacted sub-grade, and natural sub-
grade.

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Typical flexible pavement layers ans typical thicknesses

 Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to waterproof the surface and to provide skid
resistance.
 Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt emulsion diluted with water. And It
provides bonding between two layers of binder course.
 Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent surface like
granular bases on which binder layer is placed and provides bonding between two layers.
 Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and are constructed with
dense graded asphalt concrete.
 Binder course purpose is to distribute load to the base course. Binder course requires
lesser quality of mix as compared to course above it.
 Base course provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface
drainage
 Sub-base course the primary functions are to provide structural support, improve
drainage, and reduce the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade in the pavement structure
 Sub-grade The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the
stresses from the layers above
FACTORS AFFECTING PAVEMENT DESIGN

1. Design Wheel Load

 Max. Wheel load
 Axle configuration
 Contact pressure
 ESWL.
 Repetition of loads
2. Climatic Factor
3. Pavement component material

Design Wheel Load.

 Max. Wheel load - It is used to determine the depth of the pavement required to ensure
that the subgrade soil does not fail.

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 Contact pressure - It determines the contact area and the contact pressure between the
wheel and the pavement surface. For simplicity elliptical contact area is consider to be
circular.
 Axle configuration - the axle configuration is important to know the way in which the
load is applied on the pavement surface.
 Repetition of loads :Each load application causes some deformation and the total
deformation is the summation of all these. Although the pavement deformation due to
single axle load is very small, the cumulative effect of number of load repetition is
significant.
Therefore, modern design is based on total number of standard axle load (usually 80 KN single
axle)
Climatic Factor

1. Temperature -
 Wide temperature variations may cause damaging effects.
 Pavement becomes soft in hot weather and brittle in very cold weather.
2. Variation in moisture condition –
 It depends on type of the pavement, type of soil type, ground water variation etc.
 It can be controlled by providing suitable surface and subsurface drainage.
Design procedures for flexible pavements:

Mechanistic-empirical design

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1. It can be used for both existing pavement rehabilitation and new pavement construction
2. It can accommodate changing load types
3. It uses material proportion that relates better with actual pavement performance
4. It provides more reliable performance predictions IRC:37-2012 is based on Mechanistic
Empirical Design
Failures of flexible pavements:
Different types of failure encountered in flexible pavements are as follow.
1) Alligator cracking or Map cracking (Fatigue)
2) Consolidation of pavement layers (Rutting)
3) Shear failure cracking
4) Longitudinal cracking
5) Frost heaving
6) Lack of binding to the lower course
7) Reflection cracking
8) Formation of waves and corrugation
9) Bleeding
10) Pumping

ALLIGATOR OR MAP CRACKING (FATIGUE CRACKING)

Followings are the primary causes of this type of failure.
 Relative movement of pavement layer material
 Repeated application of heavy wheel loads
 Swelling or shrinkage of subgrade or other layers due to moisture variation
CONSOLIDATION OF PAVEMENT LAYERS (RUTTING)

Formation of ruts falls in this type of failure.

 A rut is a depression or groove worn into a road by the travel of wheels.
This type of failure is caused due to following reasons.
 Repeated application of load along the same wheel path resulting longitudinal ruts.

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 Wearing of the surface course along the wheel path resulting shallow ruts.

SHEAR FAILURE CRACKING:

Shear failure causes upheaval of pavement material by forming a fracture or cracking.
Followings are the primary causes of shear failure cracking.
 Excessive wheel loading
 Low shearing resistance of pavement mixture

LONGITUDINAL CRACKING:
This types of cracks extents to the full thickness of pavement.
The following are the primary causes of longitudinal cracking.
 Differential volume changes in subgrade soil

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 Settlement of fill materials

 Sliding of side slopes

FROST HEAVING:

Frost heaving causes upheaval of localized portion of a pavement.

The extent of frost heaving depends upon the ground water table and climatic condition.

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LACK OF BINDING WITH LOWER LAYER (POTHOLES & SLIPPAGE)

When there is lack of binding between surface course and underlying layer, some portion of
surface course looses up materials creating patches and potholes.
 Slippage cracking is one form of this type of failure.
 Lack of prime coat or tack coat in between two layers is the primary reason behind this
type of failure.

REFLECTION CRACKING:

This type of failure occurs, when bituminous surface course is laid over the existing cement
concrete pavement with some cracks. This crack is reflected in the same pattern on bituminous
surface.

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FORMATION OF WAVES & CORRUGATION :

Transverse undulations appear at regular intervals due to the unstable surface course caused by
stop-and go traffic.

9. BLEEDING:

Excess bituminous binder occurring on the pavement surface causes bleeding.

Bleeding causes a shiny, glass-like, reflective surface that may be tacky to the touch.

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Usually found in the wheel paths.

10. PUMPING:

Seeping or ejection of water and fines from beneath the pavement through cracks is called
pumping

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Load distribution of pavements

Flexible Pavements
• Flexible pavements will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grain-to-grain
transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure

The wheel load acting on the pavement will be distributed to a wider area, and the stress
decreases with the depth.

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Ideal Pavement Characteristics

 Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the subgrade
soil,
 Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it,
 Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles,
 Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed,
 Produce least noise from moving vehicles,
 Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing visibility,
 Impervious surface, so that subgrade soil is well protected,
 Long design life with low maintenance cost.

Types of Rigid Pavements

 Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP),
 Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP),
 Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP),
 Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).

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Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP)

Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement: are plain cement concrete pavements constructed with
closely spaced contraction joints. Dowel bars or aggregate interlocks are normally used for load
transfer across joints. Theynormally has a joint spacing of 5 to 10m.

Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement: Although reinforcements do not improve the

structural capacity signicantly, they can drastically increase the joint spacing to
10 to 30m.Dowel bars are required for load transfer. Reinforcement’s help to keep the slab
together even after cracks.
Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement: Complete elimination of joints are achieved by
reinforcement.

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Purpose of joints in Concrete Roads

1. To absorb expansion & contraction due to variation in
temperature. ( horizontal movements of slabs)
2. To avoid warping of slab edges
3. To grant facility in construction
CONTRACTION JOINTS
• These are purposely made weakened planes which relieve the tensile stresses in the concrete
• Caused due to changes in the moisture content (Drying shrinkage) and/or temperature and
• Prevent the formation of irregular cracks due to restraint in free contraction of concrete .
They are also provided to
1) )Relieve stresses due to warping
2) To permit the contraction of the slab
Details of the contraction joints are given in IRC:SP 62
• They are formed initially by sawing a groove of 3-5 mm with up to about one-fourth to one-
third the slab
Details of the contraction joints are given in IRC:SP 62.
They are formed initially by sawing a groove of 3-5
mm with up to about one-fourth to one-third the slab
thicknesses. This facilitates the formation of a natural
crack at this location extending to the full depth.
• In order to seal the joint, the top 10-20 mm of this
groove is widened to 610 mm.
• Spacing of contraction joints may be kept at 2.50m to 3.75m.
• Length of panel shall not be more than width of panel.
LONGITUDINAL JOINTS
• Lanes are jointed together by joint known as Longitudinal joint
• Longitudinal joints are provided in multilane pavements and also when the
pavement is more than 4.5 m wide.
• They are provided normally at 3.5m c/c to
• 1) Relieve stresses due to warping.
• 2) To allow differential shrinkage & swelling due to changes of sub grade moisture
• 3) To prevent longitudinal cracking
Procedure of construction
• Initially joint is cut to a depth 1/3rd slab Initially joint is cut to a depth 1/3rd
slab thick ± 5mm. Tie bars are provided at the joints not for load
transference but for keeping the adjoining slabs together. The details of
such joints are given in IRC:SP 62.
• The top 15-20 mm of the joint is sawn to a width of 6-8 mm for sealing
Expansion joints
• There are full-depth joints provided transversely into which pavement can
expand, thus relieving compressive stresses due to expansion of concrete
slabs, and preventing any tendency towards distortion, buckling, blow-up

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and spalling.
• The current practice is to provide these joints only when concrete slab
abuts with bridge or culvert.
• They allow expansion of slabs due to temperature
• They permit contraction of slabs Normal Details of these joints are given in
IRC:SP62.
• They are about 20 mm in width
• A joint filler board of compressible material conforming to IRC:SP:62 is used
to fill the gap between the adjacent slabs at the
• joint.
• The height of the filler board is such that its top is 23-25mm below the
surface of the pavement.
• The joint groove is filled by a sealant .
Construction joints
The need for such joint arises when construction work is
required to be stopped at a place other than the location of
contraction or an expansion joint, due to some breakdown of
the machinery or any other reason.
Such joints are of butt type and extend to the full depth of
the pavement.
The sealing of such joints shall be done in the same manner as
for contraction joints, by cutting a groove 10-12 mm wide and
20-25 mm deep.
Generally, such joints are avoided in highways. The work is
normally terminated at a contraction or expansion joint
Failure of Rigid Pavement
 Fatigue crack
 Pumping
 Faulting
 Spalling
 Deterioration
 Faulting
Two slabs next to each other have different levels

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Pumping
• Pumping is the ejection of soil slurry through the joints and cracks of cement concrete
pavement, caused during the downward movement of slab under the heavy wheel loads.

Spalling
• Spalling, taking place at the transverse cracks or joints in Portland cement concrete
pavement, is a distress where a visible surface distress is caused by pieces of concrete being
dislodged from the surface of the pavement.

Deterioration

Cross sectional elements

Pavement surface characteristics
For safe and comfortable driving four aspects of the pavement surface are important; the friction
between the wheels and the pavement surface, smoothness of the road surface, the light reaction
characteristics of the top of pavement surface, and drainage to water.

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Friction
Friction between the wheel and the pavement surface is a crucial factor in the design of
horizontal curves and thus the safe operating speed. Further, it also act the acceleration and
deceleration ability of vehicles. Lack of adequate friction can cause skidding or slipping of
vehicles.
 Skidding happens when the path traveled along the road surface is more than the
circumferential movement of the wheels due to friction
 Slip occurs when the wheel revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal movement
along the road.
Various factors that affect friction are:
 Type of the pavement (like bituminous, concrete, or gravel),
 Condition of the pavement (dry or wet, hot or cold, etc),
 Condition of the tyre (new or old), and Speed and load of the vehicle.

Drainage
The pavement surface should be absolutely impermeable to prevent seepage of water into the
pavement layers. Further, both the geometry and texture of pavement surface should help in
draining out the water from the surface in less time.
Camber
Camber or cant is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain of rain water from road surface. The objectives of providing camber are:
 Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads
 Sub-grade protection by proper drainage
 quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety
Too steep slope is undesirable for it will erode the surface. Camber is measured in 1 in n or n%
The common types of camber are parabolic, straight, or combination of them

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Kerbs
Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or islands or footpaths.
Different types of kerbs are
 Low or mountable kerbs: these types of kerbs are provided such that they encourage the
traffic to remain in the through traffic lanes and also allow the driver to enter the shoulder
area with little difficulty. The height of this kerb is about 10 cm above the pavement edge
with a slope which allows the vehicle to climb easily. This is usually provided at medians
and channelization schemes and also helps in longitudinal drainage.
 Semi-barrier type kerbs: When the pedestrian traffic is high, these kerbs are provided.
Their height is 15 cm above the pavement edge. This type of kerb prevents encroachment
of parking vehicles, but at acute emergency it is possible to drive over this kerb with
some difficulty.
 Barrier type kerbs : They are designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the
pavement. They are provided when there is considerable amount of pedestrian traffic.
They are placed at a height of 20 cm above the pavement edge with a steep batter.
 Submerged kerbs : They are used in rural roads. The kerbs are provided at pavement
edges between the pavement edge and shoulders. They provide lateral confinement and
stability to the pavement.

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