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AES 1st Internal

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nisarg
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Chapter 4 murodwerion power in wind power coefficient : Power extraction from wind wyces on blades and thrust on turbine ( Basic components of a Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS) Ap ppes of wind mills 4.7.1 Ho ual Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) 4.7.2 Vertical Avis Wind Turbine (VAWT) 4.7.3 Comparison between horizontal axis and vertical axis wind turbine Design consideration of wind turbine 19 Performance of wind energy conversion system I Site selection considerations I) Advantages and disadvantages of wind energy 12 Applications of wind energy 13 Wind energy development in India Introduction. Wind is essentially air in motion, which carries with it kinetic energy. The amount contained in the wind at any given instant is proportional to the wind speed at that i. The temperature of the wind also influences the energy content of the wind but is not omtant in the context of wind-based energy production system, Wind results primarily by unequal heating of the earth’s surface by the sun. About 2% ‘otal solar flux that reaches the earth’s surfaces transformed into windenergy. Solar BY Meets clouds, uneven surfaces, and mountains while reaching the earth, This unequal ‘causes temperature, density, and pressure differences on the earth's surface that are forlocal edad opt ESTRA peatine, the air over the land mass heats up juanthe air over the oceans, H nds and rises while coo! air from oceans rushes "espace, creating local i Process is reversed as the aircool more ree for global Geena Alternate 154 erid connected power Seneraigs “The global potential in winds for jarge scal timated as 9000 TWh per yeat: i been sere 2 of harnessing winds is not new: Itwas cont the a nal b a Distance Fig. 4.4 Pressure and velocity curve of wind 2 OMe A435) 2 (46) . velocity decreases from a to b, because kinetic energy is converted ae fe ee ve i * Pa Pb =P| > AAT) If ‘A’ is the projected area of wind turbine perpendicular to the wind stream, the axial v2 2 c,-mr=re - ) (48) ‘Axial force also equal to the change of momentum 159 forve Fy. is given by F F, = Amv 2. Fy = PAV, (V; -V,) (: m= PAV, = mass flow rate) (4.9) fquating the equations (4.8) and (4.9), we get rive. AV, (V, -V, pA 7 =pAV,(V; -V,) Veo (MS Jayny-vp V, -V.V, +V, Mey v5 2 V,+V, i y= (4.10) Now consider the total thermodynamic system bounded by iand e. The general energy equation now reduces to the steady flow work ‘w’ and kinetic energy terms. 2 Vy 0 IR Sg Power ‘P’ is defined as rate of workdone. 4.11) For maximum power, AP av, 3V2 +2V,V, -V; “ay, Solving the above equation, we get and V, and V, 1, isonly physically acceptable 3 (4, 13) 1 Tus, Velope = 3% i a , the optimum exit velocity. This is the condition for maximum power. Vopr is P| Substituting the value of (Vy )opy iP equation (4.12), we get 8 3 Prax aries G14) The ideal or maximum theoretical efficiency (also called the power coefficien!) is the ratio of the maximum power obtained from the wind to the total of awind turbine wind, Mathematically, power available in the 8 3 =P Bass fog “max Maya Froral PAV; 16 _ ee It is clear that maximum efficiency of a propeller type w' factor 0.593 is known as Bets limit. It is the maximum fraction of t stream that can be extracted. The power coefficient (C,,) can also be defined as the ratio of power oulptt 0.593 4.15) * Max ind turbine is 59.3%. The he power ind wind from wind machine to power available in wind. Power output from wind machine _ 4 59, ~~~“ Power available in wind 4.5 Forces on blades and thrust on turbine [May *13, May 711] The circumferential force or torque causing the rotation of the wind turbine shafts depends on the turbine rated power output and rotor angular velocity. Thus feces (4.16) @ mDN where, T= Torque, Nm = Angular velocity of turbine wheel, rad/s N= Rotational speed of shat, r.p.m. D= Diameter of turbine wheel ini = V4A/1 iciency is given by n=P/P, 1 1P=aPi= ngendD*v;> ubstituting the values in equation (4.16), we get 1pnD°Vv; __ 1 pDVv; Tee ORME 8 ™DN. 8 N value of the torque will be maximum at maximumefficiency (y= 16/27) ie yoy, max = 57° gy 3 2° DV; Tyas 25/2 (4.17) imax = 9 Py ‘ ie axial force or thrust is given by equation (4.8) pik e. (4,18) rare A 162 Sources a . Alternate Ene! ae Maximum axial force will occur at maximum efficiency. The condition for ‘maximum efficiency is (FL) ou = 200? (2 ree (4.19) From above equation, itis clear that axial forces are proportional diameter of the turbine wheel, this limits turbine wheel diameter of large size. | to the square of the fi wind turbine has diameter of 80 m and its operating speed is 40 rpm at maximum efficiency Wind at 1 bar and 25°C has q velocity of 10 m/s. Calculate : (i) total power density in the wind stream, (ii) maxinum obtainable power density, (iit) a reasonable obtainable power density assuming 1 = 35%, (iv) total power produced, and (v) torque and the axial thrust produced at maximum efficiency. [Same as NCES May *12, 7 Marks) Problem 4.1 A propeller type, horizontal she Solution : Given data D = 80 m, N= 40 rpm, p = | bat, T = Density of airis given by 5% 5°C = 298 K, V; = 10 m/s, 1 ie 1x10” RT 287X298 (i) Total power density in the wind stream =1.169kg /m? p 1 Total power, F, = 5PA vp P Power density = == sev 5x1469%00)" = 584.5 Wim? An (ii) Maximum power density : Fax. 8 yy3 Maximum power density = rr rad 183 8 3 = x 1.169% (10) = 346.37 W/m? Ans h) A reasonable obtainable pr ty P F HAE 2 7 = NX = 0.35x 584.5 = 204.575 Wim? Ans A A ) Total power produced P= Power density x Area = 204.575 x 2(D?) = 204,575 x 2 (80: 4 > yo? = 1028.3 103 W = 1028.3 kW Ans ) Torque and axial thrust . 2 pV? 2 1169x8010" N27 40/60) = 10391.11 Nm To 0 2 2 (FO max = = PD?V? == x1.169% (80)2 x (10) ax = gPD'V, = 5 = 261157.1N Ans blem 4.2 The following data refer to a wind mill of a wind farm in Gujarat. Average d speed = 23.5 km/hr, Atmospheric pressure = 1.01 bar, Atmospheric temperature = C, Power coefficient = 0.41, Total power output capacity of wind farm = 1 MW. termine : (i) Available power density of wind, (ii) Actual power density of wind mill, Number of wind mills in the farm if the rotor diameter is 25 m. [May ’12,7 Marks} lution : Given data : = 23.5 kil = 6.53 mis, p= 1.01 bar, T= 30°C = 303 K, Cy = 0.41, tal capacity = i MW, D=25m sity of airis given by 1.01x10> RT 287x303 vailable power density of wind : =L.161kg/m?> 164 Alternate Energy Sources x1.161X (6.53) Power density = i 2 a = 161.637 Win Ans (ii) Actual power density — : es Actual power density = = Cp *| agri 637 = 66.27 Wim? Ans (iii) Number of wind mills Power developed by wind mill, P= Actual power density x 27° = 32530.21 W Total capacity of _wind farm _ Power developed by one wind mill No. of wind mills = _1x10% 3253021 — 231 Ans 4.6 Basic components of a Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS) Fig. 4.5 shows the main components of a wind energy conversion Sy stem (WECS)in the form of block diagram. Wind direction (Yaw control) Mechanical interface To load ot te - - corel ind | sero turbine | Gearing | Coupling Electrical |_wlly 88 generator Wind speed J Pitch Speeders Control |Generator e control ‘a F signal | temperature Control signal Controller "Suipat pone! Fig. 4.5 Basie components of WECS ‘Awind energy conversion system converts wind energy into some formof ck energy. In particular, medium and large scale WECS are designed to operate in oF Wind Energy Fy utility AC grid, This is known as a grid-connected system. A small system, isolated from the grid, feeding only to a local load is known as autonomous or. isolated power system. __ Aeroturbines convert energy of maving airfo rotary mechanical energy. The turbine shaft speed is stepped up with the help of gears, with a fixed or variable gear ratio to suit the electrical generator and fine tuning of speed is incorporated by pitch control. In horizontal axis wind turbines yaw control is provided for proper operation. As the wind direction changes, you control mechanism rotates the turbine slowly about the vertical axis so as to face the blades into the wind. The control unit monitors and controls the interaction among various blocks. It derives the reference voltage and frequency signals from the grid and receives wind speed, wind direction, wind turbine speed signals, etc., processes them and accordingly controls various blocks for optimal energy balance, The output of electrical generator is connected to ithe load or power grid. .7 Types of wind mills [Dec. °13] Wind turbin s are classified into the following categories : 1) According to orientation of the axis of rotor (a) Horizontal axis : When the axis of rotation is parallel to the air stream (i.e. jorizontal), the turbine is said to be a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT). (b) Vertical a When the axis of rotation is perpendicular to the air stream i.e. vertical), the turbine is said to be a Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) (2) According to useful electrical power output (a) Small output : upto2 kW (b) Medium output : 2 to 100 kW output (c) Large output : More than 100 kW output }) According to type of rotor (a) Propeller type : It is horizontal axis high speed rotor. (b) Multiple blade type : Its horizontal axis low speed rotor: (c) Savonius type : It is vertical axis rotor. (d) Darrieus type : It is vertical axis rotor. .1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) (Dec. 13, May °13] Horizontal axis machines have emerged as the most successful type of turbines. These, being used for commercial energy generation in many parts of the world. They have low in wind speed, easy furling and, in general, show high power coefficient. However, their ign is more complex and expensive as the generator and gear box. are to be placed at the ‘of the tower. Also, a tail or yaw drive is to be installed to orient them in the wind direction. Main components : ; i Be eesctioni details of the most common, three-blade rotor, horizontal axis) is shown in Fig, 4.6. The main components are as follows; . iia sets teh 166 Alternate Energy Sources Gear box Electrical 7 Rotor blade Biel switchgear swept area Hub \\ Generator Yaw-control nechanism_// Tower 1 Grid ‘connection Foundation Fig. 4.6. Horizontal axis wind turbine (a) Turbine blades : Wind turbine blades need to be light weight and possess require to be fabricated with aircraft industry techniques. The bI reinforced plastic (F.R.P.). They have an aerofoil type of cross flows over them. The blades are slightly twisted from the out tendency to stall. In addition to: centrifugal force and fatigue du are many extraneous forces arising from wind turbulence, gust, gravitational forces and directional changes in the wind. All these factors have to be considered at the designing stage. The diameter of a typical, MW range, modern rotor may be of the order of 100m. Modern wind turbines have two or three blades, Two or three blade rotor HAWT are also known as propeller ‘ype wind turbine. Three blades are more common in Europe and other developing countries includi ng India. The American practice, however, is in favour of two blades. adequate strength and hence lades are made of glass fibre section to create lift as the air (er tip to the root to reduce the ie to continuous vibration, there The relative advantages and disadvantages of two and three bl: (1) The three-blade machine has smooth compared to the two-blade machine. (2) The three-blade rotor allows the us linked for greater ri (3) Adding a third blade in and cost of a rotor inc: jade rotors are as follows: ler Power output and balanced gyroscopic force ise of a simple rigid hub, The blades maty be cross- ty. The two-blade rotor needs to teeter (discussed latter). creases the power output by about 5% only, While the weight Teases by 50%, thus giving a diminished rate of return for Wd Energy ‘Ss 167 additional 50% weight and cost, (4) The two-blade rotor is also simpler to erect, since it can be assembled on the ground. ) Hub : A hubis the central solid portion of the rotor wheel, All bl: he pitch angle control mechanism is (c) Nacelle : It houses the generator, the gear box, br mechanism, Nacelle is placed at the toy (d) Power transmission system : Mechanical power generated by rotor blades is tran gear box. From the gear box, the transmission shaft rot clutch, The gear box is provided The geni nerator : fades are attached to the hub. also provided inside the hub, uakes, hydraulic system, and the yawing P Of the tower andis linked with the rotor ismitted to the generator through a fates the generator with a built-in friction to increase the speed to suit the generator ated electrical power is conducted to ground termin als through a cable (e) Generally, the grid connected large wind turbines have induction generators. They use reactive power from grids. and feed the generated power to boost the grid supply. Medium capacity wind turbines use synchronous generators installed to electrif y vill and remote places, Small capacity wind turbines use permanent magnet DC generators which supply Power to microwave stations and illuminating light houses. (f) Yaw control : Yaw control continuously tracks and keeps the rotor axis in the wind direction. Yaw ing is done by two yawing motors, which mesh with a big-toothed wheel mounted on top of the tower. Wind direction sensor is used to maintain the orientation During high speed wind, i.e. more than the cut-out speed, the machine is stopped by turning the rotor axis at right angles to the wind direction. In smalf wind turbines, a tail vane is used for passive yaw control. (g) Brakes : Brakes are used to stop the rotor when power generation is not desired. An emergency Stop activates the hydraulic disc brakes fitted to the high speed shaft of the gear box. (h) Tower : The tower supports the nacelle and rotor. Modern wind turbine generators are installed on tubular towers, Large turbines use lattice towers designed to withstand gravity loads and wind loads, For medium and large sized turbines, the tower is slightly taller than the rotor diameter. In case of a small sized turbine, the tower is much larger than the rotor diameter as the air is erratic at lower heights. Both steel and concrete towers are being used. linge bbb oe HAWT have been developed in various types of shapes and sizes " a ication. ding on nd eres spd e it pene wind turbine rotors. They are suitable for Hp. (eS na erticn ‘The rotational speeds of propeller type are in sane suc cis Large HAWTS have been manufactured with two and three blades ope = Alternate Energy Sources 68 as discussed earlier. A single simple controls but itis noisier Dade rotor, with a balancing counterweight is economical. Has and produces unbalanced forces. tis used for low-power applications: Counter balance \weight rN AY (c) Three -blade rotor (d) Sailwing rotor (a) Single -blade (b) Two -blade rotor rotor (propeller) (propeller) Fig, 4.7 High speed wind turbine rotors (propeller) Sailwing rotor blade surfaces are made from cloth, nylon or plastics arranged as mast and pole. There is also variation in the number of sails used. Fig. 4. 8 shows low speed wind turbine rotors. They are most suited for water lifting ahigh starting torque. They can capture power even from very applications which require slow winds. Spokes carrying thin blades \Rim (e) Chalk multiblade rotor (fAmerican multibladed rotor (g) Dutch-type rotor Fig. 4.8 Low speed wind turbine rotors - seis rotor consists of number of curved sheet metal blades with increasité chord! ae away from the centre, Number of blades used are 12 to 20 which having the! ini os meee on ‘ the respective rims, The speeds of multiblade type wit! i a 10 80 rpm. They have good power coeffici i i : lave g icient, starting torque added advantage of simplicity and low cost. , dee Wind Energy 169 ‘Dutch type rotor is one of the oldest designs. The blade surfaces are made from an array of wooden slats which feather at high wind speeds, (3) Pitch control system : 4s shown in Fig. 4.9, the pitch of a blade is controlled by rotating it from its root where itis connected to the hub. The pitch control mechanism is provided through the hub of the rotor using hydraulic jack in the nacelle. The Controller continuously adjusts the pitch to obtain the optimum performance. Thereby the power and speed of the wind turbine shatt is adjusted to match with the generator speed and its electrical output. Hub, Fig. 4.9 Pitch control (4) Upwind and Downwind machines : An upwind machine in which the rotors located in front (upwind) of the tower. In case of a downwind machine, the rotor is located behin shows the upwind and downwind type of machines, A downwind machine of low Tating allows the use of a free yaw system i.e. it’s rotor automatically orients the direction of wind. It also allows the blades to deflect away from the tower when loaded. However, it suffers from wind shadow effects of the tower on the blades as they pass through the tower’s wake (region of separated flow). id (downwind) of the tower. Fig. 4.10 Wind direction : sensor \ Tail vane Pa me \e4 area (@) Upwind with tail vane (b) Upwind with active (c) Downwind with free yaw Sor yaw control yaw control Fig. 4.10 Upwind and downwind machines with yaw control On the other hand, an upwind machine produces higher power as it eliminates the ‘on the blades. This also results in lower blade fatigue, lower noise and smoother ‘Output, Alternate Er Sources (5) Teetering of rotor : ‘We know that wind speed increases with height. When blade attains the upper position, the axial force on blade is considerably more than when itis ata lower position. For one and two blade rotors, this causes cyclic (sinusoidal) load on a rigid hub leading to fatigue. This is greatly relieved by providing a pivot within the hub (a teeter hinge) that allows a see-saw motion to take place out of the plane of rotation. The rotor leans backwards to accommodate the extra force as shown in Fig. 4.11. The teetering is not required when the number of blades | are three or more. Rotor blade Main shaft Teeter_/ hinge == Sea-saw motion Fig. 4.11 Teetering of rotor 4.7.2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) Vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT) is also known as cross-wind axis machines. \n these machines, the axis of rotation is perpendicular to the direction of the wind. The main advantages of a VAWT compared to HAWT are: (1) The vertical axis wind turbine receives w ind from any direction, and hence the yawing system is not required. (2) The generator, gearbox, etc. can be installed at the bottom of the tower, hence their tower design and installation is simple. (3) The inspection and maintenance is easier. (4) They are lighter in weight and cheaper in cost. VAWTSs are generally not self starting and have low power coefficient, these arethe major disadvantages. They require a mechanism to start from the stationary position. Additi there is a possibility of running the blades at very high speed and causing damage! system. (1) Main components : . RB’ Fig. 4.12 show the constructional details of a vertical axis wind turbine (Damieus rotor). The following are the details of main components : Bearing Guy rope/ Cross arm ie Rotor shaft (Tower) Blade Support structure \. Bearing Switchgear Brakes and cor S=— Gear box Grid connection Che Generator Bearing Foundation, -~ Rotor Blade cross section Fig. 4.12 Vertical axis wind (Darrieus) turbine (a) Rotor shaft or Tower : The tower isa hollow vertical rotor shaft, which rot between the top and bottom bearings. Its installed above of any load at the top, a very Strong tower is not required, The upper part of the tower is supported by buy turbine is around 100 m. (b) Blades : Ithas two or three thin and curved blades, The blades are shaped like an eggbeater in aprofile. The blades have an airofoil cross section with constant chord length. The pitch of the blades cannot be changed. The diameter of the rotor is slightly less than the tower height. (Support structure : ‘The support structure is provided at the ground to support the weight of the rotor. tor, gear box, brakes, controls, andelectrical switchgear are housed within this structure, 'Y Topes are attached to the top for support, Pes of rotors : The vertical axis rotors can be either drag or lift based, The drag based devices have ates freely about the vertical axis support structure. In the absence Which greatly simplifies its design, Topes. The height of the tower of a large 172 Alternate Energy Sources relatively high starting torques compared to lift devices, but have Telatively low tip to wind speed ratio and lower power outputs for a given rotor size. The important vertical axis rotors are described below. Baa Rene cup type rotor. Itis the simplest structure attached symmetrically toa vertical shaft. The drag force on the concave surface of the cup facing the wind is more than that on the convex surface. As a result, the structure starts Totatin ig. Lift also plays a smal] part; the cups crossing the wind experience a small lift because their convex surfaces deflect the wind and causes a pressure reduction. This type of rotor cannot carry a load and therefore, cannot be used for power generation. Itis used as a device for measuring the wind speed and the apparatus is known as cup anemometer. ne (b) Savonious rotor : 1] The savonious rotor works like a cup type rotor. This type was invented by S.J. Savonius in the year 1920. This rotor consists of two half cylindrical or elliptical blades arranged inn ‘$’ shape as shown in Fig, 4.13(b). Itis also known as $-rofor. The rotor works on drag force produced by the blades. It has high starting torque, low speed and low efficiency. It can extract power even from very slow wind, making it working most of the time. These are used for low power applications. It is suitable for pumping application due to high starting torque, Cup oN Vertical axis__ rm \ mY ; Rotor blade wo RtotnblieAsose—me| (a) Cup type rotor (b) Savonious rotor (c) Darrieus rotor Fig. 4.13 (c) Darrieus rotor : [May *11, Nov. “I!] The Darrieus rotor was invented by Georges Jeans Datrieus. This rotor works dueto the lift force produced by a set of airofoils. Itis shown in Fig. 4.13(c). The blades are shaped like a troposkein profile (tuming rope), which minimizes the bending stress caused by centrifugl forces, The Darrieus rotor is used for large scale power generation, Its power coefficient is considerably better than that of an S-rotor. The aerodynamic force on the blade reversesi? every revolution, causing fatigue, This, along with centrifugal force, complicates the design the blade. This machine is not self starting, it can be started by using electrical general! # rept Athigh wind speed it becomes difficult to control the output because the pitch cannot be changed. For better performance and safety of the blades, gearbo% Peg gi desirtie weit tbe ceptions Jevel much bel iti @ Musgrove rotor sin Fig. 4.14. Itworks on lft force. Ithas “H’ shaped blades ‘Musgrove rot witha: eas The blades are attached vertically toa horizontal cross arm. Power control is achieved by ‘controlled folding of the blades as shown in Fig. 4.14(b). Inclining the blades to the vertical provides an effective means of altering the blades angle of attack and, hence controlling the power output. Cross arm . ’ m Blade (a) operating position (b) Fully furled position Fig, 4.14 Musgrove rotor (€) Magnus effect rotor : Magnus effect concept was first demonstrated by experimentally by Magnus in 1 912. When cylinders spun in a wind stream, translational forces are produced perpendicular to the wind stream by the Magnus effect as shown in Fig. 4.15. Lift force Drag force Spinning eylinder Overturning (Magnus effect) Driving force Wind Resultant Wind, Sa. Fg ety es ie Paiceil Track generator Spinning / eylinder a wheels (a) Magnus effect (b) Magaus effect for generating electricity Fig. 4.15 Magnus effect rotor Magnus effect rotors consist of spinning cylinders. When a stationary horizontal cylinder Totated about its axis in across wind, it will experience a lift force. The effect is equally sources Alter s i mee g rotated about its cross wind It will expen jicable toa vert -al cylinder bei ae perpendicular to its axis, which will cause it to move in a direction sentially ccularto that of the wind. The concept consists of several tall vertical cylinders that are rotated about their axes I the presence of wind. The resultant of the lift and drag forces, more inthe direction of lift because of its larger value propels the cylinders horizontally along @ track, ind turbine is turbine 4.7.3 Comparison between horizontal and vertical axis Horizontal axis tur! Vertical a (1) Axis of rotation is perpendicular to the airstream. (1) Axis of rotation is par allel to the air stream (2) Noorientation of rotor is required, to adjust the rotor around vertical these turbines can generate power with axis to keep it facing the wind. the wind coming from any direction. (3) The heavy nacelle containing the gearbox, (3) generator, etc. iS mounted at the top of the tower, thus the design and installation is 2) Yawcontrol mechanism is required The nacelle is not required because the arbox, generator, etc., are located atthe ground, thus the design and installation is simple. The power coefficient and tip speed ratio are considerably low. generally mounted near | complex. T The power coefficient and tip speed @ ratio are high, ZS Therotorismountedatthe top ofhigh (3) Therotor wind. ground proximity, itexperience lower velocity wind. This yields less energy tower, itexperience higher velocity This yields more energy output. output. (6) Suitable for small scale power generation and pumping applications. (6) Suitable for la (7) Initial and maintenance cost are high. (7) Initial and maintenance cost are low, 4.8 Design consideration of wind turbine ah wind turbine converts the varying power in the wind into a useful formas electricity. The Sichvit = ae an as eS ity uu the turbine is a function of both the turbine design and the wind resource eer have control over the wind resource. Basically, it should produce powe! per pee. then its competitors. Therefore, the fundamental design goal is to keep the cost po a ue eer ape te gn. wind turbine may be e tab ie otis pane) be exposed to severe and unpredictable environmental condition’ Tee Fr vai, ca becomes complicated. The general procedure starts with Re caauiwn Se parameters and the choice of an airofoil, Then an initial an optimum blade shape and ass' | ide shape and assuming wake rotation, The final peney 175 \ Shape and performance are obtained iteratively based on drag, tip losses , ag, tip losses and e manufacture. ae a The power P needed at a particular wind speed V, is to be decided first. Also, the value of C, andoverall efficiency 1 for various components are to be predicted. The value of C P fora well designed system is in the range of 0.4 to 0.45 and | may be taken as 0.9 for th combined drive train and generator, : i | Then using the relationship, P= C, xn Zp pv, ..(4.20) 1/2 -. Diameter of rotor, D a 8P 3 Cynerv; Maximum torque 7 on a turbine rotor would occur when maximum thrust can be applied atthe blade tip farthest from the axis. A propeller turbine of diameter D experiences D Tas = Fae 3) = Fc *® Bie, =pAv? imax = speed ratio (A) is defined as the ratio of the blade’s outer tip speed V, t0 the (free) wind speed V;. Mathematically, (4.22) Substituting the torand R is the outer blade radius. S\ ar velocity of the rot where Seay; = P., total wind power available in upstream side The shaft power (P) is the power obtained from the turbine and is given as PETO=CyT yg. Now from equation, P = C,,P, a GT rc = G(% xo (4.24 Inpractice power coefficient (C,, ) and torque coefficient (Cy ) both are the function of }. andare notconstants. From the Betz criterion the maximum value of C, is 0.593, so inthe Tatio (A) is chosen according to the type of application. Water pumping higher torque for which a lower value of 2 in the range I <).<3isused A in the range 4 <).< 10. The number of blades can be chosen resents number of blades for different values of A. Curved blades Wind Energy 7 N can be used as airofoil if A <3 and more aerodynamic shape is required for A> 3. The tip- SPeed ratio at optimum power extraction is given by 7 4 Data nr Number of blades Solidity (o) is defined as the ratio of the blade area to the swept frontal area of the wind turbine. Solidity determines the quantity of blade material required to intercept a certain wind area. Mathematically c= Blade area _ BRb Swept frontal area of turbine ~R2 gas) (4.26) ar 2 where B= Number of blades , b = Blade width, and R = Blade radius. Solidity represents the fraction of the swept area of the rotor which is covered with metal Variation of solidity with tip speed ratio is shown in Fig. 4.17. 0.6 0.5: G al Y 104 Y S 0.2 >» Tee sid 5 6. 7.8 Tip speed ratio (A) —— di Fig. 4.17 Variation of solidity with tip speed ratio ‘or three-bladed wind turbine has a low solidity and so needs to rotate faster to wind energy with aerofoil blades like aircraft. Otherwise the major part ry would be lost through the large gaps between the blades. High speed wind ‘starting torque. Rotors having ahigh value of solidity, like the multibladed at low tip speed ratio. Such rotors have high starting torque and are uses the drag force while a low solidity rotor uses ain, and that of the American multiblade solidity inthe range of 0.01 to0.1, They have 178 Alternate Ene sources Slender airofoil blades Blade design + Wind turbine blades have an airofoil type cross section and a variable piteh ‘They are outer tip to the root at propels the bl irom the direction Jades of a wind turbine comes from the wisted from the f motion. The motion causing the Fig. 4.18, the fore’ hed away f the blades. slightly As shown in chord of the airofoil, being rotation o| ‘wind due to motion” i th Effective wind Camberline i t Forward thrust “Rotation motion Effective wind — Wind due to rotation Fig, 4.18 Wind turbine blade as an airofoil ‘Tower: ‘Winds are much stronger as the elevation above ground increases, and they are also less turbulent. Therefore, the tower should be as high as practical. Choice of tower heights based ‘onan economic trade-off ‘of increased energy capture versus increased cost. The minimum for HAWT is that the blade tip should not touch the ground during rotation ‘options in towers are tubular, pipe-type structures or trusses. ind energy conyersion system wersion system ishigh, itis desirable for the overall effi , thus optimally utilizing capital resources the performance of awindenergy Wind Energy ue Nc = Efficiency of the mechanical coupling, Néen =Elficiency of the generator. ‘The efficiency of the wind turbine is the lowest in the wind energy conversion system. The efficiency of the remaining three elements are quite high but less than 100%. The efficiency of the wind turbine is given by Useful shaft power output d power input = Cp =Power coefficient ‘The power coefficient is the maximum fraction of the power in a wind stream that can be extracted. For horizontal axis wind turbine has theoretical maximum value 0.593. This theoretical efficiency limitation (Betz limit) on a wind energy conversion system is similar to the thermodynamic Camot efficiency limitation on a conventional thermal power plant. ‘The variation of power coefficient with tip speed ratio has been plotted for several horizontal and vertical axis rotors, and is shown in Fig. 4.19. Itis seen that the highest value of power coefficient can be obtained with the propeller type rotors (two bladed and three bladed). The American multiblade and Savonius type rotors have low value of power coefficient and tip dratio while the propeller and Darrieus type rotors have a high value of tip speed ratio varying from 3 to 7. As the tip speed ratio increases, the number of blades decreases Ideal propeller type rotor 0.67__Bets criterion 59% Commercial two bladed rotor Darrieus-type Totor (vertical) Dutch four blade wind mill 180 Alternate Energy Sources flades increases, the torque coefficient increases and maximum Cy occurs at lower NP tio Iemay be concluded that atwo blade propeller has potentially the best performance ervieered, The two blade propeller rotate at high p.m. with low torque. These tlectric power generation. The multi blade types with high starting re suitable for pumping water. speed ra of the syster types are preferred for’ torque on the other hand are mon Multi blade ee bladed Two bladed Fig. 4.20 Variation of torque coefficient with tip speed ratio problém 43 Design the rotor radius for a multiblade wind turbine that operates ina wind speed of 26 km/h to pump water at a rate of 16 mf with a lift of 15 m. Also, calculate the angular velocity of the rotor. The following data is given : water density = 1000 kg/m’, ¢ = 9.81 mis, water pump efficiency = 60%, transmission efficiency of rotor to pump = 90%, power coefficient = 0.3, tip speed ratio = 0.8, and air density = LIB kg/m’. Solution : Given data Vj= 26 konlh = 7.222 mis, Q= 16 m'Jh=4.44 x10" ms, H = 15m, ,, = 1000 kgln £=9.81 mls, Np = 60%, N, = 90%, Cy =0.3, 2 =0.8, Py = 1.18 kg/m, R o= We have power required to pump water, P,, = P,8QH = 1000%9.81x4,44x10° x15 = 653.346 W Peper ane pp. _ 053346 n,n, 06x09 = 1209.9 W gotor SP problem velocity the rota! Solution v= 18 Tipspe Tip-spe Wind Energy 181 p=C,xP=C,»{ Lp, AV? Wehave, P=Cp*f = Cy *| 5PaAV; ) 2.1209.9 = 0. 3x4xl 18x mR? x (7.222) « R? = 5.776 R=2.403 m Ans ‘Asi.=0.8, the number of blades in multiblade turbine varies from 8 to 18 ‘The angular velocity of rotoris given by AV; _ 0.8x7,222 R 2.403 60m _ 60x 2.404 a — = 22.956 rpm Ans Problem 4.4 A horizontal axis wind turbine is installed at a location hav ‘ing free wind velocity of 18 m/s. The 75 m diameter rotor has three blades attached to the hub. Find fhe rotational speed. of the turbine for optimal energy extraction Solution : Given data V, = 18 mls, D =75 m, B=3,N=? ip-speed ratio for optimum output is given by 4 4n ne 4188 Bagh Tip-speed ratio isalso given by 2.404 rad/s Ans Rotor speed, NV 74.188 = DX “.@ = 2.01 rad/s rrspeed, N-= St) = 0%201 iE SE =19.194 rpm Ans [Dec. 13, Nov. *11] 10 Site selection considerations ant to consider the technical, environmental, social, economic, and other ing the wind energy conversion system. ‘The main criteria in selecting the gy conversion system are as follows + Alternate Energy Sources 182, i eed: (@ Average annual wind sP\ 9 yin speed Therefore em a jable in wind increases T=P! y wil The PONE a in ie wzeneration plant isthe ‘availability of adequate and Ne inde consideration for locating a win " ee ae uniform average wind velocity throughout the year ‘The wind eee Le Be eo a The power in the wind through a given cross-Sect! jor a ae jonal area givenby p=Kv? where K is constant. From this equation, the total asthe cube of the wind speed. Therefore, wind velocities 0.25 m/s throughout the year. s offers the resistance tothe air Flat open area should be selected, as t | wind power from free wind stream increases available should be in the range of 5 , the windfarms are located movement, he wind velocities are high mist (2) Asthe building, forest away from cities and fore in flat open area. te (3) Altitude of the site: ‘Altitude of the proposed site should be considered. Higher altitude ground experience Ititude affects the electric power output of strong winds than lower altitude ground. Thus, al wind energy conversion system. Wind velocities must be locity of wind increases with height giver measured by anemometer at several heights from the ground, The vel n by the relation : ven? This elation is applicable for the heights between 50 1m to 250m. Altitude also affects the air density and thus the power In the wind and hence the useful WECS electric power output. (4) Wind structure : Atthe proposed site, wind should blow, velocity curve should be flat. ‘Wind specially near the groun rapidly in direction andin velocity. (5) Local ecology : If small trees, grass or vegetations are present, all of which destructure the wind, then ia pe oH ae a pene which increases the cost of the system. ee se peer sh have high load bearing capacity. It would reduce the cos! af Patras hlises should be low to reduce the initial cost. a gia Fee facilities for transportation of heavy machinery, 8) Nearnes Baca ye acon i ae he at towhich the power is supplied. The! nnsmission lines and the losses occuringi" smooth and steady all the time, i.e. the wind dis turbulent and gusty, and changes structures Wine Energy ities = ©) Away from loca! 2p selected site should be away from localities so that the wind turbine does not affect the habitants in near areas, Four types of sites are considered as suitable (j) Plane land sites, (ii) Hill top sites, (iii) Sea shores sites, and (iv) Off-shore sh: 183 ‘ound pollution caused by allow water sites, 4,11 Advantages and disadvantages of wind energy Advantages : (1) Itis renewable and not depleted with the use like fossil fuels (2) Wind energy generation is ecofriendly and does not pollute the atmosphe the case of generation from coal, oil, etc (3) The cost of installation of wind power plant is competitive ‘compared t power plant. Since, there is no fuel cost and low maintena energy produced in long run is almost free. (4) Wind energy system does not require fuel and its transportation. (5) In large portion of the world, wind blows for 320 days in a year and thi an advantage over sunlight in direct conversion programme. Disadvantages : (1) Wind energy is available in dilute and fluctuating in nature (2) Itisnecessary to store wind energy in some other forms during periods of high winds for use later on during calm. (3) Favourable winds are available only in few geographical locations. (4) There is fluctuation in electric power depending on fluctuating wind speed. (5) The capital cost is high. At present itis about Rs. 3.5 crores/MW. (6) Itcauses negative impacts like noise, bird hits, land erosion, impacton wild life,ete. es them 4.12 Applications of wind energy. Energy extracted from the windis initially energy in the form of rotary, translational, or oscillatory mechanical motion. This mechanical motion can be used to pump fluids orcan be converted to electricity or heat. Major applications may be grouped in three categories. (1) Applications requiring mechanical power = : (@) Wind pumps : In remote areas, low-power turbines are used for producing mechanical i \d pumps. Power for pumping water. These are also known as wind p\ ; ( (6) Heating : A paddle wheel and other turbulent fluid systems are used to. Sno coi Of mechanical power in to heat. The available hot wateris used a such or employed fr space led onboard to power propellers in ferries operating ng, (© Sea transport : Wind turbines are instal ‘en short routes, - Alternate Energy Source, 8 (2) As off grid electrical power source : Machines of low to medium power range (up to 250 kW) can be used to supp) power to isolated populations, farm cooperatives, space heating and cooling, commercig) refrigeration, desalination and to other small industries. The generator may operate in stand. alone mode or may be connected to a mini-grid system. : (3) As grid-connected electrical power source : Large wind turbine generators of more than 250 kW to a few MW capacity are Used for supplying power to a utility grid. Wind farms consisting of large arrays of wind turbing generators are used for this purpose. 4.13 Wind energy development in India The wind power programme in India was initiated towards the end of the Sixth Plan, in 1983-84, A market-oriented strategy was adopted from inception, which has led tothe successful commercial development of the technology. The broad based National programme includes wind resourve assessment activities; research and development support; implementation of demonstration projects to create awareness and opening up of new sites; involvement of utilities and industry; development of infrastructure capability and capacity for manufacture installation, operation and maintenance of wind electric generators; and policy support. The programme aims at catalyzing commercialisation of wind power generation in the country. The wind Resources Assessment Programme is being implemented through the State Nodal Agencies, Field Research Unit of Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology and Center for Wind Energy Technology (C-WET). In India, the wind energy programme is managed and implemented by the Ministry! New and Renewable Energy sources, Government of India. The wind power potentialin India is 49,130 MW as per the official estimates in the Indian Wind Atlas (2010) by the Centre for Wind energy Technology. The potential is calculated with respect to 2% land availability at windy locations and pertains to a 50 meter hub height level of the wind turbines A total capacity of 17365.03 MW has been established up to March 31, 2012inthe country. India is now the fifth largest wind power producer in the world, after USA, Germany, Spain and China. The break-up of projects implemented in prominent wind potential stats as given in Table 4.1. Wind turbines are being manufactured by 18 manufacturers in the country wit? models ranging from unit size from 250-2500 kW, mainly through joint ventures ort licensed production agreements, A few foreign companies have also set up their subsidianes? India, while some companies are now manufacturing wind turbines without foreign collabo" ‘The current annual production (2012) capacity of domestic wind turbine industty wig range of 3500-4000 MW. a Types of gasifiers S141 Downdraft type gasifier S42 Updraft type gasifier SUS Scope of biogas energy in india Alternate Energy SOUrces we nes of agricultural and agro-industrial residues every to India produces over 550 million wae y ion ca pulation prod ung annually, year. Similarly, 290 million cattle pop Pa Fig. 5:1 shows the classification of Dio! resources. juces about 438 million tones of di Organic wastes and residues | Energy crops (arid area an ea plantation and aquatic crop) F Forest residue | Industrial gricultural op residues ‘age liquid Sew: waste, Fig. 5.1 Biomass resources 5,2 Biomass conversion technologies [May 713, May 712] conversion to other form of energy. These into four basic types : There are various routes of biomass energ 2y-conversion technologies may be grouped (1) Physical method, (2) Direct combustion (incineration), (3) Thermochemical method, and (4)Biochemical method. (1) Physical method : Itis the simplest method of biomass conversion in which bulky biomass is reduced to ‘a batter volume to weight ratio by compressing in a die ata high imperature and pressure. It is shaped into briquettes or pellets to make a more compact source of energy, which is easier to transport and store than the natural biomass. Fuel oils can be extracted from plant products by expelling them. Also, light hydrocarbons may be obtained from certain plants in the same way as production of rubber (2) Direct combustion (Incineration) ; Combustion is the process of burning completely the solid biomass of ashes by high temperature oxidation to produce heat, The heat and/or steam produced are either used t0 generate electrici ty or provide the heat for industrial process, space heating, or cooking. The terms ela we combustion are synonymous, but the process of incineration is comple Biogas ano -ineration plants are installed in large cities to dispose off urban refuse and ne. It constitutes a furnace with adequate supply of air to ensure complete genera oo a capacity of 1000 tones/day, combust’ chemical conversion : (3) Ther omass can be converted into gases, liquids, and solids by pyrolysis at temperatures arc 10 900°C in the absence of oxygen or partial oxygen supply by heating in aclosed 130" pyrolysis is the simplest and the oldest method of processing one fuel to produce done. Pyrolysis can process all forms of organic materials including rubberand plastics, cd by other methods. The products are three types of fuels - usually, a vessel better wich cannot be handle gqsminture (Hp, CO, CO, CH 4 and Np ),an oil like liquid (acetic acid, acetone, methanol, + ail), and a nearly pure carbon char (charcoal), tar, oil), te Gasification is the process of high temperature pyrolysis ( 1000°C), which maximizes the gascous products. The output gas is known as producer gé mixture of Hy (45-20%), CO(10-20%), CHg (1-5%), CO, (9-12%) and No (45-55%). The gas is more versatile than the solid biomass, it can be burnt to produce process heat and steam, or used in intemal combustion engine or gas turbines to generate electricity. Low temperature pyrolysis (upt0 600°C) maximizes the char output. This process has been used for centuries for production of charcoal. The process is known as carbonization. A liquid product is obtained through catalytic liquefaction process. Liquefaction is a relatively low temperature (250- 450°C) and high pressure (270 atm) thermochemical conversion of wet biom: (Biochemical conversion : Biochemical conversion makes use of metabolic action of microbial organisms on biomass to produce liquid and gaseous fuel. There are two forms of biochemical conversion : (a) Ethanol fermentation (b) Anaerobic digestion (Anaerobic fermentation) 2)Ethanol fermentation : Ethanol can be produced by decomposition of biomass containing sugar like sugarcane, “asava, sweet sarghum, beet, potato, corn, grape, etc. into sugar molecules (aqueous solution) suchas glucose ( Cg Hj0g) and sucrose (Cy #1990} ). Ethanol fermentation involves biological conversion of sugar into ethanol and CO. CoiiO8 EACH sOH +2C0, Ethanol has emerged as the major alcohol fuel and is blended with petrol. 4 bic digestion : ny, his Process converts the cattle dung, human wastes, algae, and other organic waste Moisture content into biogas through anaerobic fermentation in absence of air. ce geo ____Altornate Energy Sources Femnentation occurs in two stages by two different metabolic groups of bacteria. Initially the cogganic material ishydrolyzed into fatty acids, alcohol, sugars, 12 and CO, Methane forming bacteria then converts the products of the first stage to CHg and CO}, in the temperature range of 30-55°C. Thus, Decaying wetbiomass —Aneerobic fermentation _, Biogas (largely CH and CO) re 30-55°C The reactions are slightly exothermic and a small amount of heat is also generated that helps in maintaining a favourable temperature. Biogas produced can be used for heating, or for operating engine driven generator to produce electricity, Fermentation occurs in a sealed tank called digester where the sludge left behindis used as enriched fertilizer. a > A | | Sleas generation Biogas is produced from wet biomass with about 90 to 95% water content by the action of anaerobic bacteria. These bacteria live and grow without oxygen. They derive the needed oxygen by decomposing biomass. The process is favoured by wet, warm, and dark conditions. In this process, part of the carbon is oxidized and another part reduced to produce CO» and CH. The airtight equipment used for conversion is known as a biogas plant or digester, which is constructed and controlled to favour methene production. Nutrients such as soluble nitrogen compounds remain available in solution and provide excellent fertilizer and humus. The energy available from the combustion of biogas is 60-90% of the input dry matter heat of combustion. Thus, the energy conversion efficiency of the process is 60% to 90%. The bio-chemical process takes place in three stages as shown in Fig, 5.2. These are as follows: Acid forming Methane forming bacteria bacteria Biomass Simple Conners —-f Stage-1 2 e . Stage (fats, protein, tage] organic Lstaee-l propoinic’ LSt8Be-Ll} = Biogas carbohydrate) compounds acids Hydrolysis Fig. 5.2 Stages of anaerobic digestion process (1) Stage-I : Hydrolysis Organic waste of animal and plants contains carbohydrates in the form of cellulost hemicellulose and lignin. A group of ‘anaerobic micro-organisms breaks down complex omait ‘material into simple and soluble organic components through the influence of water. Them of hydrolysis depends on bacterial concentration, quality of substrate, pH and and Biomass. G0°C 10 40°C) of digester contents. _11: Acid formation ee re ic organisms of facultative and anaerobic group collectively called as acid formers, produce mainly acetic and propionic acids and volatile solids. This stage takes about formers, one day at 25°C. Much of CO; is released in this stage. Stage II: Methane formation : Bee carnbie methifsetic bacteria slowly digestthe products available from the seo stage to produce methane, carbon dioxide, a small amount of hydrogen anda trace amount of other gases. The process takes about two weeks time to complete at 25°C, The methane content of biogas is about 60% which provides a high calorific value to find use in cooking, lighting and power generation, 5.4 Types of biogas plants [May °11, Nov. 11] The biogas plant is a device that converts cattle dung and other organic matter into inflammable gas called biogas and into a good quality organic manure under anaerobic conditions. The biogas plants are built in different sizes and shapes depending on the process carried out These plants are mainly classified as : (1) Batch type, (2) Continuous type : (a) Floating-drum (constant pressure) type, (b) Fixed-dome (constant volume) type. 55. Batch type Plant [May *11] Batch type biogas plants are appropriate where dail supplies of raw waste materials ix difficult to be obtained. A batch type plant is charged at 40-50 days intervals. Once charged, it starts supplying the gas after 8-10 days and continuous to do so far about 30-40 cays till the process of digestion is completed. After completion of the di; gestion, the residue is emptied and filled again. Gas production is uneven because bacterial di igestion starts slowly, Peaks and then tapers off with growing consumption of volatile solids. This difficulty can *Yercome by having minimum two digesters so that at least one is always in operation. This Problem can also minimize by connecting batch loaded digesters in series and fed at different ‘imes so that adequate biogas is available for daily use. The outline of such an arrangement is in Fig. 5.3. The salient features of batch type biogas plants are : * (1) This type of plants require large volume of digester, therefore, initial cost becomes hig (2) Batch type plants may have several digesters for continuous supply of gas, several digesters, occupy more space. 3) Gas production in batch type plantis uneven. lurry to stion process @"Thispls ‘od, thus they are suitable for hard fibrous (5) These plants have longer digestion per materials. Gas holder Digester | 2 Fig. 5.3 Batch type biogas plant system Naat 5.6 Continuous type plant [May *11] s continuous and the digesteris ngle stage, double stage or Incontinuous type biogas plant, the supply of the gé fed with biomass regularly. Continuous biogas plants may be si multiple stage. Digestion of waste materials in a single chamber or digester is alled single stage process, in two chambers or digesters is called double stage Process and several chambers or digesters is called multistage process. The period during which the biomass remains in the digester is known as the retention period, which depends mainly on the type of biomass and operating temperature. The plant operates continuously and is stopped only for maintenance or for removal of undigested biomass residue (sludge). These plants are convenient for individual owners as the feeding pattern matches with daily waste generation and does not require its storage. These types of plants are very popular in India and China, 5.6.1 Floating drum (constant pressure) type biogas plant [May 713, May °12] Different models of floating drum type biogas plants are developed in various counties. A popular model developed in India by Khadi Village Industries Commission (K VIC) is shown in Fig. 5.4. It comprises a masonry digester with an inlet on one side for feeding slurry andan outlet on the other side for removing digested slurry. The feeding of animal waste slurry (animal dung + water) is usually done once in a day. The gas collects in a steel gasholder whichis inverted over the slurry and moves up and down depending upon accumulation and discharge of gas guided by a central guide pipe. The movable gas holder is made of steel. The gasholder is painted by anti-corrosive painting at least once a year. This plant helps to achieve more consistent gas pressure which can be adjusted by regulating weight. A pastition wall is provided in the digester. The bifurcation of a digestion chamber through a partitioning wall provides optimum conditions for growth of acid formers and methine Biogas and Biomass. 193 formers as requirement of pH values for these bacteria are different Therefore, this plant» operates very well with good biogas yield. Metal floating gasholder \ Intel mixing Water seal “tank \ Outlet tank Putter tank Partition wall Fig. 5.4 Floating-drum type biogas plant The floating gas holder builds gas pressure of about 1m of water column, sufficient ‘osupply gas up to 100 metre. Gas Pressure also forces out the spent slurry through pipe. The diameter of the digester of a gas plant ranges from 1.2 to 6 mandits heigl ftom 3 mto 6m, The mild steel gas holders are Prone to corrosion, thus needs painting at regular intervals, Thisproblem can be overcome by using fibre glass reinforced plastic (FRP) material for Construction of gas holders. Advantages : (1) Itgives higher gas production, (2) Itworks under constant pressure naturally, (3) There is no problem of gas leakage. A (4) There isno problem of mixing of biogas with external air, thus no danger of explosion, asludge ht varies. Disadvantages : (1) Its initial cost is high. (2) There is loss of heat through metal gas holder. (3) The outlet pipe is flexible, itrequires regular attention. (4) Its maintenance cost is high: 5.6.2 Fixed dome (constant volume) type biogas plants developed by China. In this type of plants gas jore economical as only masonry Fixed dome type bi is stored in upper part of the digester. These plants are m work is required. Gas pressure in the dome varies depending on the production/consumption rate. However, the total volume of gas inside the dome remains constant due to which these are also called as constant volume type biogas plants. In these plants, as the gas pressure is exerted from inside, the dome structure may fail if proper care is not taken in their construction. Therefore, skilled masonry workmanship is required for construction of dome. Also, in case of any leakages or cracks, the plant may fail Number of fixed dome type models are developed by various countries keeping in view the availability of local materials, the cost, ease of installation, maintenance and operation, etc. Few of the plants are described below. (1) Fixed dome type domestic biogas plant [Dee. °13] Fixed dome type domestic biogas plant is also called as Janta biogas plant or Chinese model, A family size Chinese model is shown in Fig. 5.5. In this design, the digester and gas holder are constructed in a single unit. The fixed dome digester is usually built below ground surface. The composite unit is made of brick and cement masonry having no moving parts, thus ensuring no wear and tear and longer working life. Inlet mixing pmlc tal ou cover sealec pe with clay Loose cover biomass and water Displacement tank Fig. 5.5 Fixed dome type biogas plant (Janta model) Biomass. The mixture of biomass and water in 195 ye mix! ‘orm of slurry is supplied as feed to the digester through inlet. The biogas generated in the digestion tank by anaerobic digestion is coll the upper part of the digester. A stirring arrangement is necessary in the digests ihe pe material is a crop residue. The biogas so produced is delivered via the outlet gas pipe. When the gasis produced, the liquid level inthe digester drops whereas level inthe displacement tank rises. The height difference between two levels helps in regulating the pressure of gas within the digester. The gas occupies about 10% of the volume of the digester. The gas pressure obtained may be as high as 0.1 bar above atmosphere. : . The ‘complete plant is constructed underground, the temperature tends to remain constant and is often considerably higher than the ambient temperature in winter. A manhole cover sealed by clay is provided at the top of digester dome for the purpose of its maintenance. (2) Flexible bag type biogas plant : Fig. 5.6 shows fixed dome digester of the flexible bag type. The digester is made of plastic material and can be installed easily. The biomass slurry is supplied to digester from inlet pipe. After anaerobic digestion the biogas is collected in the upper part of the bag like dome of the digester which gets inflated. The digested slurry is discharged from outlet pipe -— Gas Gas pipe coe Leveled surface A ~~ Outlei na Outlet Fig. 5.6 Flexible bag type biogas plant The main problem with this design is the short life of the material due to the effect of ultraviolet rays. (3) Deenbandhu biogas plant : Deenbandhu biogas plant is developed by Action for Food Production (AFPRO), New Delhi. Itis shown in Fig, 5.7. This plant is developed for extending the biogas technology to places where the availability of bricks is a limiting factor. Its cost is reduced as the surface area is minimized by joining segments of two different diameter spheres at their bases. This ant requires less space being mainly underground. Its 30% economical compared to the Janta biogas plant. The working of this plant is similar to that of Janta biogas plant. Displacement chamber Inlet pipe / Foundation _ fant eenbandhu biogas P Fig. 5.7 D fixed dome type Pl nt (4) Advantages and disadvantages 0 Advantages = (1) Ithas Jow cost ct (2) Ithas no corros! (3) Dueto underground construction, heat insul production isnot affected by wether. (4) Space above the plant can be used for other purposes, | (5) Itis maintenance free. es only cement and no steel compare to floating drum type, as it USS on problem. and, therefore, rate of gas ation is better Disadvantages : (1) Gas production perm’ ofthe digester volume is less. 2) Itrequires skilled masons for construction. G) Tthas variable gas pressure. (4) Ithas problem of scum (solid formation on upper layer) formation, as no stirring arrangement. 5,6.3 Comparison between floating drum type and fixed dome type biogas plant Feature Floatingdrum Fixed dome 1, System Regularfilling and Regular filling and regular discharge. irregular discharge. 2. Thermal insulation Digester heat is Jost through ‘Due to underground construction the temperature and gasholder, therefore, less suitable for colder region. aspects heat insulation is uniform. Concrete, bricks, sand, lime, Bricks, cement, sand, 3, Material used steel. lime-cement. 191 4, Gas-tightness g ‘dome is required , due to steel drum, to be given special treatment for gas tightness. More, external stirrer is Less, scum braking is done required for scum braking. 5 Scum troubles by rotation of drum. 30-60 days and more suitable S Digestion period 40-60 days and more suitable for batch type production. and suitability for continuous type production 7. Gas pressure ‘Constant Variable 8. Cost More costly due to steel drum _less costlier 5,7 Factors affecting biogas generation [May 711] Following are the major actors which affect the quality and quantity of biogas generated. (1) pH value or Hydrogen ion concentration : pHis aterm which denotes the acidity and alkalinity of the substance. If pH range 's between 0 and 7 it is called acidic. If it is between 7 and 14 itis called alkaline. The gas formation is optimum between pH of 6.8 to 7.8. At pH of 6.2, acid conditions prevail which restrain the growth of methanogenic bacteria. When excessive loading is resor ted, the acid 1, resulting in lowering the forming bacteria are more active than the methane forming bac pH. Control on pH should be exercised by adding alkali when it drops below 6.6. (2) Temperature : The process of anaerobic ferment: f the digestion proceed at the highest rate when the temperature is being 35-38°C, the process of digestion ation is temperature dependent. It is found that the process 0 which is known as the mesophyllic range. When the temperature falls, isretarded and below 15°C it is reduced so much that the gas plant produces very little gas; that is why it is experienced that in winter the gas production is considerably low. The process between temperature range 40-45° C becomes slow and then increases to a peak between 55°C - 60°C known as the thermophylic range. (3) Loading rate: Loading rate gives an indicatior Volatile solids are that portion of total so! with too much raw material at a time, acids will accu stop. Also, a faster feeding rate will not help increase t rate, the retention period will be less and undigested slurry mi period of 40 days, an amount equal to 1/40 of the volume of the digester should be fed daily. (4) Solid concentration ; Generally 7 to 9% solid concentration, that is 7 to 9 parts of solid in 100 parts of the slumry is considered ideal. If itis diluted further or if it is concentrated, the fermentation is 1 of weight of volatile solids fed to a digester per day. ids which are organic in content. If the digesters fed mulate andthe digestion process may he gas production. At higher feeding ay come out. For desired retention ——_ Alternate Energy Sources somewhat retarded, and therefore, itis recommended that 4 parts of the cattle dung to be mixed with 5 parts of water. This brings the concentration to about 8%. (5) Pressure : ‘A minimum pressure of 6-10 cm of water column, i. 1-2 bar (abs.) is considered ideal for proper functioning, ofthe plant, and it should never be allowed to exceed 40-50 cm of water column. Excess pressure inhibits release of gas from slurry. Italso leads to leakage in masonry through micropores. Even normal gas taps and pipe joints start leaking due to excess pressure. (6 Carbon to Nitrogen (C/N) ratio and other nutrients in biomass : Methanogenic bacteria needs carbon and nitrogen for its survival. Carbon (in carbohydrate) is required for energy while nitrogen (in proteins, nitrates, etc) for building cell protein. The consumption of carbon is 30 to 35 umes faster than that of nitrogen. A favourable ratio of C:N can be taken as 30:1. Any deviation from this ratio lowers the biogas production. A properbalance of C:N ratio is maintained either by adding saw dust having a high C:N ratio or by poultry waste having a low C:N ratio. ‘The major nutrients required by the bacteria in the digester are C,H,,0,,N,,P,and §, of these nutrients N, and P are always in short supply. Therefore to maintain proper balance of nutrients an extra raw material rich in phosphorus (night soil) and N, (chopped leguminous 7} plants) should be added along with the animal dung to obtain maximum production of gas. The best stimulant in this behalf is the animal urine. (7) Retention time : Retention time is the time duration for which the slurry remains in the plant or the time that is available for biodigestion. It is optimized to achieve 70-80% complete digestion considering ambient temperature. The biodegr ‘adability period depends on the temperature and the type of biomass. In India, biogas plants are designed for a retention period of 30, 40, and 50 days depending on the region. Table 5.1 shows biodegradability periods of various digester feeds at 35°C. ; Table 5.1 Sr. No Raw material Required retention time (days) 1 Cow and buffalo dung. 50. 2 Pig dung 20 3 Poultry droppings 20 4 Night soil 30 5 Rice straw 33 6 Sugar cane tops B (8) Effect of toxic substances : i, ae presence of ammonia, pesticides, detergents, heavy metals like chromium, COPP® nickel, api are ot Substance to bacteria responsible for biodigestion, Thus, their pres" reduces the fermentation rate. Also the digested slurry if allowed to remain in digester &°Y' ‘and Biomass. . er acomes toxic tomicTO-organism growth certain time. i iomass with bacteria : Se eric pocntains both acid forming bacteria and methane forming, ects a forming bacteria multiply fast, while the methane forming bacteria grow shanna ah accelerate fermentation, digested slurry that has more methane pr ‘oducing bacteria is a‘ 0 | the fresh slurry in the digester. This led seeding, | 40) Mixing or stirring of the content of the digester : Proper mixing of digester contents provides intimate contact between micro-organism andthe subtrate, maintains uniform temperature, uniform distribution of bacteria and volatile solids throughout slurry. It also minimises sludge formation and prevents a crust or scum formation on top of slurry which interferes with release of biogas. (11) Digester size and shape : Diameter to depth ratio of digester should be between 0.66 to | for maximum production of bi 5.8 Digester design considerations The digester may be of any convenient shape and is provided with a cover to retain the gas. A fixed or floating type of cover may be used. The following are the factors to be considered for optimum size of a biogas plant. (1) The volume of waste to be digested daily. (2) The type and amount of waste available for digestion. (3) Digestion period. (4) The climatic conditions prevailing at that place. (5) Method for addition of raw biomass and removal of digested slurry. (6) Method of stirring for the contents, if required. (7) Method of utilization of biogas. (8) Type of biogas plant, ic. floating drum type or fixed dome type. (9) Information about sub-soil condition and water table at the location. Generally, stirring arrangement is only provided for farmyard waste and plant wastes. The capacity of the digestion tank for given retention time can be calculated approximately as : (Yi +V2)t 2 where V, = the volume of raw biomass added daily, Digester capacity = Bae 0) V> =the volume of digested biomass, =retention time in days. The required capacities of digestion tanks may be calculated on the basis of destruction Ff the Organic matter in the slurry and the conversion of 1/4 of what is destroyed into Alternate Energy Sources to The retention time is fixed by the ime necessat ure ‘andthe remain y digested s Tn high water table areas, U vel is q) 1.210 1.5 mbelow ground le “The raw materials available for biodigestion are in the following forms: tach as animal and human excreta, house waste, etc rop wastes, Ur pan solid wastes, etc sea weed, water hyacinth, ete: me of these resources is giver mineral matter produce asatisfact oes upto gases. dge at given temp he Deenbandhu model w hose entire structure & ite suitable. (1) Anima (2) Land-based rest (3) Water-based resources, SUC! The availability and gas yiel nin Table 5.2. hasalg |d from sor Table 5.2 Production rate Gas yield Gm per kg dry matter) SrNo. Raw material 1. Cowand buffalo dung 10-15 kg/day/head 034 > Poultry droppings 0,06 kg/day/head 0.46-0.56 3, Sheep manure 0.75kg/day/head 0.37-0.61 4, Nightsoil 0.75 kg/day/head 0.38 5, _ Rice husk 1-1.3 tons/hac./yeat 5.67 6. Algae 40 tons/hac./year 0.32 7. Waterhyacinth 60 tons/hac./yeat 0.42 added to make the slurry. ng) of water is alo dung produces + in cow/buffalo dungis about 18%. out 0.227 m’/person/day. Gas red 126 m?/hour. A biogas plant producing 2 m’ gas/day fh. Gas required to run an 1.C. Engine dan be collected, as 30% is lost in fields Equal quantity (animal dun Only 70% of the cow/buf azing. Solid matter conten! Biogas required for cooking isa 100 CP (candle power) mantle lamp is 0. could replace a fuel equivalent of 26 kg of LPG per montl line or diesel engine) is 0,061 to 0.069 m*/hour/kWh of en kg m> Fent to the volume of slurry. A gas space of 10% e total volume of the digester can be juired for lighting a durit (converted gasol ‘The density of slurry 1s about 1090 The volume of the digesteris equiva ofthis volume could be provided in the digester. Hene taken as 1.1 times the volume of the slurry. "The energy available from a biogas digester is given by : E=nHyVp where, 7) = Combustion efficiency of burners, Hy =Calosific value of biogas (20 MI/m* at 10.cm of water) Vp = Volume of biogas, m’. Also, E="HinFnYs where, H,, =calorific value of methane (28 MJ /m‘ at STP), Fin ‘The volume of biogas is given by Ca Vy = Cro ere, C= biogas per unit dry mass input (0.2 100.4 m'/kg), wher m, = mass of dry input in kg. ‘The volume of fluid in the digester is given by Vp = Mo! Pm (5.5) here, Pm = density of dry material in the fluid (50 kg/m?) where, Pm The volume of the digester is given by (5.6) Vy =V pt, yhere Ve = flow rate of the digester fluid in m'/day =retention time in the digester in days. Problem 5.1 The following data are given for a family biogas digester suitable for the output of six cows ; the retention time is 25 days, temperature is 27°C, dry matter eonsumed per day per cow is 2 kg, biogas yield is 0.26 m'/kg. The efficiency of burner is 7%, methane proportion is 0.75. Assume heat of combustion of methane is 28 MJ/m:. Determine (1) the volume of biogas digester, and (ii) the power available: from the digester. Solution : Given data : No. of cows = 06, 1, = 25 days, T= 27°C, mj, =2 kg/day/cow (=0.26 mi/kg, = 70%, Hy, = 28000 ki/m?, F,, = 0.75, Vy =2,E=? Mass of the dry input, my = No. of cows x dry matter consumed per day per cow =06 x 2= 12 kg/day Fuid volume is given by pe = te 004 ma Vela Pm 50 MMe volume of biogas digester : Ya =Vpt, =0.24%25 =6 m3 Ans OTe power available from the digester : Volume of biogas, V, = Cm, =0.26x12 =3.12m/day €ravailable from the di igester, Alternate Energy Sources 204 5.9 Advantages and disadvantages of biogas enerBy Advantages : (J) The biogas after remov: used for cooking, lighting, running di (2) Waste material available after digestion int fertilizer (better fertilizer than composted biomass). (3) Sewage and waste after biogas production is converted into less offensive slurry and almost free from pathogens (diseases producing bacteria). ; (4) Small units can be located near to the accumulation of waste in the forming region, (5) Sophisticated orexpensive equipments not required, hence, initial costs comparatively low. (6) Inrural areas hygienic and sanitation conditions are improved. (7) Itincreases the opportunities of rural populations of developing countries Disadvantages : (1) A small percentage of the order of 0.1% of solar radiations by plants. (2) The land area required is relatively large where land costis high G) Biomass collection and transportation become expensive and laborious due to high moisture contents. (4) Relatively low concentration of biomass per unit area of land. (5) Since the gas cannot be liquefied ordinarily there is storage problems, it can not be bottled like LPG into cylinder: (6) Energy density of gasis low. alof CO, produces an excellent fuel as CH, gas. Itcan be ‘2 diesel engines, fuel for furnaces, etc. he form of digested slurry can be used as are converted into biomass and hence this method is ruled out for areas 5.10 Site selection for a biogas plant Following factors should be considered while selecting the site for a biogas plant. (1) Distane : , The distance between plant site and gas consumption site should be minimum. This is considered in order to achieve economy in pumping of gas and minimizing gas leakage (2) Open space : “ is The plant should be constructed in open space, so that the sunli: ight should fall on the plant because the temperature between 20-30°C is essential for gas production (3) Source of ‘cow dung/materials for biogas generation The distance between the material for biogas generation and the gas plant site should mum to economise the transportation cost. from wells : eet ay from the wells to avoid the seepage of fermented Id be maintained from the wells. 205 sufficient quantity of wate of land and its cos In addition to the plant, sufficient space is required for day to day operation and maintenance, Hence, sufficient land should be available at cheaper rate. hould be available at site for formation of biomass slurry. 5.11 Applications of biogas The main products of the biogas plant are fuel gas and organic manure. Biogas is a flammable gas. Methane is the only combustible portion in the gas and hence, around 60% by volume is only usable for combustion, The composition of biogas is as follows : Component Composition (% by volume) CH, 50 to 65% co, 30 to 45% H, and N, Sto 10% H,S and O, Very small amount Energy density Octane ratii 2.35 to 24.22 MI/m3 Ignition temper 650°C The following are the main application of biogas : (1) Household cooking : There are millions of homes today using this gas as fuel solely for cooking purposes. 4 The utility of the gas in burners is well established. Low cost burners of the stove have been designed by engineers. (2)Lighting Biogas lamps are used for lighting the homes. A mantle lamp is used for this purpose, which is made of a Ramic fibre. A biogas lamp of a luminosity of about 60 watts equivalent clectrical light can function for six to seven hours if one cu. metre gas is available. (3) Operating small engines : Biogas can be used to operate both Cl (diesel) and SI (Petrol) engines. C.1. eng cantun on dual fuel (biogas + diese!) and pilot injection of diesel is necessary for ignit ‘mixture of air and biogas inside the cylinder. Spark ignition (SI) engine can be ope biogas after initially starting on petrol. Water pump or Generator can be connect “ngine. If a 5 HP engine is to be used for say 8 hours at least 18 cubic meters of ga d per day. That means atleast 30 to 35 animals are required for this p aces : iogas can be used as fuel for the furnaces. bina ~The other main product of the biogas plant is the organic manure. This ¢ 1 tas slurry which is quite rich in nitrogen and humus, Itcan be supe ae Altern 5.12 Energy Plantation iris known ay When plants are cultivated espec ially for the purpose of energy energy plantation orenergy farming, Plants are convenient solar energ: from which the accumulated energy can be released at will. Energy plantation by design ig managed and operated to provide substantial amounts of usable fucl ontinuously throughout the yearat a cost lesser than other fuels Energy crops contain significant quantities ofone or more of the four energy rich components : oils, sugars, starches, and lignocelluloses (fibres). example of energy farming is the s (sugar) and energy (ethanol and bag: are other example of energy farming. require little water, use less land and are quite hardy Energy crops are divided into (1) Wood energy crops : They are harvested on a rotation more promising than soft wood because of their higher productivity potential, lower cost and the ability to re-sprout from stumps. Promising hardwoods include hybrid poplar, willow, and black locust. (2) Herbaceous energy crops : They include both annual crops ar veet sorghum, ete. and that of perennial examples of annual crops are com, cotton, groundnut, sw crops are switch grass and Indian grass The potential of production of bio-iese! through plar ion of certain plants is attracting er, Forexample, Jojoba, Jatropha, and Karanj are being planted in abig and or desert and therefore, as such, does not ‘storage devices An outstanding and established ane crops are used for food ugar-cane industry Sugar-c c), Fast-growing hybrid poplar and cucalyptus trees They grow very quickly (as much as 4 meters per year) of 5-7 years. Hardwoods are nd perennial crops. The attention the world ov way. They can be planted even in the less fertile I compete with food crops. 5.13 Gasification ustion in which solid biomass usually it Gasification is a process of partial combu iy converted into a combustible 8 the form of pieces of wood or agricultural residue mixture. Partial combustion occurs because the air supply is intentionally kept Jess than th amount required for the complete combustion of biomass. Asaresult, a gaseous mixture carbon monoxide (CO, 10-20%), Carbon dioxide (CO,, 9-12%), hydrogen (H,, 15 20%} nitrogen (N,,45-55%), and methane (CH,, 1-5%) called producer gas \s obtained. Inatypical combustion process, generally the oxygen is surplus, while in a gas! ficali the fuel is surplus. The combustion products after partial combustion pi through glowing layer of ‘charcoal for the reduction process to occur, During, this stage, both cart dioxide and water vapour oxidize the char to form CO, H, and CH,. The following are typical reactions, which occur during gasi fication : b C+0, 900,

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