Learning

Meaning:

Learning refers to any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of
experience. Ironically, we can say that changes in behaviour indicate that learning has taken
place and that learning is a change in behaviour. Our definition has several components that
deserve clarification. First, learning involves change. This may be good or bad from an
organizational point of view. People can learn unfavourable behaviours-to hold prejudices or to
restrict their output, for ex-as well as favourable behaviours. Second, the change must be
relatively permanent. Temporary changes may be only reflexive and fail to represent any
learning. Therefore, this requirement rules out behavioural changes caused by fatigue or
temporary adaptations. Third, our definition is concerned with behaviour. Learning takes place
where there is a change in actions. A change in an individuals thought processes or attitudes, if
accompanied by no change in behaviour, would not be learning. Finally, some form of
experience is necessary for learning. This may be acquired directly through observation or
practice.

The Learning Process

The learning process is a mental and habit formation process. Attention is paid to certain
stimuli used for learning which are recognized and translated into reinforcement and behaviour.
If the learner gets a reward for his improved behaviour, he forms it into behaviour. Proper habits
motivate the employee who makes efforts in the right direction. The efforts result in satisfaction
and become a stimulus for further learning. This process continues and the employee learns in
the process.

Stimuli Attention Recognition Translation

Reinforcement

Behaviour

Efforts Motives Habit Reward

The Learning Process

Reinforcement: Reinforcement is the crucial factor in the learning process. This is also known
as the method of shaping employees’ behaviour. Perception becomes learning only through
reinforcement.

Perception = Stimuli Attention Recognition Translation Behaviour

Learning = Stimuli Attention Recognition Translation

Reinforcement Behaviour Habit.

Reinforcement is the instrument or process of learning

Learning = Input Process Output

= Stimuli Reinforcement Behaviour

Types of Reinforcement (Learning):

Types of Learning Contingent Consequences

Positive reinforcement Favourable and pleasant Favourable and desirable
stimuli behaviour
Negative reinforcement Favourable and pleasant Unfavourable and
stimuli undesirable behaviour
avoided
Punishment Undesirable stimuli Undesirable behaviour
prevented
Extinction Stimuli avoided (no Undesirable behaviour
reinforcement) ignored.

Theories Of Learning
There are four theories which explain how individuals learn new patterns of behaviour.

A. Classical conditioning: Classical conditioning deals with the association of one event
with another desired event resulting in a desired behaviour or learning. It is a type of
conditioning where an individual responds to some stimulus that would invariably
produce such a response. Learning through classical conditioning was first studied by
Ivan Pavlov, a famed Nobel Prize winning Physiologist, at the turn of the 20th century.

Pavlov conducted an experiment on a dog to study the relation between the dog’s
salivation and the ringing of a bell. A simple surgical procedure helped him to measure
accurately the amount of saliva secreted by the dog. When Pavlov presented a piece of
meat to the dog, he noticed a great deal of salivation. He termed the food an
 unconditioned response. When the dog saw the meat, it salivated. During the second
stage, Pavlov merely rang a bell (neutral stimuls), the dog did not salivate. Pavlov
subsequently introduced the sound of the bell each time the meat was given to the dog.
Thus meat and ringing of the bell were linked together. The dog eventually learnt to
salivate in response to the ringing of the bell even when there was no meat. Pavlov
conditioned the dog to respond to a learned stimulus.

Thorndike called this the “law of exercise” which states that behaviour can be learned by
repetitive association between a stimulus and a response.

Fig: 8 Stages in classical conditioning

I Before conditioning

US UR
(Meat) (salivation)
Neutral stimulus No response
(Bell)

II During conditioning

CS
(Bell)

US UR
(Meat) (salivation)

III After conditioning

CS CR
(Bell) (salivation)

The meat was an unconditioned stimulus (US). It invariably caused the dog to react in a
specific way, i.e, noticeable increase in salivation. This reaction is called the unconditioned
response (UR). The bell was a conditioned stimulus (CS). It was originally neutral. But when
the bell was linked with the meat (an unconditioned stimulus), it eventually produced a
response. After conditioning, the dog started salivating in response to the ringing of the bell
alone. In other words, conditional stimulus (CS) led to conditioned response (CR).
Classical conditioning represents only a very small part of total human learning. So it has a
limited value in the study of organizational behaviour. In the words of S.P.Robbins, “Classical
conditioning is passive”. Something happens and we react in a specific or particular way. It is
elicited in response to a specific identifiable event and as such it explains simple and
reflexible behaviours. But behaviour of people in organizations is emitted rather than elicited.
The learning of complex behaviours can be better understood by looking at operant
conditioning”.
B. Operant Conditioning: Operant is defined as behaviour that produces effect. Operant
conditioning is based on the work of B.F. Skinner who advocated that individuals emit are
punished. Operant conditioning is voluntary or learned behaviour and it is determined,
maintained and controlled by its consequence.Operant conditioning is based on the premise
that behaviour is a function of its consequences. People learn to behave to get something they
desire or to avoid something they do not like. Behaviour is likely to be repeated if the
consequences are favourable and it is not likely to be repeated if the consequences are
unfavourable. Thus, the relationship between behaviour and consequences is the essence of
operant conditioning.
C. Cognitive Learning: Cognitive learning is learning achieved by thinking about the
perceived relationship between events and individual goals and expectations. For instance,
the process motivation theories deal with explaining “why” people decide to do things. They
do so by examining how people come to view various work activities as perceived
opportunities to satisfy needs, pursue desired rewards, and eliminate felt inequities.Cognition
refers to an individual’s ideas, thoughts, knowledge, interpretations, understandings, etc,
about himself and his environment. Cognitive theorists argue that the learner forms a
cognitive structure in memory, which preserves and organizes information about the various
events that occur in a learning situation. The cognitive theory recognizes the role of an
organism in receiving, memorizing, retrieving and interpreting the stimulus and reacting to it.
D. Social Learning: Social learning is learning achieved through the reciprocal interactions
between people, behaviour and their environment. Social learning theory integrates the
cognitive and operant approaches to learning. It recognizes the importance of consequences
as determinants of behaviour. It also emphasizes that people acquire new behaviours by
observing and imitating others in the social setting.
People learn through observation and direct experience. Social learning can also take
place via (i) Modeling or vicarious learning; (ii) symbolism and (iii) self control. Through
vicarious learning or modeling, people acquire behaviours by directly observing and
imitating others. When the “models” such as the manager or a co-worker, demonstrate
desirable behaviours it can have major impact on a person’s work efforts. Many patterns of
behaviours are learned by watching the behaviour of models such as parents, teachers,
superiors, film starts etc.