Space Dynamics

(GATE Aerospace) by
Mr Dinesh Kumar (IIT Madras Fellow)

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 SPACE DYNAMICS
Topics to study –

 Gravitation field
 Kepler’s law
 Mechanics of orbital trajectory
 Orbits

Ref: -

 Introduction to flight by Anderson

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Some constants –

o Universal gravitation constant, G = 6.67×

o = GM = 3.98×
o Earth radius, = 6371 km
o Gravity acceleration, = 9.81
o Mass of the Earth, = 5.98× kg

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1. GRAVITATION FIELD

1.1 Newton’s law of Gravitation

Force between two objects of masses and is inversely proportional to the squire of the distance
between two centers.

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F ∝

→It is also proportional to product of masses and

F ∝

F ∝

F=

G = universal gravitational const.

G = 6.67× 10

If one of the mass is earth mass (M)

Where, M = 5.98× 10 kg

Radius of the earth, = 6371 km ≅ 6400 km

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 = GM = 3.98× 10

1.2 Gravitational potential energy (U)

The potential energy (GPE) is zero when distance between two masses is infinite (∞).

Below the distance of ∞, GPE is negative.

r = separation between particles

= masses of two objects

→If a particle is brought from a position to new position under gravitational force, change in P.E. is given
by

- =-∫ ⃗

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1.3 Gravitational potential (V)

It is the gravitational potential energy per mass.

1.4 Gravitational potential field ( ⃗)

It is the intensity of gravitational force per unit mass at a point.

The intensity of gravitational force per unit mass at earth surface is known as gravity acceleration (g).
⃗
E⃗ = = = = g⃗

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1.5 The variation of g from earth surface

 Above earth at an altitude h

∵g=

F = mg

g=
( )

If h = 0, then g = = 9.81 m/

g= = 1+ ≅ (1-2h/R)
( )

Here g decreases with height.

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  Below earth surface

Gravitational potential force, F = (R-h) (h→ depth)
( )

⃗
g= = (1-h/R)
( )

Here g decreases with depth up to zero.

1.6 Effect on gravity due to rotation of earth

Centrifugal force = m sin

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g’ =

F = mg - m sin =

=g- sin

g’ = g - sin

So g is maximum at poles as centrifugal force is zero and minimum at equator as centrifugal force is
maximum.

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2. Kepler’s law

 First law

A satellite or object describes an elliptical path around its centre of attraction.

Its path depends on velocity.

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  Second law

The area swept out by radius vector of object in equal time remains same.

dA = . . ℎ

dh = rd

dA = . .d

= . .

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 = . . = . . ̇ =

→ Angular momentum is constant under conservative forces.

m ̇ = const.

̇ = const. = h = ⃗ × ⃗

So, = const.

 Third law

The square of time period is proportional to cube of semi-major axis.

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3. Mechanics of orbital trajectory

 Lagrange equation of motion

Kinetic energy of the body

T=T( , , , ′ , ′ , ′ )

Potential energy of the body

∅=∅( , , )

, , → Coordinates

Lagrange’s function

=T-∅

̇
- =0

- =0
̇

̇
- =0

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  Orbit equation

Kinetic energy, q =

= ̇ + ̇

T= ( ̇ + ̇ ) = ( ̇ + r ̇ )

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Potential energy

∅=-

→ =T-∅ = ( ̇ + r ̇ ) + ... (1)

For co-ordinate

̇ - =0 .... (2)

By equation (1),

̇ = (mr θ̇)

Angular momentum = mr θ̇ = const.

r θ̇ = =h (angular momentum per mass is constant)

So, ̇ = (mr θ̇) = 0

By equation (1),

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 =0

For co-ordinate

̇
- =0 .... (3)

By equation (1),

̇
= mṙ

= mr ̇ -

From equation (3),

(mṙ ) - mr ̇ + =0

m ̈+ - mr ̇ = 0

̇
̈- + =0

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 ̈- + =0 ..... (4) (h = ̇ = specific angular momentum)

This is differential equation of 2nd order.

Sol for above equation is given by

r= = = (p = )
( ) . . ( ) . ( )

Here A and C (phase angle) are constant depends on initial condition.

And . = = eccentricity

So, r = .... (5)

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  The type of orbit is decided by e

(1) If e = 0 → path is circular

(2) If e < 1 → path is elliptical

(3) If e = 1 → path is parabolic

(4) If e > 1 → path is hyperbolic

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  Orbital energy

It is the summation of K.E. and P.E.

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 In General

Eccentricity can be written in terms of orbit energy per unit mass

e= +

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Escape velocity

Orbit Energy

= -

At escape velocity, the kinetic energy is converted into potential energy.

= - =0

= = 2

Example1. What will be the escape velocity, if R is doubled and mass remains same?

Sol.

(I) if mass remains same

= 2

g= = = = (h = R)
( ) ( ) ( )

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 ,
, = 2. .2 =
√

(II) If density remains same

M=

= ×

= × (2 ) = 8 (R→ 2 )

= =2
( )

, = 2.2 .2 =2 ,

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4. Orbits

4.1 For circular orbit

e = 0, for circular orbit

=-

= -

- = -

For Circular orbit r =

- = -

v= =

 So velocity for circular orbit, = =

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Escape velocity from circular orbit

∆ = -

 Time period

T=

T=

/
T=
√

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4.2 For parabolic orbit

e = 1, for parabolic orbit

e= 1 + =1

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 =0

So, = - =0

v= (escape velocity)

For parabolic trajectory

r=

At =0

= (perigee)

. 2
= = = 2 =
ℎ

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4.3 For an elliptical orbit

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e < 1, for elliptical orbit

a = semi – major axis

b = semi – minor axis

+ = 2a

= apogee =

= perigee =

- = 2ae

= a(1+ e)

= a(1- e)
( )
=
( )

e=

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e= 1− from geometry

For Elliptical trajectory

r=
.

→ = (1+e)

= a(1-e)(1+e)

= a(1- )

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We know

e= 1 +

Then orbit energy

=− { = a(1- )}

= -

( )
= -

= −

v= −1

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Velocity at perigee r →

( )
, = =
( ) ( )

Velocity at apogee r →

( )
, = =
( ) ( )

( )
=
( )

Escape velocity from elliptical orbit

∆ = - −1

 Time period

T= =
/

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 √ /
T= =
( ) √

T2 =

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4.4 For hyperbolic orbit

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e > 1, for hyperbolic orbit

P.E. < K.E.

e= 1 +

( )
=-

For hyperbolic trajectory

r=
.

e= 1+ (for hyperbolic orbit)

. = = = a(e-1)

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a=

( )
Orbital energy = - =

= -

1
= −
2 2

v= +1

Velocity at Perigee

( )
=
( )

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