Lecture 7.

1
Work-Energy Principle (Part 1)

The energy methods, such as the Method of Virtual Work, have been widely used for calculating
deflection in trusses, beams, and frames. This lecture provides a basis for understanding the
energy methods by discussing the Work-Energy Principle in the context of a few simple
structures.

In essence, the Work-Energy Principle states that the work done by the forces acting on an
isolated system is equal to the change in the system’s internal energy.

From physics, we know that work equals force times distance. More specifically, if a force (𝐹)
causes an object to move a distance (𝑑) in the direction of the force, then the work done by the
force equals 𝐹 × 𝑑 (see Figure 7.1). However, it is important to note that this definition of work
assumes the object is free to move.

Figure 7.1: Work done by a force

Stable structures do not undergo any rigid body movement. Therefore, the above definition is
not applicable to such systems.

Let us see how we can determine the external work and internal energy in a simple structure.
Consider the beam shown in Figure 7.2. The applied load (𝑃) does work as it deflects the beam
downward.

Figure 7.2: A simply supported beam subjected to a vertical point load

To determine the work done by 𝑃, we apply the load to the beam incrementally. At each
increment, we add a small amount of load to the beam. Let’s denote the load increment by
symbol 𝑓. At time 𝑡0 , no load is on the beam. Hence, no deflection takes place, and no work is
done. At time 𝑡1 , we place the load increment 𝑓 on the beam causing it to displace downward a
small amount. We can refer to this small displacement as 𝛿 (see Figure 7.3).

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.2

 Figure 7.3: A simply supported beam deflection due to a load increment

It is important to keep in mind that since 𝑓 is very small, 𝛿 is considered negligible.

Nevertheless, at time 𝑡1 , a small amount of work has been done by 𝑓 as the force goes through
displacement 𝛿. The work done is 𝑓 × 𝛿. Let’s tabulate the data that we have so far (see Table
7.1).
Time Total Load Total Displacement Work Increment

𝑡0 0 0 0

𝑡1 𝑓 𝛿 𝑓𝛿
Table 7.1: Work increment for a beam subjected to an incremental load (f)

Next, we place another load increment on the beam, as shown in Figure 7.4.

Figure 7.4: A simply supported beam deflection due to two load increments

This additional load increment causes the beam to deflect downward by an additional 𝛿. That is,
for every load increment 𝑓, the beam displaces downward by 𝛿.

To determine the amount of work done at this step, we need to closely examine Figure 7.4. Since
there are two load increments on the beam going through incremental displacement δ, the work
increment equals 2𝑓 × 𝛿. Our table can be updated as follows:

Time Total Load Total Displacement Work Increment

𝑡0 0 0 0

𝑡1 𝑓 𝛿 𝑓𝛿

𝑡2 2𝑓 2𝛿 2𝑓𝛿

Table 7.2: Work increment for a beam subjected to two load increments (2𝑓)

In the next increment, at time 𝑡3 , we add another 𝑓 to the load as shown in Figure 7.5.

Figure 7.5: A simply supported beam deflection due to three load increments

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.3

This additional 𝑓 causes the beam to displace an additional 𝛿. Therefore, since three load
increments travel through the incremental displacement 𝛿, the work increment is 3𝑓 × 𝛿. Table
7.3 shows the updated data.

Time Total Load Total Displacement Work Increment

𝑡0 0 0 0

𝑡1 𝑓 𝛿 𝑓𝛿

𝑡2 2𝑓 2𝛿 2𝑓𝛿

𝑡3 3𝑓 3𝛿 3𝑓𝛿

Table 7.3: Work increment for a beam subjected to three load increments (3𝑓)

At time t4, the total load on the beam is 4𝑓 and the total displacement is 4𝛿; hence, the work
increment is 4𝑓 × 𝛿 (see Table 7.4).

Time Total Load Total Displacement Work Increment

𝑡0 0 0 0

𝑡1 𝑓 𝛿 𝑓𝛿

𝑡2 2𝑓 2𝛿 2𝑓𝛿

𝑡3 3𝑓 3𝛿 3𝑓𝛿

𝑡4 4𝑓 4𝛿 4𝑓𝛿

Table 7.4: Work increment for a beam subjected to four load increments (4𝑓)

We continue adding load increments to the beam until the sum of all the load increments equals
𝑃. Let’s assume this equality is reached at load increment 𝑛. That is, 𝑃 = 𝑛𝑓.

The following table represents the entire data set for the work increments done by force 𝑃.

Time Total Load Total Displacement Work Increment

𝑡0 0 0 0

𝑡1 𝑓 𝛿 𝑓𝛿

𝑡2 2𝑓 2𝛿 2𝑓𝛿

𝑡3 3𝑓 3𝛿 3𝑓𝛿

𝑡4 4𝑓 4𝛿 4𝑓𝛿

⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮

𝑡𝑛 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝛿 𝑛𝑓𝛿
Table 7.5: Work increments for a beam subjected to n load increments (𝑛𝑓)

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.4

From Table 7.5, we can determine the total work done by calculating the sum of the work
increments. This sum is: ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑖(𝑓)(𝛿) = (𝑓)(𝛿) ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑖 = (𝑓)(𝛿)(𝑛)(𝑛 + 1)/2.

Since 𝑃 = 𝑛𝑓, and ∆= 𝑛𝛿, we can write the total work as (𝑃)(∆ + 𝛿)/2. And since 𝛿 is assumed to
be sufficiently small, the expression for total work can be written as:
1
𝑊 = 𝑃∆ [7.1]
2
where 𝑊 is the external work, 𝑃 is the applied load, and ∆ is the total displacement under the
load.
The following diagram shows the results of graphing displacement vs load using the data in
Table 7.5.

Figure 7.6: The graph of displacement vs load for a simply supported beam

The work done by the total load (𝑃) equals the triangular area under the inclined line in Figure
7.6. This area can be written as (𝑛𝑓) (𝑛𝛿)/2, or 𝑃∆/2. This is the same quantity given by equation
[7.1].

The following table offers a few examples of the work done by the applied loads in different
structures.

Description Structure External Work

Simply supported beam 1

𝑃∆
subjected to a point load 2

Simply supported beam 1

(𝑃 ∆ + 𝑃2 ∆2 )
subjected to two point loads 2 1 1

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.5

 Truss subjected to a vertical 1
𝑃∆
load 2

Truss subjected to a 1
𝑃∆
horizontal load 2

Beam subjected to an end 1

𝑀𝜃
moment 2

Beam subjected to two end 1

(𝑀𝜃1 + 𝑀𝜃2 )
moments 2

Table 7.6: Examples of work done by external loads

Next, we turn our attention to the internal energy that develops in a structure when it is
subjected to external loads.

Energy can be viewed as stored work. When a structure is subjected to a load, work is produced
and stored in its members as internal energy. When the load is removed, the energy is released,
reverting the deformed shape of the structure back to its original form.

Consider the beam shown in Figure 7.7. It has deflected downward due to the applied load.

Figure 7.7: A deflected beam under a point load

In its deformed state, the beam has stored energy. This internal energy can be viewed as the
product of the internal force in the structure times its internal deformation.

Imagine the beam has been divided into small elements, as shown in Figure 7.8.

Figure 7.8: A deflected beam discretized into small elements

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.6

The details of a typical beam element are shown in Figure 7.9. The element carries an internal
bending moment of 𝑀. This bending moment causes the element to deform along the arc of a
circle.

Figure 7.9: The internal bending moment and deformation of a small beam element

The stored energy in the element can be expressed as:

1
𝑒 = 𝑀 𝑑𝜃 [7.2]
2

where 𝑒 is the stored energy, 𝑀 is the internal bending moment, and 𝑑𝜃 is the change in the
slope of the elastic curve for the beam element.

Let’s examine the relationship between external work and internal energy more closely in the
context of the simply supported beam in Figure 7.10.

Figure 7.10: A simply supported beam subjected to a concentrated load

We can write the expression for the external work done by the applied load as:
1 1
𝑊 = 𝑃∆ = (2)∆ = ∆ [7.3]
2 2
The simply supported beam can be viewed as a composition of a series of infinitesimal elements.
One such element is shown in Figure 7.11. The element is located at point A, 3 meters to the right
of the left support.

Figure 7.11: An infinitesimal element in simply supported beam

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.7

Given the internal bending moment at point A, the internal energy stored in the infinitesimal
element can be written as:
1
𝑒 = (𝑀)𝑑𝜃 [7.4]
2
or,
1
𝑒 = (3)𝑑𝜃 [7.5]
2
The total internal energy stored in the beam can be defined by integrating equation [7.4] over
the length of the beam, as follows:
10
1
𝐸=∫ 𝑀𝑑𝜃 [7.6]
0 2

Therefore, the Work-Energy Principle can be written as:

𝑊=𝐸 [7.7]

where 𝑊 is given in equation [7.3] and 𝐸 is given in equation [7.6]. Hence, equation [7.7]
becomes:

1 10
∆ = ∫ 𝑀𝑑𝜃 [7.8]
2 0

For an example of the Work-Energy Principle, consider a straight bar of length 𝐿 subjected to an
axial force of 𝑃. The load causes the bar to elongate by ∆, as shown in Figure 7.12.

Figure 7.12: An elongated bar under an axial load

The external work done by the load can be written as:

1
𝑊 = 𝑃∆ [7.9]
2
The internal energy stored in the member can be expressed as:

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.8

 1
𝐸 = (internal member force)(member elongation) [7.10]
2
To determine the internal member force, we can cut the member, draw the free-body diagram of
a cut segment, then write and solve the relevant static equilibrium equation to determine the
force, as shown in Figure 7.13 and equation [7.11].

Figure 7.13: The free-body diagram of a bar segment

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 → 𝑁 − 𝑃 = 0 → 𝑁 = 𝑃 [7.11]

If we denote the member elongation as 𝛿, the expression for the internal energy becomes:
1 1 [7.12]
𝐸 = 𝑁𝛿 = 𝑃δ
2 2
Therefore, the Work-Energy Principle can be written as:
1 1 [7.13]
𝑃∆ = 𝑃δ
2 2
We can determine 𝛿 using Hooke’s Law, according to which the relationship between axial stress
and axial strain can be expressed as σ = 𝐸ε, where σ is axial stress, 𝐸 is the modulus of elasticity
of the material, and ε is axial strain.

For the bar shown in Figure 7.13, σ = 𝑃/𝐴, where 𝑃 is the internal axial force and 𝐴 is the cross-
sectional area of the member. Similarly, ε = 𝛿/𝐿 , where 𝛿 is the member’s elongation and 𝐿 is
the initial (undeformed) length of the member. Therefore, the following relationship among 𝑃,
𝛿, 𝐸, 𝐴, and 𝐿 can be established.
𝑃 𝛿 [7.14]
=𝐸
𝐴 𝐿

Solving equation [7.14] for 𝛿, we get:

𝑃𝐿 [7.15]
𝛿=
𝐸𝐴

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.9

Using equation [7.15], we can rewrite equation [7.13] as follows:

1 1 𝑃2 𝐿 [7.16]
𝑃∆ =
2 2 𝐸𝐴
Equation [7.16] is a mathematical representation of the Work-Energy Principle. For the bar
example, we can use this equation to determine axial displacement ∆. Solving equation [7.16] for
∆, we get:
𝑃𝐿 [7.17]
∆=
𝐸𝐴
Example: Consider the simple truss shown in Figure 7.14.

Figure 7.14: A simple truss

Under the applied load (𝑃), the truss displaces, as shown in Figure 7.15.

Figure 7.15: The displaced shape of a simple truss under a horizontal load

The total external work done by 𝑃 can be expressed as follows:

1
𝑊 = 𝑃∆ [7.18]
2
Since the truss consists of three members, the expression for internal energy can be written as:
3
1
𝐸 = ∑ 𝐹𝑖 𝛿𝑖 [7.19]
2
𝑖=1

In equation [7.19], 𝐹𝑖 is the axial force in member 𝑖 , and 𝛿𝑖 is its elongation.

To determine the stored internal energy in the truss, we need to analyze it. Since the structure is
statically determinate, we can use the Method of Joints to calculate the member forces. Figure
7.16 shows the joint free-body diagrams of the structure.

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.10

 Figure 7.16: The joint free-body diagrams for a simple truss

The joint equilibrium equations for the system can be written as:

P + 𝐹𝑏𝑐 cos 60 − 𝐹𝑎𝑐 cos 60 = 0 [7.20]

𝐹𝑎𝑐 sin 60 + 𝐹𝑏𝑐 sin 60 = 0 [7.21]

𝐴𝑥 + 𝐹𝑎𝑏 + 𝐹𝑎𝑐 cos 60 = 0 [7.22]

𝐴𝑦 + 𝐹𝑎𝑐 sin 60 = 0 [7.23]

𝐹𝑎𝑏 + 𝐹𝑏𝑐 cos 60 = 0 [7.24]

𝐵𝑦 + 𝐹𝑏𝑐 sin 60 = 0 [7.25]

Solving equations [7.20] through [7.25] for the unknown member forces, we get 𝐹𝑎𝑐 = 𝑃, 𝐹𝑎𝑏 =
𝑃/2, and 𝐹𝑏𝑐 = −𝑃. Then, using Hook’s Law, we can determine the member elongations as
follows:

𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀 [7.26]

𝐹𝑎𝑏 𝛿𝑎𝑏 𝑃𝐿
=𝐸 → 𝛿𝑎𝑏 = [7.27]
𝐴 𝐿 2𝐸𝐴

𝐹𝑎𝑐 𝛿𝑎𝑐 𝑃𝐿
=𝐸 → 𝛿𝑎𝑐 = [7.28]
𝐴 𝐿 𝐸𝐴

𝐹𝑏𝑐 𝛿𝑏𝑐 𝑃𝐿
=𝐸 → 𝛿𝑏𝑐 = − [7.29]
𝐴 𝐿 𝐸𝐴

In the expanded form, equation [7.19] can be written as:

1
𝐸 = (𝐹𝑎𝑏 𝛿𝑎𝑏 + 𝐹𝑎𝑐 𝛿𝑎𝑐 + 𝐹𝑏𝑐 𝛿𝑏𝑐 ) [7.30]
2
or,

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.11

 1 𝑃 𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿 −𝑃𝐿 9 𝑃2 𝐿
𝐸 = [( ) ( ) + (𝑃) ( ) + (−𝑃) ( )] = [7.31]
2 2 2𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴 8 𝐸𝐴

Equating the external work (equation [7.18]) to the internal energy (equation [7.31]), we get:

1 9 𝑃2 𝐿
𝑃∆= [7.32]
2 8 𝐸𝐴
Now, we can determine the displacement of the truss under the applied load by solving equation
[7.32]:
9 𝑃𝐿
∆= [7.33]
4 𝐸𝐴
We will continue our discussion on the Work-Energy Principle in the next lecture.

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.12

 Lecture 7.2
Work-Energy Principle (Part 2)

In this lecture, we will examine the use of the Work-Energy Principle for calculating deflection
in beams and frames.

According to the Work-Energy Principle, the work done by the applied load is equal to the
change in the internal energy of the structure. Assuming that the unloaded structure has a zero
stored energy, then external work equals internal energy.

Consider the beam shown in Figure 7.17. Under the applied load, the beam has a downward
deflection of ∆ at the point of application of the load.

Figure 7.17: A beam displacement at the point of application of a point load

The expression for the external work done by the applied load is:
1
𝑊 = 𝑃∆ [7.34]
2
Since the beam can be viewed as a series of infinitesimal elements (see Figure 7.18), we can write
the stored energy, as shown in equation [7.35].

Figure 7.18: A beam viewed as a series of infinitesimal elements

𝑛
1
𝐸 = ∑ 𝑀𝑖 𝑑𝜃𝑖 [7.35]
2
𝑖=1

In equation [7.35], 𝑛 is the number of segments that the beam has been divided into, 𝑀𝑖 is the
internal bending moment, and 𝑑𝜃𝑖 is the change in the slope in the 𝑖-th segment. For beams and
frames, we can perform the summation given in equation [7.35] via integration. That is, the total
internal energy in the beam can be written as:

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.13

 1
𝐸 = ∫ 𝑀 𝑑𝜃 [7.36]
2

Suppose load 𝑃 is located at the midpoint of the beam, as shown in Figure 7.19.

Figure 7.19: A beam subjected to a point load at its midpoint

The bending moment equation for the beam can be written as:
𝑃𝑥
0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝐿/2
𝑀(𝑥) = { 2 [7.37]
𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝑥
− 𝐿/2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝐿
2 2
Therefore, equation [7.36] can be expanded as follows:

1 𝐿/2 𝑃𝑥 𝐿
𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝑥
𝐸 = [∫ 𝑑𝜃 + ∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝜃] [7.38]
2 0 2 𝐿/2 2 2

In equation [7.38], since the bending moment expressions are defined in terms of 𝑥, we need to
rewrite 𝑑𝜃 in terms of 𝑑𝑥, before we can perform the integration operation.

Consider an infinitesimal beam element with length 𝑑𝑥, as shown in Figure 7.20.

Figure 7.20: An infinitesimal beam element with length dx

The deformed shape of the element is shown in Figure 7.21.

Figure 7.21: A deformed infinitesimal beam element

Note that under the applied load, the element’s top fiber has been shortened, and the bottom
fiber has been elongated. That is, the top fiber of the element is in compression and the bottom

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.14

fiber is in tension. Since the stress profile of the element changes from top (compression) to
bottom (tension), an axis must exist within the member along which the length of the fiber
remains unchanged. We call that axis the neutral axis. The length of the element along the
neutral axis, therefore, is 𝑑𝑥 (the length of the infinitesimal element shown in Figure 7.20).

Let 𝑑𝜃 denote the change in slope of the infinitesimal element, and 𝑟 be the radius of the circle
that has an arc length of 𝑑𝑥 (see Figure 7.22).

Figure 7.22: An infinitesimal beam element having dx as its arc length

Using basic geometry, we can write:

𝑑𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 [7.39]

Figure 7.23 provides a graphical depiction of the relationship between the internal bending
moment in the infinitesimal beam element and 𝑟 (the radius of the curvature of the element).
We can see that 𝑀 is inversely proportional to 𝑟. For linear elastic material, this relationship can
be expressed as (𝑀)(𝑟) = 𝐸𝐼, where 𝐸 is the modulus of elasticity of the material and 𝐼 is the
moment of inertia of the cross-section of the beam about the axis of bending.

Figure 7.23: An infinitesimal beam element subjected to an increasing internal bending moment

Therefore, 𝑟 can be written as:

𝐸𝐼
𝑟= [7.40]
𝑀

Using equation [7.40], we can rewrite equation [7.39] as follows:

𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑥 = ( )𝑑𝜃 [7.41]
𝑀

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.15

or,
𝑀
𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑥 [7.42]
𝐸𝐼
Then, the general expression for internal energy given by equation [7.36] becomes:

1 1 𝑀 1 𝑀2
𝐸 = ∫ 𝑀𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝑀 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 [7.43]
2 2 𝐸𝐼 2 𝐸𝐼

For the simply supported beam shown in Figure 7.19, equation [7.43] can be written as:

1 𝐿/2 𝑃2 𝑥 2 1 𝐿 𝑃2
𝐸= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝐿 − 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥 [7.44]
2 0 4𝐸𝐼 2 𝐿/2 4𝐸𝐼

Assuming a constant 𝐸𝐼 for the beam, equation [7.44] yields:

𝑃2 𝐿3
𝐸 = [7.45]
96𝐸𝐼

Then, the Work-Energy Principle (i.e., 𝑊 = 𝐸) can be written as:

1 𝑃2 𝐿3
𝑃∆ = [7.46]
2 96𝐸𝐼
We can use equation [7.46] to solve for ∆. The vertical displacement at the point of application of
P, shown in Figure 7.19, is:

𝑃𝐿3
∆= [7.47]
48𝐸𝐼
Let’s consider another example. Figure 7.24 shows a frame subjected to a horizontal load. We
wish to determine the horizontal displacement at the top of the frame under the applied load
using the Work-Energy Principle.

Figure 7.24: A frame structure subjected to a horizontal load

The expression for external work for the frame is 𝑊 = 𝑃∆/2.

To determine the stored internal energy, we need to analyze the frame. For this statically
determinate structure, the analysis can be done using the static equilibrium equations. The
analysis results are shown in Figure 7.25.

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.16

 Figure 7.25: Internal forces in a frame structure

Knowing the member forces, we can calculate their internal energies.

Let’s start with member BD. The member is subjected to an axial force only. The internal force
in the member is −2𝑃. That is, the member carries a compressive force of 2𝑃, resulting in a
shortening of its length. Denoting the axial displacement of the member as 𝛿, using Hooke’s
Law, we can write:
−2𝑃 𝛿
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀 → = 𝐸 [7.48]
𝐴 2𝐿

Solving equation [7.48] for 𝛿, we get:

4𝑃𝐿
𝛿 = − [7.49]
𝐸𝐴
Therefore, the internal energy for member BD can be written as:

1 1 4𝑃𝐿 4𝑃2 𝐿
𝐸𝐵𝐷 = (𝐹𝐵𝐷 )(𝛿) = (−2𝑃)(− )= [7.50]
2 2 𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴
Members AC and CD undergo both axial displacement and bending. Therefore, their internal
energies have an axial component and a bending component.

Examine the free-body diagram for member AC in Figure 7.25. The member is subjected to three
internal forces: an axial force, a bending moment, and a shear force. Naturally, each force causes
a unique deformation. The axial force causes axial deformation, the bending moment causes

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.17

rotational deformation, and the shear force causes shear deformation. Hence, the internal
energy stored in the member can be written as:
𝐸𝐴𝐶 =
[7.51]
(axial internal energy) + (bending internal energy) + (shear internal energy)

However, since shear deformation in a typical structural member is generally negligible, we can
ignore the last term in equation [7.51]. The revised (approximate) internal energy equation for
the member can be written as:
𝐸𝐴𝐶 = (axial internal energy) + (bending internal energy) [7.52]

The axial force in the member is 2𝑃 (see Figure 7.25). The axial elongation of the member can be
determined using Hooke’s Law, as shown below:
2𝑃 𝛿
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀 → = 𝐸 [7.53]
𝐴 2𝐿
or,
4𝑃𝐿
𝛿= [7.54]
𝐸𝐴
The axial internal energy for member AC, therefore, can be written as:

1 4𝑃𝐿 4𝑃2 𝐿
𝐸axial = (2𝑃)( )= [7.55]
2 𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴
The expression for calculating the internal energy for member AC due to bending is as follows:

1 2𝐿 𝑀2
𝐸bending = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 [7.56]
2 0 𝐸𝐼

Assuming the origin of the coordinate system for the member is located at point A, the
member’s bending moment equation can be written as:

𝑀(𝑥) = 𝑃𝑥 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝐿 [7.57]

Using equation [7.57], equation [7.56] can be expanded as follows:

1 2𝐿 𝑀2 1 2𝐿 (𝑃𝑥)2 4𝑃2 𝐿3
𝐸bending = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = [7.58]
2 0 𝐸𝐼 2 0 𝐸𝐼 3𝐸𝐼

Therefore, the total internal energy for member AC becomes:

4𝑃2 𝐿 4𝑃2 𝐿3
𝐸𝐴𝐶 = 𝐸axial + 𝐸bending = + [7.59]
𝐸𝐴 3𝐸𝐼
Note the free-body diagram of member CD in Figure 7.25. Ignoring the shear force
(deformation), the internal energy for the member can be written as:

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.18

 𝐸𝐶𝐷 = (axial internal energy) + (bending internal energy) [7.60]
Note that the member carries a tensile force of P. According to Hooke’s Law, the member’s
elongation can be determined as follows:
𝑃 𝛿
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀 → = 𝐸 [7.61]
𝐴 𝐿
or,
𝑃𝐿
𝛿= [7.62]
𝐸𝐴
The axial internal energy stored in the member, therefore, becomes:

1 𝑃𝐿 𝑃2 𝐿
𝐸axial = (𝑃)( ) = [7.63]
2 𝐸𝐴 2𝐸𝐴
The expression for calculating the internal energy in the member due to bending is:

1 𝐿 𝑀2
𝐸bending = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 [7.64]
2 0 𝐸𝐼

Assuming the origin of the coordinate system for the member is located at point C, the member’s
bending moment equation can be written as:

𝑀(𝑥) = 2𝑃𝐿 − 2𝑃𝑥 0≤𝑥≤𝐿 [7.65]

Using equation [7.65], equation [7.64] can be expanded as follows:

1 𝐿 𝑀2 4𝑃2 𝐿 2𝑃2 𝐿3
𝐸bending = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝐿 − 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥 = [7.66]
2 0 𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼 0 3𝐸𝐼

Therefore, the total internal energy for member CD can be written as:

𝑃2 𝐿 2𝑃2 𝐿3
𝐸𝐶𝐷 = 𝐸axial + 𝐸bending = + [7.67]
2𝐸𝐴 3𝐸𝐼
The total stored energy in the frame can be computed by adding equations [7.50], [7.59], and
[7.67], as shown below.

4𝑃2 𝐿 4𝑃2 𝐿 4𝑃2 𝐿3 𝑃2 𝐿 2𝑃2 𝐿3 17 𝑃2 𝐿 𝑃2 𝐿3

𝐸frame = ( )+( + )+( + )= +2 [7.68]
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴 3𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐴 3𝐸𝐼 2 𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐼
Finally, the work-energy equation for the structure can be written as:

1 17 𝑃2 𝐿 𝑃2 𝐿3
𝑃∆= +2 [7.69]
2 2 𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐼

As we solve equation [7.69] for ∆, we obtain the horizontal displacement of the frame, as follows:

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.19

 2𝑃𝐿 17 2𝐿2
∆= ( + ) [7.70]
𝐸 𝐴 𝐼
In this and the previous lectures, we examined and illustrated the use of the Work-Energy
Principle for calculating displacement in beams, frames, and trusses. This formulation, however,
has limited use for structural analysis. For example, consider the beam shown in Figure 7.26.

Figure 7.26: A simple beam subjected to a point load

We can use the Work-Energy Principle to determine the beam’s displacement at the point of
application of the load (at point A). However, this principle cannot be used for calculating the
displacement at any other point on the beam. For example, the displacement at point B cannot
be determined using the work-energy equation since the external work expression (𝑃∆/2) is not
written in terms of the displacement at point B. That is, since the external work done is only a
function of the displacement at point A, then it follows that no displacement other than ∆ can be
determined using the work-energy equation.

We will present a more general technique for calculating displacement in structures in the next
lecture.

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.20

 Lecture 7.3
Virtual Work Method (Trusses)

Previously, we introduced the Work-Energy Principle and showed how it can be used to relate
the external work to the internal energy in a structure. For example, for a simply supported
beam subjected to a concentrated load (see Figure 7.27), the work-energy equation can be
written as:
1 1
external work ≡ 𝑃∆ = ∫ 𝑀𝑑𝜃 ≡ internal energy [7.71]
2 2

where 𝑃 is the applied load, ∆ is the displacement under the load, 𝑀 is the bending moment and
𝜃 is the slope of the elastic curve for the beam.

Figure 7.27: A statically determinate beam subjected to a point load

The Work-Energy Principle can also be applied to trusses. For example, consider the truss
shown in Figure 7.28.

Figure 7.28: A statically determinate truss structure and its displaced shape

The Work-Energy Principle for the truss can be written as:

5
1 1
𝑃∆ = ∑ 𝐹𝑖 𝛿𝑖 [7.72]
2 2
𝑖=1

where 𝑃 is the applied load, ∆ is the horizontal displacement at point C, 𝐹𝑖 is the axial force and
𝛿𝑖 is the axial displacement of member 𝑖.

Suppose we wish to calculate the vertical displacement of the truss at point B, denoted by ∆𝐵 in
Figure 7.28. However, since ∆𝐵 does not appear in equation [7.35], it cannot be calculated using

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.21

the work-energy equation. More generally, the Work-Energy Principle cannot be used directly to
calculate the displacement at a point other than the point of application of the load. The work-
energy equation is also not applicable when the structure is subjected to multiple loads. In such
cases, the Virtual Work Method can be used.

The Virtual Work Method is based on the Work-Energy Principle but does not have its inherent
limitations. To illustrate the basis of the Virtual Work Method, consider a truss structure
subjected to a set of external loads. Figure 7.29 shows such a structure and its assumed
displaced shape.

Figure 7.29: A truss structure and its displaced shape

Let’s refer to the horizontal displacement under load 𝑃 as ∆ℎ and denote the vertical
displacement under load 𝑄 as ∆𝑣 (see Figure 7.29). Suppose we add a virtual vertical load to the
structure at point B, as shown in Figure 7.30. The virtual load is labeled 𝑝∗.

Figure 7.30: A displaced truss subjected to a virtual load

Given that the truss is statically determinate, we can analyze it under virtual load 𝑝∗ . Let’s
denote the member forces due to 𝑝∗ as 𝑓1∗, 𝑓2∗ , 𝑓3∗, 𝑓4∗ , and 𝑓5∗, as shown in Figure 7.31.

Figure 7.31: Truss member forces due to a virtual load

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.22

Since the virtual load (𝑝∗ ) travels through the real displacement (∆𝑣 ), it performs virtual work.
This virtual work equals 𝑝∗ times ∆𝑣 . That is,

external virtual work = 𝑝∗ ∆𝑣 [7.73]

We know that the real loads (𝑃 and 𝑄) cause the truss members to undergo axial displacements.
Hence, we can postulate that the virtual member forces (shown in Figure 7.31) going through the
real member displacements produce internal virtual work.

For truss member 1, internal virtual work equals 𝑓1∗ times 𝛿1 , where 𝑓1∗ is the virtual member
force due to 𝑝∗ and 𝛿1 is the axial displacement of the member due to real loads 𝑃 and 𝑄.
Therefore, we can write:

internal virtual work = 𝑓1∗ 𝛿1 [7.74]

Similarly, for truss member 2, we can write:

internal virtual work = 𝑓2∗ 𝛿2 [7.75]

The internal virtual work expressions for the remaining members can be written in a similar
manner. Therefore, the total internal virtual work becomes:
5

internal virtual work = ∑ 𝑓𝑖∗ 𝛿𝑖 [7.76]

𝑖−1

The Principle of Virtual Work states that external virtual work equals internal virtual work.
Using equations [7.36] and [7.39], this principle can be written as:
5

𝑝∗ ∆𝑣 = ∑ 𝑓𝑖∗ 𝛿𝑖 [7.77]
𝑖−1

If we let 𝑝∗ be a unit load (i.e., 𝑝∗ = 1), equation [7.40] can be used to determine the target
displacement (∆𝑣 ).

More generally, we can calculate any joint displacement using the Virtual Work Method. For
example, suppose we wish to calculate the horizontal displacement at joint D (∆ℎ ) in the truss
shown in Figure 7.32.

Figure 7.32: A truss subjected to real loads and a unit virtual load

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.23

To determine ∆ℎ , we can place a virtual unit load in the horizontal direction at joint D (see
Figure 7.32) and calculate the virtual member forces due to the load. Then, we can equate the
external virtual work to the internal virtual work to determine displacement ∆ℎ , as follows:
5

external virtual work ≡ 1 ∆𝑣 = ∑ 𝑓𝑖∗ 𝛿𝑖 ≡ internal virtual work

∗
[7.78]
𝑖−1

or,
5

∆𝑣 = ∑ 𝑓𝑖∗ 𝛿𝑖 [7.79]
𝑖−1

Where 𝑓𝑖∗ is the axial force due to the virtual unit load and 𝛿𝑖 is the axial displacement due to the
real loads in truss member 𝑖 (see Figure 7.32 for member numbers).

Let’s look at another example. Consider the statically determinate truss shown in Figure 7.33.
We wish to determine the horizontal displacement at point C, the vertical displacement at point
B, and the horizontal displacement at point D. These displacements are shown and labeled as
∆𝑐 , ∆𝑏 , and ∆𝑑 , respectively. The truss members have a cross-sectional area of 20 cm2. The
modulus of elasticity of the (steel) material is assumed to be 200 GPa.

Figure 7.33: A statically determinate truss subjected to two joint loads

We can start by calculating the member forces due to the applied loads. Figure 7.34 shows the
overall free-body diagram of the truss.

Figure 7.34: The free-body diagram of a statically determinate truss

To determine the support reactions, we can write and solve the static equilibrium equations as
shown below:

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.24

 ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 500 − 𝐴𝑥 = 0 → 𝐴𝑥 = 500 kN [7.80]

∑ 𝑀𝑧 = 500(7) + 200(5) − 10𝐷𝑦 = 0 → 𝐷𝑦 = 450 kN [7.81]

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐷𝑦 − 200 = 0 → 𝐴𝑦 = −250 kN [7.82]

Figure 7.35 shows the results of the analysis.

Figure 7.35: The support reactions of a statically determinate truss

To determine the forces in members 1 and 2, we can use the free-body diagram of joint A (see
Figure 7.36).

Figure 7.36: The free-body diagram of a pin support in a truss structure

The static equilibrium equations for the joint can be written as follows:

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹1 cos(54.46) + 𝐹2 − 500 = 0 [7.83]

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹1 sin(54.46) − 250 = 0 [7.84]

Solving equations [7.46] and [7.47] for the unknown member forces, we get 𝐹1 = 307 N and 𝐹2 =
321 N.

Using the free-body diagram of joint B (see Figure 7.37) we can determine 𝐹3 and 𝐹4 .

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.25

 Figure 7.37: The free-body diagram of a truss joint subjected to a load

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹4 − 321 = 0 [7.85]

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹3 − 200 = 0 [7.86]

As we solve equations [7.48] and [7.49] for the unknown member forces, we get 𝐹3 = 200 N and
𝐹4 = 321 N.

Finally, using the free-body diagram of joint D (see Figure 7.38), we can determine the
remaining unknown member force.

Figure 7.38: The free-body diagram of a roller support in a truss structure

The equilibrium equations for joint D are:

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹5 cos(54.46) + 321 = 0 [7.87]

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹5 sin(54.46) + 450 = 0 [7.88]

Either equation [7.50] or [7.51] can be used to determine 𝐹5 . It equals −553 N.

Next, we need to determine the axial displacement for each truss member under the applied
loads. According to Hooke’s Law, we can write 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀, where 𝜎 is axial stress, 𝐸 is modulus of
elasticity, and 𝜀 is axial strain. Since axial stress equals axial force divided by the cross-sectional
area of the member, and axial strain is the change in length over the initial length of the
member, Hooke’s Law can be rewritten as:
𝐹 𝛿 [7.89]
=𝐸
𝐴 𝐿
Solving equation [7.52] for 𝛿 (axial displacement), we get:

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.26

 𝐹𝐿 [7.90]
𝛿=
𝐸𝐴
We can determine the axial displacement for each truss member using equation [7.53].

Figure 7.39: Truss member lengths in a statically determinate system

Keeping in mind the member lengths shown in Figure 7.39, we can calculate the following
member axial displacements:

𝐹1 𝐿1 (307)(8.6)
𝛿1 = = = 6.6 × 10−6 m [7.91]
𝐸𝐴 (200 × 109 )(20 × 10−4 )

𝐹2 𝐿2 (321)(5)
𝛿2 = = = 4.0 × 10−6 m [7.92]
𝐸𝐴 (200 × 109 )(20 × 10−4 )

𝐹3 𝐿3 (200)(7)
𝛿3 = = = 3.5 × 10−6 m [7.93]
𝐸𝐴 (200 × 109 )(20 × 10−4 )

𝛿4 = 𝛿2 = 4.0 × 10−6 m [7.94]

𝐹5 𝐿5 (−553)(8.6)
𝛿5 = = = −12 × 10−6 m [7.95]
𝐸𝐴 (200 × 109 )(20 × 10−4 )

Now that we have determined the axial forces and displacements of the truss members, we are
ready to determine the external virtual work and internal virtual work for the structure. To
calculate ∆𝑐 (see Figure 7.33), we need to place a virtual unit load at joint C in the direction of ∆𝑐
and analyze the truss. The analysis results are shown in Figure 7.40.

Figure 7.40: The member forces in a truss subjected to a horizontal virtual unit load

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.27

The external virtual work equals 1∗ ∆𝑐 . The internal virtual work is ∑5𝑖−1 𝑓𝑖 ∗ 𝛿𝑖 . Therefore, we can
write:
5

1 ∆𝑐 = ∑ 𝑓𝑖 ∗ 𝛿𝑖
∗ [7.96]
𝑖−1

or,

∆𝑐 = (10−6 )[(0.86)(6.6) + (0.5)(4.0) + (3.5)(0) + (0.5)(4.0) + (−12)(−0.86)] [7.97]

Equation [7.60] yields:

∆𝑐 = 20 × 10−6 m [7.98]

To determine the vertical displacement at joint B, we place a virtual unit load in the vertical
direction at the joint and calculate the resulting member forces. These forces are shown in
Figure 7.41.

Figure 7.41: The member forces in a truss subjected to a vertical virtual unit load

Therefore, the virtual work equation can be written as:

5

1 ∆𝑏 = ∑ 𝑓𝑖 ∗ 𝛿𝑖
∗ [7.99]
𝑖−1

or,

∆𝑏 = (10−6 )[(−0.61)(6.6) + (0.36)(4.0) + (1)(3.5) + (0.36)(4.0) + (−0.61)(−012)] [7.100]

Equation [7.63] yields:

∆𝑏 = 9.67 × 10−6 m [7.101]

Finally, to determine the horizontal displacement at joint D, we place a virtual unit load in the
horizontal direction at the joint and calculate the truss member forces. These forces are shown
in Figure 7.42.

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.28

 Figure 7.42: The member forces in a truss subjected to a vertical virtual unit load

The virtual work equation for determining ∆𝑑 can be written as:

∆𝑑 = (10−6 )[(0)(6.6) + (1)(4.0) + (0)(3.5) + (1)(4.0) + (0)(−012)] = 8 × 10−6 m [7.102]

We will discuss the use of the Virtual Work Method for calculating deflection in beams in the
next lecture.

Exercise Problems: Solve the following problems using the Virtual Work Method.

1. Calculate the horizontal and vertical displacements at joint A, and the horizontal
displacement at joint C for the following truss structure.

2. Calculate the vertical displacement of the truss shown below at joint A.

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.29

 Lecture 7.4
Virtual Work Method (Beams)

This lecture is an introduction to the Virtual Work Method for calculating deflection in beams.
Consider a simply supported beam subjected to a concentrated load, as shown in Figure 7.43.

Figure 7.43: A statically determinate beam subjected to a point load

Suppose we wish to determine the vertical displacement of the beam at its midpoint (see Figure
7.44).

Figure 7.44: The deflection of a beam at its midpoint

Like the Work-Energy Principle, the Virtual Work Method is centered around the principle that
when a deformed structure is subjected to a virtual load, the external work done by that load
equals the virtual energy (or work) produced in the structural members. Hence, we can write:
external virtual work = internal virtual work [7.103]

To arrive at the expression for the external virtual work for the beam shown in Figure 7.43, we
can place a virtual load at the midpoint of the beam in the direction of the target displacement
(∆), as shown in Figure 7.45.

Figure 7.45: The deflection of a beam at its midpoint

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.30

Mathematically, we can write the external virtual work as 𝑝∗ 𝛥 where 𝑝∗ is the virtual load and 𝛥
is the real displacement (i.e., the displacement due to the applied load) at the midpoint of the
beam.

The internal virtual work in the beam is the product of the beam’s internal moment due to the
virtual load (𝑝∗ ) and the beam’s internal deformation due to the real load (𝑃).

To determine the moment equation for the beam due to 𝑝∗ , we need to analyze the beam shown
in Figure 7.46.

Figure 7.46: The support reactions for a beam subjected to a virtual load

The moment equation for the beam can be written as follows:

𝑝∗ 𝑥/2 0≤𝑥≤4
𝑚∗ (𝑥) = { [7.104]
4𝑝 − 𝑝∗ 𝑥/2 4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 8
∗

To determine the internal deformation of the beam due to the real load, let’s examine a small
segment of the beam as follows:

Figure 7.47: A small segment of the beam shown in Figure 1

In Figure 7.47, 𝑀 represents the bending moment due to the real load and 𝑑𝜃 is the deformation
of the segment due to 𝑀. Therefore, the internal virtual work for the beam segment can be
written as 𝑚∗ 𝑑𝜃. Consequently, the internal virtual work for the entire beam becomes:

internal virtual work = ∫ 𝑚∗ 𝑑𝜃 [7.105]

1
Using Figure 7.47, we can write (𝑟)(𝑑𝜃) = 𝑑𝑥. Or,  𝑑𝜃 = 𝑟
𝑑𝑥. From the previous lectures on the
Work-Energy Principle, we know that 𝑀𝑟 = 𝐸𝐼. Therefore, 𝑑𝜃 can be written as:
𝑀
𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑥 [7.106]
𝐸𝐼
Using equation [7.106], equation [7.105] can be rewritten as:

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.31

 𝑚∗ 𝑀
internal virtual work = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 [7.107]
𝐸𝐼

where 𝑚∗ represents the bending moment equation due to the virtual load and 𝑀 is the bending
moment equation due to the real load. For the example beam, 𝑚∗ is given by equation [7.104].
And 𝑀 can be defined using the following free-body diagram.

Figure 7.48: The free-body diagram for the beam shown in Figure 1

𝑃𝑥/4 0≤𝑥≤6
𝑀={ [7.108]
6𝑃 − 3𝑃𝑥/4 6≤𝑥≤8
Therefore, the expression for internal virtual work becomes:

𝑚∗ 𝑀 𝑝∗ 𝑃 4 𝑥 𝑥 6
𝑥 𝑥 8
𝑥 3𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = [∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (4 − )( )𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (4 − )(6 − )𝑑𝑥] [7.109]
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 0 2 4 4 2 4 6 2 4

Then, we can rewrite equation [7.103] as follows:

𝑝∗ 𝑃 4 𝑥 𝑥 6
𝑥 𝑥 8
𝑥 3𝑥
𝑝∗ 𝛥 = [∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (4 − )( )𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (4 − )(6 − )𝑑𝑥] [7.110]
𝐸𝐼 0 2 4 4 2 4 6 2 4

or,
4 6 8
𝑃 𝑥𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 3𝑥
𝛥 = [∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (4 − )( )𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (4 − )(6 − )𝑑𝑥] [7.111]
𝐸𝐼 0 2 4 4 2 4 6 2 4

Equation [7.111] yields 𝛥 = 22𝑃/3𝐸𝐼. This is the magnitude of the vertical displacement at the
midpoint of the beam.

Suppose we also wish to determine the vertical displacement under the applied load (see Figure
7.48). The expression for external virtual work remains 𝑝∗ 𝛥, where 𝛥 is the actual displacement
under the real load and 𝑝∗ is a virtual load that has replaced the real load.

To determine the internal virtual work, we need to analyze the following beam under 𝑝∗ .

Figure 7.49: The free-body diagram for the beam shown in Figure 1 subjected to a virtual load

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.32

The bending moment equation for the beam under 𝑝∗ can be written as:
𝑝∗ 𝑥/4 0≤𝑥≤6
𝑚∗ (𝑥) = { ∗ ∗ [7.112]
6𝑝 − 3𝑝 𝑥/4 6 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 8
Using equations [7.108] and [7.112], the virtual work expression becomes:

𝑚∗ 𝑀 𝑝∗ 𝑃 6 𝑥 𝑥 8
3𝑥 3𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = [∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (4 − )(6 − )𝑑𝑥] [7.113]
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 0 2 4 6 2 4

or,
𝑚∗ 𝑀 6𝑝∗ 𝑃
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = [7.114]
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼

Having the expressions for the external virtual work and the internal virtual work, equation
[7.103] can be rewritten as:
6𝑝∗ 𝑃
𝑝∗ 𝛥 = [7.115]
𝐸𝐼
or,
6𝑃
𝛥 = [7.116]
𝐸𝐼
Let’s consider another example. Figure 7.50 shows a cantilever beam subjected to a uniformly
distributed load.

Figure 7.50: A cantilever beam subjected to a distributed load

We wish to calculate the vertical deflection of the beam at its free end. Using the free-body
diagram shown in Figure 7.51, the moment equation for the beam can be written as follows:

−𝑤𝑥 2
𝑀(𝑥) = 0≤𝑥≤𝐿 [7.117]
2

Figure 7.51: The free-body diagram of a cantilever beam segment

To determine the vertical deflection of the beam at point A, we need to place a virtual load (𝑝∗ )
in the vertical direction at that point, as shown in Figure 7.52.

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.33

 Figure 7.52: A cantilever beam subjected to a virtual load

The moment equation for the beam under the virtual load becomes:
𝑚∗ (𝑥) = −𝑝∗ 𝑥 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝐿 [7.118]

The expression for the external virtual work is 𝑝∗ 𝛥 where 𝛥 is the vertical displacement of the
beam under the applied load (see Figure 7.53).

Figure 7.53: The deflection and rotation of a cantilever beam at its free end

The expression for the internal virtual work can be written as:

𝑚∗ 𝑀 𝑤𝑝∗ 𝐿 −𝑥 2 𝑤𝑝∗ 𝐿4
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (−𝑥)( )𝑑𝑥 = [7.119]
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 0 2 8𝐸𝐼

Since external virtual work equals internal virtual work, we can write:

𝑤𝑝∗ 𝐿4
𝑝∗ 𝛥 = [7.120]
8𝐸𝐼
or,
𝑤𝐿4
𝛥 = [7.121]
8𝐸𝐼
Therefore, the downward displacement of the beam at its free end is 𝑤𝐿4 /8𝐸𝐼.

As depicted in Figure 7.53, the beam has a rotation (𝜃) at its free end. We can use the Virtual
Work Method to determine 𝜃. To do so, we place a virtual moment (𝑞 ∗) in the assumed direction
(counterclockwise) of the rotation, as shown in Figure 7.54.

Figure 7.54: A cantilever beam subjected to a virtual moment at its free end

To write the moment equation for the beam due to the applied virtual moment, we can use the
free-body diagram shown in Figure 7.55. The bending moment expression for the member is
given in equation [7.122].

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.34

 𝑚∗ (𝑥) = −𝑞∗ 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝐿 [7.122]

Figure 7.55: The free-body diagram of a cantilever beam segment subjected to a virtual moment

Using equations [7.117] and [7.122], the expression for the internal virtual work becomes:

𝑚∗ 𝑀 𝑤𝑞 ∗ 𝐿 −𝑥 2 𝑤𝑞 ∗ 𝐿3
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (−1)( )𝑑𝑥 = [7.123]
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 0 2 6𝐸𝐼

The external virtual work due to virtual moment 𝑞 ∗ can be written as 𝑞 ∗ 𝜃. Therefore, according
to the Virtual Work Method, we can write:

𝑤𝑞 ∗ 𝐿3
𝑞∗𝜃 = [7.124]
6𝐸𝐼
or,

𝑤𝐿3
𝜃= [7.125]
6𝐸𝐼
That is, the beam has a counterclockwise rotation of 𝑤𝐿3 /6𝐸𝐼 radians at its free end.

Exercise Problems: Use the Virtual Work Method to solve the following problems.

1) Calculate the horizontal

displacement and rotation at the
free end of the column.

2) Calculate the beam’s vertical

deflection at the hinge at B and
rotation at the roller at A.

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.35

 Lecture 7.5
Virtual Work Method (Frames)

This lecture focuses on the use of the Virtual Work Method for calculating a frame deflection at a
desired point.
A frame structure consists of a set of members each capable of carrying three types of forces: an
axial force, a shear force, and a bending moment (see Figure 7.56).

Figure 7.56: Internal forces in members of a frame structure

The internal forces in the frame cause the structural members to deform. Generally, each
member undergoes an axial deformation, a shear deformation, and a deformation due to the
bending moment. However, in a typical frame structure, the axial and shear deformations are
significantly smaller than bending deformation and can be ignored. For illustrative purposes in
this lecture, however, we will consider axial deformation as well as bending deformation.

Consider a frame structure subjected to a horizontal point load and a uniformly distributed load,
as shown in Figure 7.57. We wish to determine the horizontal displacement of the frame at point
C. Assume a constant E (modulus of elasticity), A (cross-sectional area), and I (moment of
inertia about the axis of bending) for the frame.

Figure 7.57: A frame structure subjected to a point load and a uniformly distributed load

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.36

We can start by writing the general equation for the Virtual Work Principle:

external virtual work = internal virtual work

Let 𝑊𝑒∗ stand for external virtual work and 𝑊𝑖∗ denote internal virtual work. Then, the virtual
work equation can be expressed as:
𝑊𝑒∗ = 𝑊𝑖∗ [7.126]

Since we are to determine the horizontal displacement at point C, we need to place a virtual unit
load in the horizontal direction at C, as shown in Figure 7.58.

Figure 7.58: A frame structure subjected to a horizontal virtual unit load

Consequently, the expression for external virtual work becomes 1∗ times ∆. That is,

𝑊𝑒∗ = 1∗ ∆ [7.127]

The total internal virtual work can be written in terms of the sum of each member’s internal
virtual work, as follows:
𝑊𝑖∗ = (𝑊𝑖∗ )𝐴𝐵 + (𝑊𝑖∗ )𝐵𝐶 + (𝑊𝑖∗ )𝐶𝐷 [7.128]

Furthermore, the internal virtual work for each member consists of two parts: one part due to
axial deformation and one part due to bending deformation. Equation [7.128] gives the total
internal virtual work in terms of the two terms associated with the internal virtual work for each
frame member.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
𝑊𝑖∗ = (𝑊𝑖∗ + 𝑊𝑖∗ )𝐴𝐵 + (𝑊𝑖∗ + 𝑊𝑖∗ )𝐵𝐶 + (𝑊𝑖∗ + 𝑊𝑖∗ )𝐶𝐷 [7.129]
𝑎 𝑏
In equation [7.129], 𝑊𝑖∗ represents the internal work due to axial deformation and 𝑊𝑖∗
𝑎
represents the internal work due to bending deformation for member 𝑖. To calculate 𝑊𝑖∗ and
𝑏
𝑊𝑖∗ for each member of the frame, we need to analyze the structure and calculate the axial and
bending deformations for each member.

Given that the frame is statically determinate, we can determine its support reactions by writing
and solving the static equilibrium equations for the entire structure. The support reactions are
shown in Figure 7.59.

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.37

 Figure 7.59: The support reactions for a frame subjected to a point load and a distributed load

Figure 7.60 shows the internal forces for the frame members.

Figure 7.60: The member forces in a frame structure

To calculate ∆ (see Figure 7.57), we need to analyze the frame under a virtual unit load placed in
the direction of the horizontal displacement at point C. The analysis results are given in Figure
7.61.

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.38

 Figure 7.61: The member forces in a frame structure subjected to a horizontal unit load

Note that member CD carries a virtual compressive force of −2. We use the negative sign to
∗
indicate that the member is in compression. Therefore, 𝑓𝑐𝑑 = −2.

As shown in Figure 7.60, under the applied load, member CD carries a compressive force of
2𝑃 + 𝑤𝐿/2. Therefore, its axial displacement (𝛿𝑐𝑑 ) can be written as:
𝑤𝐿
𝐹𝑐𝑑 𝐿𝑐𝑑 −( 2 + 2𝑃)(2𝐿) [7.130]
𝛿𝑐𝑑 = =
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴
The internal virtual work for the member can be written as follows:
1

𝑤𝐿
−( + 2𝑃)(2𝐿) 8𝑃𝐿 + 2𝑤𝐿2
(𝑊𝑖∗
𝑎
+
𝑏
𝑊𝑖∗ )𝐶𝐷 = (𝑊𝑖∗
𝑎 ∗
+ 0)𝐶𝐷 = 𝑓𝑐𝑑 𝛿𝑐𝑑 = (−2) 2 = [7.131]
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴
𝑏
Note that since member CD does not carry any bending moment, its 𝑊𝑖∗ (deformation due to
bending) is zero.
∗
Member AB carries a virtual tensile force of 2 (see Figure 7.61). Therefore, we can write 𝑓𝑎𝑏 = 2.
Since the member carries a compressive force of −2𝑃 + 𝑤𝐿/2 under the applied load (see
Figure 7.60), its axial displacement (𝛿𝑎𝑏 ) can be determined as follows:
𝑤𝐿
𝐹𝑎𝑏 𝐿𝑎𝑏 −( 2 − 2𝑃)(2𝐿) [7.132]
𝛿𝑎𝑏 = =
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴
The axial component of the internal virtual work for the member is given in equation [7.133].

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.39

 𝑤𝐿
−( 2 − 2𝑃)(2𝐿) 8𝑃𝐿 − 2𝑤𝐿2
𝑎
(𝑊𝑖∗ )𝐴𝐵 = ∗
𝑓𝑎𝑏 𝛿𝑎𝑏 = (2) = [7.133]
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴
The bending component of the internal virtual work for member AB can be expressed using the
following equation.
2𝐿
𝑏 𝑚∗ 𝑀
(𝑊𝑖∗ )𝐴𝐵 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 [7.134]
0 𝐸𝐼

In equation [7.134], 𝑚∗ is the bending moment due to the virtual load and 𝑀 is the bending
moment due to the real load. Using the diagrams shown in Figure 7.60 and Figure 7.61, 𝑀 and
𝑚∗ can be written as follows:

𝑀(𝑥) = 𝑃 𝑥 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝐿 [7.135]

𝑚∗ (𝑥) = 𝑥 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝐿 [7.136]

Therefore, equation [7.134] can be expanded, as shown in equation [7.137].

2𝐿
𝑏 𝑚∗ 𝑀 2𝐿
(𝑥)(𝑃𝑥) 8𝑃𝐿3
(𝑊𝑖∗ )𝐴𝐵 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = [7.137]
0 𝐸𝐼 0 𝐸𝐼 3𝐸𝐼

The total internal virtual work for member AB is the sum of equations [7.133] and [7.137].

𝑎 𝑏 8𝑃𝐿 − 2𝑤𝐿2 8𝑃𝐿3

(𝑊𝑖∗ )𝐴𝐵 = (𝑊𝑖∗ + 𝑊𝑖∗ )𝐴𝐵 = + [7.138]
𝐸𝐴 3𝐸𝐼
∗
Member BC carries a virtual tensile force of 1 (see Figure 7.61). Therefore, we can write 𝑓𝑏𝑎 = 1.
This member does not carry any axial forces (𝐹𝑏𝑐 = 0). Therefore, we can write:
𝐹𝑏𝑐 𝐿𝑏𝑐 (0)(𝐿)
𝛿𝑏𝑐 = = =0 [7.139]
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴
The axial component of the internal virtual work for this member is:

𝑎
(𝑊𝑖∗ )𝐵𝐶 = 𝑓𝑏𝑐
∗
𝛿𝑏𝑐 = (1)(0) = 0 [7.140]

The bending component of the internal virtual work for member BC can be expressed as:
𝐿
𝑏 𝑚∗ 𝑀
(𝑊𝑖∗ )𝐵𝐶 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 [7.141]
0 𝐸𝐼

Using the free-body diagrams shown in Figure 7.60 and Figure 7.61, for member BC, we can
write 𝑀 and 𝑚∗ as follows:

𝑤𝐿𝑥 𝑤𝑥 2
𝑀(𝑥) = − 2𝑃𝑥 + 2𝑃𝐿 − 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝐿 [7.142]
2 2

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.40

 𝑚∗ (𝑥) = 2𝐿 − 2𝑥 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝐿 [7.143]

Therefore, equation [7.141] can be rewritten in the expanded form as:

𝑏 1 𝐿 𝑤𝐿𝑥 𝑤𝑥 2 𝑤𝐿4 4𝑃𝐿3

(𝑊𝑖∗ )𝐵𝐶 = ∫ (2𝐿 − 2𝑥)(2𝑃𝐿 + − 2𝑃𝑥 − )𝑑𝑥 = + [7.144]
𝐸𝐼 0 2 2 12𝐸𝐼 3𝐸𝐼

The total internal virtual work for member BC is the sum of equations [7.140] and [7.144].

𝑏 𝑤𝐿4 4𝑃𝐿3
(𝑊𝑖∗ )𝐵𝐶 = (0 + 𝑊𝑖∗ )𝐵𝐶 = + [7.145]
12𝐸𝐼 3𝐸𝐼
The system internal virtual work is equal to the sum of the internal work expressions for the
three members given by equations [7.131], [7.138], and [7.145]. That is, we can write:

8𝑃𝐿 + 2𝑤𝐿2 8𝑃𝐿 − 2𝑤𝐿2 8𝑃𝐿3 𝑤𝐿4 4𝑃𝐿3

𝑊𝑖∗ = + + + + [7.146]
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴 3𝐸𝐼 12𝐸𝐼 3𝐸𝐼
Or,

16𝑃𝐿 4𝑃𝐿3 𝑤𝐿4

𝑊𝑖∗ = + + [7.147]
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐼 12𝐸𝐼
Equating the external virtual work to the internal virtual work, we get:

16𝑃𝐿 4𝑃𝐿3 𝑤𝐿4

(1∗ )∆= + + [7.148]
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐼 12𝐸𝐼
Therefore, the horizontal displacement of the frame shown in Figure 7.57 is:

16𝑃𝐿 4𝑃𝐿3 𝑤𝐿4

∆= + + [7.149]
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐼 12𝐸𝐼
Let’s consider another example. For the frame shown in Figure 7.62, we wish to determine the
horizontal displacement of roller A and the rotation of the frame at joint B. The cross-section
and material properties of the frame are constant.

Figure 7.62: A statically determinate frame subjected to two point loads

We start by analyzing the frame to determine the member forces under the applied load. The
analysis results are shown in Figure 7.63.

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.41

 Figure 7.63: Member forces for a statically determinate frame subjected to two point loads

Column AB carries an axial load only. Beam BC has an axial load and a bending moment. Using
the free-body diagram shown in Figure 7.63, the bending moment equation for the beam can be
written as:
200𝑥 0≤𝑥≤4
𝑀(𝑥) = { [7.150]
1600 − 200𝑥 4≤𝑥≤8
To calculate the horizontal displacement of the frame at the roller support, we need to place a
virtual unit load at point A and analyze the frame. Figure 7.64 shows the analysis results.

Figure 7.64: Member forces in a frame subjected to a virtual unit load

Using the free-body diagram shown in Figure 7.64, the moment equation for column AB due to
the unit load can be written as:

𝑚∗ (𝑥) = −𝑥 0 < 𝑥 < 3 [7.151]

For beam BC, the moment equation is as follows:

𝑚∗ (𝑥) = 3𝑥/8 – 3 0 < 𝑥 < 8 [7.152]

To determine the horizontal displacement at point A, the external virtual work expression can be
written as 1∗ ∆, where ∆ is the target displacement.

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.42

The expression for the internal virtual work for the frame can be written as:
𝑎 𝑎 𝑏
𝑊𝑖∗ = (𝑊𝑖∗ )𝐴𝐵 + (𝑊𝑖∗ + 𝑊𝑖∗ )𝐵𝐶 [7.153]

Note that since column AB does not carry any bending moment, under the applied load (see
𝑏
Figure 7.63), 𝑊𝑖∗ for the member is zero.
𝑎
To determine 𝑊𝑖∗ for column AB, we need to calculate the axial displacement of the member
under the applied load. This can be done using the following equation:
𝐹𝑎𝑏 𝐿𝑎𝑏
𝛿𝑎𝑏 = [7.154]
𝐸𝐴
Since column AB carries an axial compressive force of 200 N (see Figure 7.63), 𝐹𝑎𝑏 = −200 N.
Therefore, equation [7.154] can be rewritten as:
(−200)(3) −600
𝛿𝑎𝑏 = = [7.155]
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴
The axial force in the member due to the virtual unit load is 3/8 (see Figure 7.64). Since the
∗
member is in compression, we can write 𝑓𝑎𝑏 = −3/8.
𝑎
Then, 𝑊𝑖∗ becomes:

𝑎 (−200)(3) 225
(𝑊𝑖∗ )𝐴𝐵 = 𝑓𝑎𝑏
∗
𝛿𝑎𝑏 = (−3/8) = [7.156]
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴
For beam BC, 𝛿𝑏𝑐 can be determined as follows:
𝐹𝑏𝑐 𝐿𝑏𝑐 (−200)(8) −1600
𝛿𝑏𝑐 = = = [7.157]
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴
𝑎
And since the axial force in the member due to the virtual unit load is −1 (see Figure 7.64), 𝑊𝑖∗
can be written as follows:

𝑎 −1600 1600
(𝑊𝑖∗ )𝐵𝐶 = 𝑓𝑏𝑐
∗
𝛿𝑏𝑐 = (−1) = [7.158]
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴
𝑏
To determine 𝑊𝑖∗ for beam BC, we need to use the following equation:
8
𝑏 𝑚∗ 𝑀
𝑊𝑖∗ = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 [7.159]
0 𝐸𝐼

where 𝑚∗ is the bending moment due to the virtual load and 𝑀 is the bending moment due to
the real loads in the member. The expression for 𝑀 is given in equation [7.150] and the
expression for 𝑚∗ is given in equation [7.152]. Therefore, we can rewrite equation [7.159] as:
4 8
𝑏 3𝑥 3𝑥 −4800
𝑊𝑖∗ = ∫ ( − 3)(200𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ ( − 3)(1600 − 200𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = [7.160]
0 8 4 8 𝐸𝐼

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.43

The total internal virtual work for the beam BC can be written as:

𝑎 𝑏 1600 4800
(𝑊𝑖∗ + 𝑊𝑖∗ )𝐵𝐶 = − [7.161]
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐼
Adding equations [7.156] and [7.161], we get the internal virtual work expression for the entire
structure.
225 1600 4800 1825 4800
𝑊𝑖∗ = + − = − [7.162]
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐼
Equating the external virtual work to the internal virtual work, we get:
1825 4800
1∗ ∆ = − [7.163]
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐼
Therefore, the horizontal displacement of roller A (see Figure 7.62) is:
1825 4800
∆= − [7.164]
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐼
The cross-sectional area and the moment of inertia of the members are given by equations
[7.165] and [7.166], respectively.
10 10
𝐴 = × = 100 × 10−4 m2 [7.165]
100 100
1 10 10 3
𝐼 = × ×( ) = 833 × 10−8 m4 [7.166]
12 100 100
Since 𝐸 = 200 × 109 N/m2, ∆ becomes:
1825 4800
∆= − = 9.125 × 10−7 − 2.881 × 10−3 m [7.167]
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐼
or,

∆= 0.0009125 − 2.881 mm [7.168]

Figure 7.65 shows the displaced frame.

Figure 7.65: The horizontal displacement of a frame at a roller support

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.44

In equation [7.168], the first term is due to axial deformation and the second term is due to
bending. Clearly, the horizontal displacement at A is mainly due to bending. As was mentioned
before, ignoring axial deformation for a typical frame structure is a reasonable consideration.

To determine the rotation of the frame at joint B, denoted by 𝜃, we place a virtual unit moment
at the joint, as shown in Figure 7.66.

Figure 7.66: A frame structure subjected to a virtual unit moment

The analysis of the frame subjected to the unit moment yields the member forces and moment
equations shown in Figure 7.67.

Figure 7.67: The member forces and moment equations for a frame structure

As shown in Figure 7.67, column AB carries an axial force only; there is no bending moment in
the member. The bending moment equation for beam BC equals 1 − 𝑥/8.

The external virtual work equation for the frame can be written as 1∗ 𝜃. And the internal virtual
work can be expressed in the following form:
𝑎 𝑏
𝑊𝑖 ∗ = (𝑊𝑖∗ )𝐴𝐵 + (𝑊𝑖∗ )𝐵𝐶 [7.169]
𝑎
For column AB, 𝑊𝑖∗ = 𝑓𝑎𝑏 ∗ ∗
𝛿𝑎𝑏 where 𝑓𝑎𝑏 = 1/8 (see Figure 7.67). The axial displacement for the
member (𝛿𝑎𝑏 ) can be determined using Hooke’s Law:
𝐹𝑎𝑏 𝐿𝑎𝑏 (−200)(3) −600
𝛿𝑎𝑏 = = = [7.170]
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴
Then, the internal virtual work for column AB can be written as:

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.45

 𝑎 1 −600 −75
𝑊𝑖∗ = × = [7.171]
8 𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴

𝑏
For beam BC, 𝑊𝑖∗ can be determined using the following equation.
8
𝑏 𝑚∗ 𝑀
𝑊𝑖∗ = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 [7.172]
0 𝐸𝐼

Equation [7.172] can be expanded by (1) replacing 𝑚∗ (𝑥) with 1 − 𝑥/8 (see Figure 7.67) and (2)
using equation [7.150] for 𝑀. The expanded equation is as follows:

𝑏 1 4 𝑥 1 8 𝑥 1600
𝑊𝑖∗ = ∫ (1 − )(200𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (1 − )(1600 − 200𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = [7.173]
𝐸𝐼 0 8 𝐸𝐼 4 8 𝐸𝐼

The internal virtual work for the frame can be obtained by adding equation [7.171] to equation
[7.173[7.173].
−75 1600
𝑊𝑖 ∗ = + [7.174]
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐼
Equating the external virtual work to the internal virtual work, we get:
−75 1600
1∗ 𝜃 = + [7.175]
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐼
Therefore, the rotation of the frame at joint B (see Figure 7.66) becomes:
−75 1600
𝜃= + [7.176]
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐼
Using the known section and material properties for the frame, given by equations [7.165] and
[7.166], we get 𝜃 = 0.00096 radian.

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.46

Exercise Problems: Solve the following problems using the Virtual Work Method.

1. For the frame shown below, determine the horizontal displacement and rotation at roller
support D. The frame has a cross-sectional area of 10 cm by 10 cm. E = 200 GPa.

2. Calculate the vertical displacement at joint D and the rotation at pin support B. The
frame has a cross-sectional area of 10 cm by 10 cm. 𝐸 = 200 GPa.

Chapter 7: Deflection (Virtual Work Method) Page 7.47