NAME:- VANSHIKA SINGHAL

CLASS:- X-A
SUBJECT- PHYSICS
ROLL NO. :- 38
ST.PATRICK’S ACADEMY
SUBMITTED TO:- MR.NARESH PRAJAPATI
 MACHINES:LEVERS
It is our common experience that it is much easier to open a nut by using a wrench rather than by hand.
It is difficult to pull up a bucket joined to the rear wheel of water directly from a well, but it becomes
much easier to pull it up with the use of a pulley. It is difficult to shift a heavy block by pushing it, but it
becomes easier to shift it by using a crow bar. We can find many such examples in our daily life where
the use of a machine (such as a wrench, pulley, crow bar, etc.) makes the job easier.

The various functions of machines are useful to us in the following four ways:

(1) In lifting a heavy load by applying less effort, i.e., as a force multiplier.

Examples: A jack is used to lift a car, a bar is used to lift a heavy stone, a spade is used to turn the soil,
pulleys are used to lift a heavy load, a wheel barrow is used to carry a load.

In all these examples, the effort is much less than the load, so the machine acts as a force multiplier.

(2) In changing the point of application of effort to a convenient point.

Example: The rear wheel of a cycle is rotated by applying effort on the pedal attached to the toothed
wheel which is joined to the rear wheel with the help of a chain. Thus, the point of application of effort
is changed from the pedal to the rear wheel.

(3) In changing the direction of effort to a convenient direction.

Example: If a bucket full of water is lifted up from a well without the use of a pulley, effort has to be
applied upwards. By using a single fixed pulley, it becomes possible to lift the bucket from the well by
applying the effort in the downward direction instead of applying it upwards. Thus, the person lifting the
bucket up may also use his own weight as effort.

(4) For obtaining a gain in speed (i.e., a greater movement of load by a smaller movement of effort)*

Examples: (i) When a pair of scissors is used to cut a cloth, its blades move longer on cloth, while its
handles move a little. (ii) The blade of a knife moves longer by a small displacement of its handle. Here
the effort is more than the load.

Hence we define a machine as below:

A machine is a device by which we can either overcome a large resistive force (or load) at some point by
applying a small force (or effort) at a convenient point and in a desired direction or by which we can
obtain a gain in speed.
 PRINCIPLE OF A MACHINE

When energy is supplied to a machine by applying effort, it overcomes the load by doing some
useful work on it. The point at which energy is supplied to a machine by applying effort is called the
effort point and the point where energy is differ obtained by overcoming the load, is called the load
point.

Input energy = work done at the effort point

= effort x displacement of the point of application of effort.

Output energy = work obtained at the load point

= load x displacement of the point of application of load.

For an ideal machine,.

Output energy = Input energy

The useful work done by a machine (i.e., output energy) can never be greater than the work done
on the machine (i.e., input energy), otherwise it will violate the principle of conservation of energy,
therefore no machine can ever have efficiency greater than 1 (i.e., more than 100%).

Ideal machine:- An ideal machine is that in which there is no loss of energy in any manner. Here
the work output is equal to the work input. i.e., the efficiency of an ideal machine is 100%.
Actual machine: In an actual machine, the output energy is always less than the input energy i.e.,
there is always some loss of energy during its operation.

The loss of energy in a machine is due to the following three reasons:

(1) the moving parts in it are neither weightless nor smooth (or frictionless),

(2) the string in it (if any) is not perfectly elastic, and

(3) its different parts are not perfectly rigid.

For an ideal machine (free from friction. etc.), work output is equal to work input, so the efficiency
is equal to 1 (or 100%) and the mechanical advantage is numerically equal to the velocity ratio.

In actual practice, mechanical advantage for all practical machines is always less than its velocity
ratio (M.A. < V.R.) or output work is always less than input work, so the efficiency is less than 1 (i.e.,
n< 1) due to some loss of input energy against the force of friction etc.

.
 LEVERS

Levers are the simplest kind of machines used in our daily life. A lever is a rigid, straight (or bent)
bar which is capable of turning about a fixed axis. The axis, about which the lever turns, passes
through a point of the lever which is called the fulcrum (as shown in Fig. 3.1). It is generally marked
by the letter F. This point does not move, but remains fixed when the lever is in use.

Principle of a lever (M.A. of a lever)

Fig. shows a lever (or a straight rod) AB with the fulcrum at F. An effort E, applied at a point A of
the lever, overcomes a load L at the point B. From the fulcrum F, the distance FA to the point A at
which the effort is applied, is called the effort arm and the distance FB of point B at which the load
acts, is called the load arm.

For an ideal lever, it is assumed that the rod is weightless and there is no friction at the fulcrum.

A lever works on the principle of moments according to which at the equilibrium position of the
lever, moment of load about the fulcrum must be equal to the moment of effort about the fulcrum
and the two moments must always be in opposite directions. In Fig. 3.1, moment of load L about the
fulcrum F is clockwise, while the moment of effort E about the fulcrum F is anticlockwise. Thus,
Clockwise moment of load about the fulcrum = Anticlockwise moment of effort about the fulcrum.

i.e.,

Load x load arm = Effort x effort arm

LX FB = E X EA OR L/E=FA/FB

LAW OF LEVERS:- MA=Effort arm/Load

arm
The mechanical advantage of a lever is equal to the ratio of the length of its effort arm to the length
of its load arm. It is clear that:-

(1) if effort arm = load arm, MA = 1 ,

(2) if effort arm > load arm, M.A. > 1,

(3) if effort arm < load arm, M.A.<1 .

Obviously the mechanical advantage of a lever can be increased either by increasing its effort arm
or by decreasing its load arm (i.e., by shifting the fulcrum towards the load).

KINDS OF LEVERS

CLASS I LEVERS:-

In this type of levers, the fulcrum F is in between the effort E and the load L). Note that the fulcrum
F need not be at the mid-point between the load L and the effort E, but the load and effort are on
either side of the fulcrum, acting in the same direction while producing rotation in opposite sense.

Examples: A seesaw, a pair of scissors, crowbar, handle of water pump, claw hammer, pair of pliers,
beam of a physical balance, spade used for turning soil, spoon used to open the lid of a tin can,
catapult and nodding of the human head are few examples of class I levers.

For class I levers, the mechanical advantage and velocity ratio can have any value either
greater than 1, equal to I or less than 1.
 CLASS II LEVERS:-

In this type of levers, the fulcrum F and the effort E are at the two ends of the lever and the load L is
somewhere in between the effort E and the fulcrum F .The load and effort are on the same side of
the fulcrum but acting in opposite directions. Here the effort arm is always longer than the load
arm.

Examples: A nut cracker, a bottle opener, a wheel barrow, a lemon crusher, a paper cutter, a mango
cutter, a bar used to lift a load, a door, raising the weight of the human body on toes, are examples
of class II levers.

M.A. is always greater than 1 and since in an ideal machine M.A. is equal to V.R., hence V.R. is
also greater than 1.

CLASS III LEVERS

In this type of levers, the fulcrum F and the oad L are at the two ends of the lever and the effort E is
somewhere in between the fulcrum F and the load L as shown in Fig. 3.1 (c). Effort and load are on
the same side of the fulcrum but acting in opposite directions. Here the effort arm the is always
smaller than the load arm. Therefore,, M.A. < 1 and since for an ideal The lever M.A. is equal to V.R.,
therefore, V.R. < 1 for these levers. Thus,
The mechanical advantage and velocity ratio of class III levers are always less than 1.

Examples: Sugar tongs, the forearm used for lifting a load (or action of the biceps muscle), fire
tongs, foot treadle, knife, a spade used to lift coal (or soil), fishing rod, etc. are examples of class III
levers.
EXAMPLES OF EACH CLASS OF LEVERS AS FOUND IN THE HUMAN BODY

In a human body, we can find examples of all the three classes of levers. The muscles exert force
(i.e., effort) by contraction.

(1) Class I lever in the action of nodding of head:

In this action, the spine acts as the fulcrum F, load L is at its front part, while effort E is at its rear
part. Thus, this is an example of class I lever.

(2) Class II lever in raising the weight of the body on toes:

The weight of the body is raised on toes. The fulcrum F is at the toes at one end, the load L (i.e...
weight of the body) is in the middle and effort E by muscles is at the other end. Thus, this is an
example of class II lever.

(3) Class III lever in raising a load by forearm:

The elbow joint acts as fulcrum F at one end, biceps exerts the effort E in the middle and load L on
the palm is at the other end. Thus, this is an example of class III lever.
 PULLEY:- SINGLE FIXED PULLEY

A simple pulley is a metallic (or wooden) disc with a grooved rim. A string or rope is passed around
the groove at the rim. The disc rotates about an axle passing pu through its centre. The axle is fixed
rigidly to a frame by means of nails.

A single pulley can be used in two ways:

(1) as a fixed pulley by keeping its axis of rotation stationary i.e., keeping its frame fixed in
position.
(2) as a movable pulley by changing a its axis of rotation i.e., keeping the whole frame be
movable.
SINGLE FIXED PULLEY

A pulley which has its axis of rotation stationary in position, is called a fixed pulley.
In a single fixed pulley ,the axle is fixed to a rigid support and an inextensible strong string
of negligible mass passes around the grooved rim of the pulley. One end of the string is
connected to the load L, while the effort E is applied at the other (free) end of the string.
Both the load L and the effort E act downwards. On pulling the string downwards by the
effort, the pulley rotates and the load moves up. The tension throughout the string is T
(same) acting upwards. This type of pulley is used for lifting a small load (such as a water
bucket or a basket).
M.A., V.R. and n of a single fixed pulley

If we neglect

(i) the of mass of the string,

(ii) (ii) the friction at the axle (or in the pulley bearings), then in the balanced position of load,
we have
L=T, E=T, and hence E=L

Now WE HAVE MA=1;

Thus, in this arrangement there is no gain in mechanical advantage.
If point of application of effort E moves a distance d downwards, the load L also moves the
same distance d upwards, i.e., if de = d then dl = d.

VELOCITY RATIO :- de/dl =

Hence efficiency n = 1 or 100%

In actual practice, however, there is always some friction at the axle or in the pulley
bearings. so the effort needed is little more than the load to be lifted. Thus, mechanical
advantage is less than 1 but velocity ratio is 1, so efficiency i always less than 100%.

QUES:- Now the question arises: when there is n gain either in mechanical
advantage or in speed why then is a fixed pulley used?

#$ It is difficult to apply effort upwards to lift a pulley acts as load up

directly, but it becomes easier with the help of a fixed pulley, because effort
can now be applied in downward direction to raise the load up. Further to
apply the effort downwards, one can conveniently make use of one's own
weight also for effort.

THANKYOU!