CHAPTER 1: ELECTRIC

CHARGES AND FIELDS

ST BRITTO’S ACADEMY SENIOR

SECONDARY SCHOOL, CLASS XII
PHYSICS
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Electrostatics is the branch of Physics, which deals with static electric
charges or charges at rest.
Frictional Electricity: Frictional electricity is the electricity produced by
rubbing two suitable bodies and transfer of electrons from one body to
other.
Thales, a Greek Philosopher observed that, when a piece of amber is
rubbed with fur, it acquires the property of attracting light objects like bits
of paper.
In the 17th century, William Gilbert discovered that, glass, ebonite etc,
also exhibit this property, when rubbed with suitable materials.

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If a plastic rod rubbed with fur is made to touch two small pith balls (now-
a-days we can use polystyrene balls) suspended by silk or nylon thread,
then the balls repel each other [Fig. (d)] and are also repelled by the rod.
A similar effect is found if the pith balls are touched with a glass rod
rubbed with silk [Fig. (e)].
A dramatic observation is that a pith ball touched with glass rod attracts
another pith ball touched with plastic rod [Fig (f)].

1. There exists only two types of charges, namely positive and negative.
American scientist Benjamin Franklin.
2. Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.
3. Charge is a scalar quantity.
4. We know that when we add a positive number to a negative number
of the same magnitude, the sum is zero
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The property of attraction and repulsion between charged bodies have
many applications such as electrostatic paint spraying, powder coating,
fly−ash collection in chimneys, ink−jet printing and photostat copying
(Xerox) etc.

ink-jet printer

Xerography is a dry copying process based on

electrostatics
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 Ink-jet printer

Electrostatic precipitator

powder coating electrostatic Fly−ash collection in chimneys

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GOLD-LEAF ELECTROSCOPE
A simple apparatus to detect charge on a body is the gold-leaf
electroscope

1. It consists of a vertical metal rod housed in a box, with two thin gold
leaves attached to its bottom end.
2. When a charged object touches the metal knob at the top of the rod,
charge flows on to the leaves and they diverge.
3. The degree of divergence is an indicator of the amount of charge.
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Earthing:
1. This process of sharing the charges with the earth is called
grounding or earthing.
2. Earthing provides a safety measure for electrical circuits and
appliances.
3. A thick metal plate is buried deep into the earth and thick
wires are drawn from this plate; these are used in buildings
for the purpose of earthing near the mains supply.
4. The electric wiring in our houses has three wires: live,
neutral and earth. The first two carry electric current from
the power station and the third is earthed by connecting it to
the buried metal plate.
5. Metallic bodies of the electric appliances such as electric
iron, refrigerator, TV are connected to the earth wire.

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Specifications for Earth Electrodes:
1. The resistance of the earth wire should not be more than 1 ohm.
2. The wire use for electrode and circuit should be made up of the same
material.
3. The electrodes should be placed in vertical position so that it can
touch the layers of the earth.

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BASIC PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE:
1. Additivity of charges: The total electric charge of a system is
equal to the algebraic sum of electric charges located in the system.
2. Charge is conserved: Electric charges can neither be created nor
destroyed. According to the law of conservation of electric charge,
the total charge in an isolated system always remains constant.

3. Quantisation of charge: All free charges are integral multiples of

a basic unit of charge denoted by e. Thus charge q on a body is
always given by q = ne e = 1.602192 × 10–19 C

4. Charge in a body is independent of its velocity.

Calculate the number of electrons in one coulomb.

N = q/e =1/1.6x10-19 = 0.625 x 10 19
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If a body contains n1 electrons and n2 protons, the total amount of charge
on the body is n2 × e + n1 × (–e) = (n2 – n1) e. Since n1 and n2 are integers,
their difference is also an integer. Thus the charge on any body is always
an integral multiple of e
Example:
How much positive and negative charge is there in a cup of water?
Solution:
Let us assume that the mass of one cup of water is 250 g.
The molecular mass of water is 18g.
one mole (= 6.023 × 1023 molecules) of water is 18 g.
Therefore the number of molecules in one cup of water is
(250/18) × 6.02 × 1023
Each molecule of water contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen
atom, i.e., 10 electrons and 10 protons.
Hence the total positive and total negative charge has the same magnitude.
It is equal to (250/18) × 6.02 × 1023 × 10 × 1.6 × 10-19 C = 1.34 × 107 C.

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Coulomb’s Law – The electrostatic force of interaction (attraction or
repulsion) between two point electric charges is directly proportional to
the product of the charges, inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them and acts along the line joining the two charges.

k is a constant of proportionality ε0 = 8.854 × 10−12 C2 N−1 m− 2.

One Coulomb is defined as the quantity of charge, which when placed at a

distance of 1 metre in air or vacuum from an equal and similar charge,
experiences a repulsive force of 9 × 109 N.

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2. Three small identical balls have charges –3 × 10−12 C, 8 × 10−12 C and
4 × 10−12 C respectively. They are brought in contact and then
separated. Calculate (i) charge on each ball (ii) number of electrons in
excess or deficit on each ball after contact.

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3. What is the force between two small charged spheres having
charges of 2 × 10–7 C and 3 × 10–7 C placed 30 cm apart in air?

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4. The electrostatic force on a small sphere of charge 0.4 μC
due to another small sphere of charge –0.8 μC in air is 0.2 N.
(a) What is the distance between the two spheres? (b) What is
the force on the second sphere due to the first?

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5. Compare the electrostatic force and gravitational force between the
proton and the electron in a hydrogen atom. They are separated by a
distance of 5.3 × 10-11 m. The magnitude of charges on the electron and
proton are 1.6 × 10-19 C. Mass of the electron is me = 9.1 × 10-31 kg and
mass of proton is mp = 1.6 × 10-27 kg.

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6. Two insulated charged spheres of charges 6.5 × 10–7C each are
separated by a distance of 0.5 m. Calculate the electrostatic force between
them. Also calculate the force (i) when the charges are doubled and the
distance of separation is halved. (ii) when the charges are placed in a
dielectric medium water (εr = 80)

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6. The sum of two point charges is 6 µ C. They attract each
other with a force of 0.9 N, when kept 40 cm apart in vacuum.
Calculate the charges.
Ans: q1 = 8 × 10−6 C , q2 = –2 × 10−6 C

7. Two small charged spheres repel each other with a force of

2 × 10−3 N. The charge on one sphere is twice that on the
other. When one of the charges is moved 10 cm away from the
other, the force is 5 × 10−4 N. Calculate the charges and the
initial distance between them.
Ans: q1 = 33.33 × 10 −9 C, q2 = 66.66 ×10 −9 C, x = 0.1 m

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Example: An electron falls through a distance of 1.5 cm in a
uniform electric field of magnitude 2.0 × 104 N/C [Fig. 1.13(a)]. The
direction of the field is reversed keeping its magnitude unchanged
and a proton falls through the same distance [Fig. 1.13(b)].
Compute the time of fall in each case. Contrast the situation with
that of ‘free fall under gravity’.

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 FORCES BETWEEN MULTIPLE CHARGES
Force on any charge due to a number of other charges is the vector sum
of all the forces on that charge due to the other charges, taken one at a
time. The individual forces are unaffected due to the presence of other
charges. This is termed as the principle of superposition.

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Electric Field:
Electric field due to a charge is the space around the test charge in which
it experiences a force.
Electric Field Intensity (E):
Electric field intensity at a point, in an electric field is defined as the force
experienced by a unit positive charge kept at that point.
It is a vector quantity. E = F/q. The unit of electric field intensity is N C−1.
Electric field due to a point charge

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Electric lines of force:
Electric line of force is an imaginary straight or curved path along which a
unit positive charge tends to move in an electric field.
Properties of lines of forces:
(i) Lines of force start from positive charge and terminate at negative
charge.
(ii) Lines of force never intersect.
(iii) The tangent to a line of force at any point gives the direction of the
electric field (E) at that point.
(iv) The number of lines per unit area, through a plane at right angles to
the lines, is proportional to the magnitude of E. This means that,
where the lines of force are close together, E is large and where they
are far apart, E is small.
(v) Each unit positive charge gives rise to 1 / ε0 lines of force in free
space. Hence number of lines of force originating from a point charge
q is N = q / ε0 in free space.

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 ELECTRIC DIPOLE AND ELECTRIC DIPOLE MOMENT

Electric dipole: Two equal and opposite charges separated by a very small
distance constitute an electric dipole. Water, ammonia, carbon−dioxide
and chloroform molecules are some examples of permanent electric
dipoles.

Electric dipole moment: Two point charges +q and –q are kept at a

distance 2d apart. The magnitude of the dipole moment is given by the
product of the magnitude of the one of the charges and the distance
between them.
∴ Electric dipole moment, p = q2d or 2qd.
It is a vector quantity and acts from –q to +q.
The unit of dipole moment is C m.

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ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE AT A POINT
ON ITS AXIAL LINE.

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ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE AT A POINT
ON THE EQUATORIAL LINE.

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Two small equal and unlike charges 2 ×10−8 C are placed at A and B at a
distance of 6 cm. Calculate the force on the charge 1 × 10−8 C placed at P,
where P is 4 cm on the perpendicular bisector of AB.

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Consider three charges q1, q2, q3 each equal to q at the vertices of an
equilateral triangle of side l. What is the force on a charge Q (with the
same sign as q) placed at the centroid of the triangle,

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Four point charges qA = 2 μC, qB = –5 μC, qC = 2 μC, and qD = –5 μC
are located at the corners of a square ABCD of side 10 cm. What is the
force on a charge of 1 μC placed at the centre of the square?

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Two point charges +9e and +1e are kept at a distance of 16 cm
from each other. At what point between these charges, should a
third charge q to be placed so that it remains in equilibrium?

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Electric dipole in a uniform electric field

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Microwave oven works on the principle of torque acting on an
electric dipole. The food we consume has water molecules
which are permanent electric dipoles. Oven produces
microwaves that are oscillating electromagnetic fields and
produce torque on the water molecules. Due to this torque on
each water molecule, the molecules rotate very fast and
produce thermal energy. Thus, heat generated is used to heat
the food.

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PROBLEMS:
1. An electric dipole of charges 2 × 10−10 C and –2 × 10−10 C separated by
a distance 5 mm, is placed at an angle of 60° to a uniform field of 10 V
m−1. Find the
(i) magnitude and direction of the force acting on each charge.
(ii) Torque exerted by the field.
2. An electric dipole of charges 2 × 10−6 C, −2 × 10−6 C are separated by a
distance 1 cm. Calculate the electric field due to dipole at a point on its. (i)
axial line 1 m from its centre (ii) equatorial line 1 m from its centre.
3.

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ELECTRIC FLUX
The number of electric field lines crossing a given area kept normal to the
electric field lines is called electric flux. It is usually denoted by the Greek
letter Φ and its unit is N m2 C-1. Electric flux is a scalar quantity and it can
be positive or negative.

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 CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION
Linear Charge Density: When the charge is non-uniformly distributed over
the length of a conductor, it is called linear charge distribution. It is also
called linear charge density and is denoted by the symbol λ (Lambda).

Surface Charge Distribution: When the charge is uniformly distributed

over the surface of the conductor, it is called Surface Charge
Density or Surface Charge Distribution. It is denoted by the
symbol σ (sigma) symbol and is the unit is C / m2.

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Volume Charge Density
When the charge is distributed over a volume of the conductor, it is
called Volume Charge Distribution. It is denoted by symbol ρ (rho). In
other words charge per unit volume is called Volume Charge Density and
its unit is C/m3. Mathematically, volume charge density is

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GAUSS’S LAW:

The law states that the total flux of the electric field E over any closed
surface is equal to 1/ ε0 times the net charge enclosed by the surface.

This closed imaginary surface is called Gaussian surface. Gauss’s law tells
us that the flux of E through a closed surface S depends only on the value
of net charge inside the surface and not on the location of the charges.
Charges outside the surface will not contribute to flux

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Let us consider the total flux through a sphere of radius r, which encloses
a point charge q at its centre. Divide the sphere into small area elements

Now S, the total area of the sphere, equals 4πr2 . Thus

The law implies that the total electric flux through a closed surface is zero
if no charge is enclosed by the surface.

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Here the electric field is uniform and we are considering a closed
cylindrical surface, with its axis parallel to the uniform field E.

1. The total flux φ through the surface is φ = φ1 + φ2 + φ3, where φ1 and

φ2 represent the flux through the surfaces 1 and 2 (of circular cross-
section) of the cylinder and φ3 is the flux through the curved cylindrical
part of the closed surface.
2. Now the normal to the surface 3 at every point is perpendicular to E,
so by definition of flux, φ3 = 0.
3. Further, the outward normal to 2 is along E while the outward normal
to 1 is opposite to E. Therefore,
φ1 = –E S1, φ2 = +E S2, S1 = S2 = S where S is the area of circular
cross-section. Thus, the total flux is zero, as expected by Gauss’s law.
Thus, whenever you find that the net electric flux through a closed
surface is zero, we conclude that the total charge contained in the
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The great significance of Gauss’s law:
(i) Gauss’s law is true for any closed surface, no matter what its
shape or size.
(ii)The term q on the right side of Gauss’s law, includes the
sum of all charges enclosed by the surface. The charges may
be located anywhere inside the surface.
(iii) The surface that we choose for the application of Gauss’s
law is called the Gaussian surface. However, take care not to
let the Gaussian surface pass through any discrete charge.
This is because electric field due to a system of discrete
charges is not well defined at the location of any charge. (As
you go close to the charge, the field grows without any
bound.) However, the Gaussian surface can pass through a
continuous charge distribution.

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(iv) Gauss’s law is often useful towards a much easier
calculation of the electrostatic field when the system has
some symmetry. This is facilitated by the choice of a suitable
Gaussian surface.
(v) In the situation when the surface is so chosen that there are
some charges inside and some outside, the electric field
[whose flux appears on the left side of the equation is due to
all the charges, both inside and outside S. The term q on the
right side of Gauss’s law, however, represents only the total
charge inside S.
(vi) Finally, Gauss’s law is based on the inverse square
dependence on distance contained in the Coulomb’s law.
Any violation of Gauss’s law will indicate departure from the
inverse square law.

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Consider a uniform electric field E = 3 × 103 î N/C. (a) What is the flux of
this field through a square of 10 cm on a side whose plane is parallel to
the yz plane? (b) What is the flux through the same square if the normal
to its plane makes a 60° angle with the x-axis?

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Careful measurement of the electric field at the surface of a black box
indicates that the net outward flux through the surface of the box is 8.0 ×
10 3 N m 2 /C.
(a) What is the net charge inside the box?
(b) If the net outward flux through the surface of the box were zero, could
you conclude that there were no charges inside the box? Why or Why
not?
(a) Net outward flux through the surface of the box,
φ = 8.0 × 10 3 N m 2 /C
For a body containing net charge q, flux is given by the relation,
q=ε0​ ϕ= 8.854 x 10– 12 x 8.0 x 10 3 C = 7.08 x 10 – 8 C = 0.07 μC
Thus, the total charge inside the box is 0.07 μC
(b) No
Net flux piercing out through a body depends on the net charge contained
in the body. If net flux is zero, then it can be inferred that net charge
inside the body is zero. The body may have equal amount of positive and
negative charges.
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A point charge + 10 μC is at a distance 5 cm directly above the centre of a
square of side 10 cm, as shown in Fig. What is the magnitude of the
electric flux through the square?

The square can be considered as one face of a cube of edge 10 cm with a

centre where charge q is placed. According to Gauss’s theorem for a cube,
total electric flux is through all its six faces.

Hence, electric flux through one face of the cube i.e., through the square
is
φ = 1/6 x q/ε0
= 1.88 x 10 5 N m 2 C–1
Therefore, electric flux through the square is 1.88 × 105 N m2 C–1
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APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S LAW
Field due to an infinitely long straight uniformly charged wire

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Field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet

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Electric field due to two parallel charged sheets

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Electric field due to uniformly charged spherical shell
Case (i) At a point outside the shell.

It can be seen from the equation that, the electric field at a point outside
the shell will be the same as if the total charge on the shell is concentrated
at its centre.

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Case (ii) At a point on the surface.
The electric field E for the points on the surface of charged spherical shell
is,

Case (iii) At a point inside the shell.

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Electrostatic shielding
It is the process of isolating a certain region of space from external field. It
is based on the fact that electric field inside a conductor is zero.
During a thunder accompanied by lightning, it is safer to sit inside a bus
than in open ground or under a tree. The metal body of the bus provides
electrostatic shielding, where the electric field is zero. During lightning the
electric discharge passes through the body of the bus.

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EXTRA PROBLEMS:
1. You can charge a rubber rod negatively by rubbing it with
wool. What happens when you rub a copper rod with wool?
ANSWER: Because the copper is a conductor, it remains
neutral as long as it is in contact with your hand.
2. A negative charge of -6x 10-6 C exerts an attractive force
of 65 N on a second charge that is 0.050 m away. What is the
magnitude of the second charge?
ANSWER: = 3.0×10-6 C
3. Describe how the electrostatic force between two charges
changes when the distance between those two charges is tripled.
ANSWER: The electrostatic force between two charges is
proportional to the inverse square of the distance between
those charges. Therefore, the electrostatic force between the
two charges decreases by a factor of 32 = 9.
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4. A positive charge of 3.0 µC is pulled on by two negative charges. As
shown in Figure, one negative charge, -2.0 µC, is 0.050 m to the west, and
the other, -4.0 µC, is 0.030 m to the east. What total force is exerted on
the positive charge?

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5. Three particles are placed in a line. The left particle has a charge of -55 µC, the middle
one has a charge of +45 µC, and the right one has a charge of -78 µC. The middle
particle is 72 cm from each of the others, as shown in Figure. (a) Find the net force on
the middle particle.

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6. Write a physics problem for which the following equation would be
part of the solution:

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Find out the flux (i) through
the flat faces, (ii) through the
curved surface of the cylinder.
What is the net outward flux
through the cylinder and the
net charge inside the cylinder?
8. Consider the charges q, q, and –q placed at the vertices of an equilateral
triangle, as shown in Fig. What is the force on each charge?
9
10. Find the electric flux coming out from one face of a cube of edge a,
centre of which a point charge q is placed.
11. In figure (a) a charge q is placed just outside the centre of a closed
hemisphere. In figure (b) the same charge q is placed just inside the centre
of the closed hemisphere and in figure (c) the charge is placed at the
centre of hemisphere open from the base. Find the electric flux passing
through the hemisphere in all the three cases.
12. Two point charges + q and -2q are placed at the vertices ‘B’ and ‘C’ of
an equilateral triangle ABC of side as given in the figure. Obtain the
expression for (i) the magnitude and (ii) the direction of the resultant
electric field at the vertex A due to these two charges.
13. (a) ‘‘The outward electric flux due to charge + Q is independent of the
shape and size of the surface which encloses it.’’ Give two reasons to
justify this statement.
(b) Two identical circular loops ‘1’ and ‘2’ of radius R each have linear
charge densities – σ and + σ C/m respectively. The loops are placed
coaxially with their centers R√ 3 distance apart. Find the magnitude and
direction of the net electric field at the centre of loop ‘1’.
14. Figure shows three point charges, +2q, -q and + 3q. Two charges +2q
and -q are enclosed within a surface ‘S’. What is the electric flux due to
this configuration through the surface ‘S’.
ANSWERS TO BOOK BACK EXERCISES

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