Christ the King College

GRADUATE SCHOOL
1st Semester, AY 2020-2021

EDUCATION 206 – Principles and Theories of Educational Management

MODULE: #8-9

CHAPTER 8 – DIRECTING
1. Discuss the following:
1.1 Theories of Motivation
1.1A. Content Theories
a. Hierarchy of Needs Theory of Abraham Maslow
b. ERG Theory of Clayton Alderfer
c. Acquired Needs Theory of David McClelland
d. Two-Factor Theory of Frederick Herzberg
1.1B Process Theories
a. Expectancy Theory of Victor Vroom
b. Equity Theory of J. Stacey Adams
c. Goal Setting Theory of Edwin A. Locke

ANSWER:
 Directing refers to a process or technique of instructing, guiding, inspiring, counselling,
overseeing and leading people towards the accomplishment of organizational goals. It is
continuous managerial process that goes on throughout the life of the organization.
(https://www.toppr.com )
1.1 Theories of Motivation 1.1 A. Content Theories
a. Hierarchy of Needs Theory of Abraham Maslow
- This theory is based on simple premise that “Human being have needs that are
hierarchically ranked. According to Maslow, there are some needs that are
basic to all human beings, and in their absence nothing else matters. As
human satisfy these needs, he/she start looking to satisfy higher order needs.
In other words, once a lower level need is satisfied, it no longer serves as
motivator.
The most basic or lower level in Maslow’s need are psychological needs
which includes food, water and other biological needs. Once these
psychological needs are satisfied, people tend to become concerned the
second level which is the safety needs where in they keep on thinking is
they are free from threat or danger, pain or an uncertain future. On the next
level up is Social needs which refers a need to bond with other human
being, be loved, and form lasting attachments with others. next level up is
self-esteem/ esteem where in the satisfaction of social needs make self-
esteem needs more salient. Esteem need refers to the desire to be respected
by one’s peers, feel important, and be appreciated. Finally, the high level of
hierarchy of needs is the self- actualization which means “becoming all you
are capable of becoming”. This needs manifest itself by the desire to acquire
new skills, take on new challenges and behave in a way that will lead to the
attainment of one’s life goal. By making the efforts to satisfy the different
needs of each employee, organizations may ensure a highly motivated
 workforce.(https://courses.lumenlearning.com)
(https://www.masterclass.com )

b. ERG Theory of Clayton Alderfer

- This theory is a modification of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Alderfer
proposed that basic human needs may be grouped under the three categories,
namely, existence, relatedness and growth. Existence corresponds to
Maslow’s psychological and safety needs. Relatedness corresponds to social
needs and Growth refers to Maslow’s esteem and self – actualization. ERG
theory main contribution is the relaxation of Maslow’s assumption. Its very
important that we need to recognize the multiple needs that may be driving
individuals at a given point to understand their behavior and properly
motivate them. (https://courses.lumenlearning.com )
c. Acquired Needs Theory of David McClelland
- According to this theory of McClelland, individuals acquire three types of
needs as a result of their life experiences. These needs are the need for
achievement, the need for affiliation and the need for power. All individuals
possess a combination of these needs and the dominant needs are thought to
drive employee behavior. McClelland emphasize that the manager needs to
understand the dominant need s of the employees to be able to motivate
them. while people who have high need for achievement may respond to
goals, those with high need of power may attempt to gain influence over
those they work with and individuals high in need for affiliation may be
motivated to gain the approval of their peers and supervisors. Finally, those
who have high drive for success may experience difficulties in managerial
positions and making them aware of common pitfalls may increase their
effectiveness. (https://courses.lumenlearning.com )
d. Two- Factor Theory of Frederick Herzberg
- Frederick Herzberg developed the “Two- Factor Theory”. This theory
provides universalistic perspective on work motivation. He identified the
two different factors in job satisfaction which is the “satisfaction to no
satisfaction” and “dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction”. According to
Herzberg, there are factors that causes satisfaction and dissatisfaction. The
factors influencing the satisfaction continuum are called motivation factors
and they are related specifically to the work content while the factors that
causes dissatisfaction called hygienic factors, they are related to work
context like work environment. Motivating factors have uplifting effects on
attitude or performance while hygienic factors prevent loss of morale or
effectiveness. (https://courses.lumenlearning.com )

1.1B Process Theories

a. Expectancy Theory of Victor Vroom
- This theory of V. H Vroom emphasizes the needs for organizations to
relate rewards directly to performance and to ensure the rewards provided
are those rewards and wanted by the recipients. This theory is about
mental processes regarding choice or choosing. It explains the processes
that an individual undergoes to make choices.
( https://courses.lumenlearning.com )
 - This theory proposes that an individual will behave or act in a certain way
because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over others due to
what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be. The
motivation of the behavior selection is determined by the desirability of the
outcome. ( https://en.m.wikipedia.org.com )

b. Equity Theory of J. Stacey Adams

- This is the idea that what an individual receives for their work has a direct
effect on their motivation which means that an individual will generally aim
to create a balance between what they give to the organization compared to
what they get in return. According to J. Stacey Adams, as a manager
understanding the role of equity theory can be very much helpful when you
want to ensure that your team feels properly motivated and appreciated for
their work. When you offer fair compensation for your team’s contribution,
they may maintain higher levels of motivation.
( https://courses.lumenlearning.com )
- According to J. S Adams, this theory deals with the way people compare the
value of themselves to others I similar work situations based on their inputs
and outputs. An input is a contribution one makes to receive a reward.
Different input can include time commitments, daily job responsibilities,
loyalty to an organization and enthusiasm for one’s work. Outcome or
output is the compensation that an individual receives as a direct result of
the input they provide. Outcome can includes salary and pay increase, job
security, benefits like health care or vacation time.
(https://unf.edu.com )

c. Goal Setting Theory of Edwin A. Locke

- This theory of Edwin A. Locke states that goal setting is essentially linked to
task performance. It states that specific and challenging goals along with the
appropriate feedback contributes to higher and better task performance. In
simple words, goals indicate and give direction to an employee about what
needs to be done and how much efforts are required to be put in. According
to Locke, the following are the important features of goal setting theory:
• The willingness to work towards attainment of goal is main source
of job motivation. Clear, particular and difficult goal are greater
motivating factors than easy, general and vague goals.
• Specific and clear goals lead to greater output and better
performance.
• Goal should be realistic and challenging. This gives an individual a
feeling of pride and triumph when he attains them, and sets him up
for attainment of next goal. The more challenging the goal, the
greater is the reward generally and the more is the passion for
achieving it. (https://managementstudyguide.com)

2. It is normal for employers to want their employees to do their best in their workplace. For
employers, the ideal situation is for employees to perform excellent work, and thus produce
maximum output. This is wishful thinking, however, because employees need a certain degree
of motivation to perform very well. To keep employees sufficiently motivated, some means of
motivation should be designed and implemented.
 Four motivational methods and programs are considered to ease this situation:
2.1 motivation through job design;
2.2 organizational behavior modification
2.3 motivation through recognition and pride
2.4 motivation through financial incentives.

2.5 Discuss each of the methods

2.6 Identify/Relate a problem relative to that above that you may have experienced or
witnessed in your respective school/s and suggest how you would deal with the problem
considering any or all of the methods/programs cited above.

ANSWER:
- Knowing on how you will motivate your employees is very important. As a manager, it’s your
responsibility to see to it that all of the employees are doing their best to make their job well
done. That they are motivated in doing their responsibility to ensure productive organization.
It’s very important that as a manager you know how to challenge your employees for them to
become motivated to achieve such things. As human or people achieve such thing, they are
aiming again to achieve another thing.
The following are the four motivational methods and programs that a manager or
employer will do or apply to motivate their employees.
2.1 Motivation through job design
- Job design may be defined as the way the elements in a job are organized. There are
three major important components in designing a job. These are follows:
1) Job Enrichment – refers to making the job more motivational and satisfying
by adding variety, responsibility and managerial decision making. Give
workers a sense of ownership responsibility and accountability for their work.

2) Job Characteristics Model – a method of job design that focuses on the task
and interpersonal demands of a job. It has five measurable characteristics that
can improve employee’s motivation. These are skill variety, task identity, task
significance, autonomy and feedback.

3) Job Crafting / Job Enrichment – refers to the physical and mental changes
workers make in the task or relationship aspects of their job. There are three
common types of job crafting. These are the number and type of job tasks, the
interaction with others on the job and one’s overview of the job.

2.2 Organizational behavior modification

- is the application of reinforcement theory for motivating people in work. In this
motivational method, we need to follow the following rule:

1. Choose an appropriate reward or punishment

2. Reinforce the behaviors you really want to encourage
3. Supply ample feedback
4. Reward should commensurate with the good deed rule
5. Schedule rewards intermittently
6. Rewards and punishment should follow the observed behavior closely in time
rule
7. Make rewards visible to the recipient or others
 8. Change the rewards periodically

2.3 Motivation through recognition and pride

- To appeal to the recognition, need of others, identify a meritorious behavior and
then recognize the behavior with an oral, written and material reward. The
following are the several points to consider to better understand and implement
this program.

1) Feedback is an essential part of recognition.

2) Praise is one of the most powerful forms of recognition
3) Rewards and recognition programs should be linked to organizational goal
4) Employee input into what type of rewards and recognition are valued is
useful
5) It is important to evaluate the effectiveness of the rewards and recognition
program
6) PRIDE as motivator. Being proud of what you accomplished is more of an
intrinsic motivator than an extrinsic motivator such as gift.

2.4 Motivation through financial incentives.

- Motivation through financial incentives can take any of the following or a
combination of the following:
a) Time rates – this type of monetary reward use the number of hours worked
as a means of determining rewards. It may be classified as hourly rate or
weekly wage or monthly salary.
b) Payment by results – these scheme links pay to the quantity of the
individual output. An example is a commission paid to a salesman for
selling the company’s product.
c) Performance related pay – rewards consist of a lump sum, or a bonus as a
percentage of basic salary with quality of performance determining the
magnitude of the percentage increase.
d) Profit related pay – takes the form of direct cash outlay, or allocation of
stock options. Stock options is a financial inventive that gives employees the
right to purchase a certain number of companies shares at a specified price.
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2.5 Discuss each of the methods

2.6 Identify/Relate a problem relative to that above that you may have experienced or
witnessed
ANSWER: :

- Honestly speaking, one of the problems related to the above mention that I have
experience or witnessed in our school is in the organizational behavior
modification. I know that we as an employee, it is our responsibility to work or do
our responsibility to the best that we can but for me it is very helpful if the
principal or manager is the one who make some effort to let their employee feels
how they are willing to help for us to become a better one. Motivation from our
higher officials is a very big help to encourage employees to work with the best
but it is a reality that not all higher official, principal or manager just like that. It
so happened that there is an onsite validation in our school where in I’m the one
who assigned or take in charge of everything because I’m the coordinator. The two
 days before the evaluation, I prepared all the documents and other important
things that is needed. Here comes that evaluation, most of the comment from the
evaluator are positive. It gets me frustrated and disappointed because after the
effort you’ve done for that thing to done successfully. There is no piece of words
that you want to heard from your principal comes out. It discourages me a lot
because this is not helpful to the employee. How do you motivate your employee
to work with their best, if you don’t know how to appreciate little achievement of
your employee? Appreciation, feedbacking and praising even in a little
achievement of your employee is a big help to them. It boosts their eagerness to do
their very best again. It motivates people to aim another achievement. Motivation
coming from your head is very helpful for an employee to believe themselves that
they can.

3. What does Abraham Maslow espouse in his hierarchy of needs theory?

ANSWER:
• Abraham Maslow espouses in his Hierarchy of needs theory are the following:
- Human being has needs that are hierarchically ranked. Human needs dictate an
individual behavior. As human satisfy these needs, he/she start looking to satisfy
higher order needs. In other words, once a lower level need is satisfied, it no
longer serves as motivator. The most basic or first of the id-driven lower level in
Maslow’s need are psychological needs which includes food, water and other
biological needs. Once these psychological needs are satisfied, people tend to
become concerned the second level which is the safety needs where in they keep
on thinking is they are free from threat or danger, pain or an uncertain future.
Safety needs include protection from violence and theft, emotional stability and
well-being, health security and financial security. The next among the lower level
is Social needs which refers a need to bond with other human being, be loved,
and form lasting attachments with others. Next level up is self-esteem/ esteem
where in the satisfaction of social needs make self-esteem needs more salient.
Esteem need refers to the desire to be respected by one’s peers, feel important,
and be appreciated. Finally, the high level of hierarchy of needs is the self-
actualization which means “becoming all you are capable of becoming”. It
describes the fulfillment of your full potential as a person. This level needs
occupy the highest spot in Maslow’s pyramid.
(https://courses.lumenlearning.com ) (https://www.masterclass.com )

- Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory describes how such an individual do their

effort and best to satisfy their needs which only means that satisfaction of an
individual does not only rely in one thing but also in such other things. One they
are satisfied in one thing, it is no longer to use to them. It is not a motivator at all.
What individual will do is look for another level to satisfy their needs. As a
manager, by making the efforts to satisfy the different needs of each employee,
organizations may ensure a highly motivated workforce. See to it that these needs
help that employee grow professionally and productive.
 CHAPTER 9 – CONTROLLING

Questions
1. Discuss the following basic activities of the control process:
1.1 establishment of standards
1.2 analysis of performance
1.3 correction of deviations from standards or plan
1.4 Relate an experience you had where the above-identified three basic activities are present
2. What is the difference between Management Control and Operating Control?
3. Cite an example where management control is exercised in consonance with operating control.

ANSWER:
 Controlling is very important in management. It is the key for the organization to reach the
target goal and to have a successful management within the organization. In Controlling, it’s
very important that we know the following basic activities of a control process for us to be
aware on how these activities affect in the control process.
1.1 Establishment of a standards – This is the first step in the Control process wherein we
are going to state, define and set our goals and standard, our target. The Manager defines
goals for organizational departments in specific operational terms that include standards
of performance to compare with organizational activities. It’s very important for the
manages to communicate the organizational goals, standards and objective as clearly as
possible. Everybody in the organization must works towards common goals because it
become easier to an organization to flourish and manage. Take note that standards must
be clear and intelligible. It should be accurate, precise, acceptable and workable. See to it
that the standards emphasize the achievement of results more than the conformity to
rules and method.
1.2 Analysis of Performance – This step compares actual activities to performance standards
wherein the manager read reports or walk through the plans, they identify whether actual
performance meets, exceeds or falls short of standards. Measurement and analysing of
performance can be done in several ways depending on the performance standards just
like personal observations, by reports, charts and statements. This is very important
because some of the variations may be unimportant while others may be more important
and need immediate corrective action by the manager.
1.3 Correction of deviations from standards or plan - taking corrective action where in
managers take corrective measures to bring back everything on track in the organization.
Manager takes the best action as a solution to a problem. The Manager should try to
influence environmental conditions and external situations in such a way as to facilitate
the achievement of goals. He should review within these subordinates the instructions
give so that he may be able to give clear, complete and reasonable instructions in future.
 1.4 It is common especially in a workplace like school to encounter these above-identified
three basic activities in the control process. These activities identify how the plan will go
through. If such plan did not undergo in these three basic activities of control processes
then there are big possibilities that some unexpected arise. These three basic activities of
control processes serve as a pathway to make such plan successful. So, for me, since our
department I don’t know the other department follow these basic activities of control
process, most of our plan has a positive result. Our department head always ready and
aware of everything because we ere guided of these three basic activities of control
processes.

2. The difference between Management Control and Operating Control is that Management
Control is the process by which the managers influence other members of the organization
to implement organization’s strategies. It also the process that helps to achieve
organizational goals. The teams or an individual within a business entity is forced to perform
specific actions and avoid another set of particular actions so that they can reach their
destined target while Operating Control refers to the control over intermediate -term
operations and processes but not business strategies. It ensures that activities are consistent
with established plans. It attained by applying the basic control concepts to the operations
function of the organization. (https://courses.lumenlearning.com)(https://marketing91.com)
(https://link.springer.com)

3. One of the examples where management control is exercised in consonance with operating
control is like in our school, if there is a school event like sports event where in different
coaches are assigned by the principal to manage the such event like sipak takraw, volleyball,
basketball etc. Management control is coming from the higher official like principal. He/ she
influence the members of the organization to implement strategies to reach the specific goal
of the event. The Principal instruct every coach to perform specific actions which only
concerned to their expertise in the kinds of sport they are assigned. Coaches are discouraged
to take another set of action which is not related to what is assigned to them to reach the
destined target. There is a presence of operating control in each of the coaches to ensure that
the activities or event are consistent with established plan. Each coaches will be the one who
will manage and take charge of any responsibility regarding on the kind of sport assigned to
them. For me this one of the example where in management control is exercised in
consonance with operating control.