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Engineering Utilities 2
● Mechanical and Electrical Systems in
Architecture, Engineering Construction is a subject in
Civil Engineering which main objective is to provide
and equipped the students taking this subject a broad
understanding of building mechanical and electrical
materials, equipment, and systems to successfully
envision, conceive design, draw, construct, evaluate or
create building project.
● Specifically for design in building heating,
ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC), plumbing and
piping (water supply and sanitary drainage), storm
drainage, acoustics and acoustical control, conveying,
fire protection and suppression, building renewable energy and energy conservation
systems

Some History of Plumbing

prehistoric time ● Primitive water supply and waste

disposal methods offered proof that
even early man realizes the
importance of plumbing

Greco-Roman civilization ● Concept and importance of plumbing

become more defined and
appreciated
● The romans who considered daily
bathing as a must, elevated bathing to
the level as a daily ritual
● Their almost fanatical demand for
constant supply of clean water, found
its expression in the ingenuity of the
now famous Roman Aqueduct

Nearly 4000 years ago, Ancient Greeks ● had hot and cold water systems in
buildings
● The Minoan Palace of Knossos on the
isle of Crete had terra cotta (baked
clay) piping laid beneath the palace
floor.
● These pipes provided water for
fountains and faucets of marble, gold,
and silver that offered hot and cold
running water
● Drainage systems emptied into large
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sewers constructed of stone.

2800 years ago ● The first storm sewers of Rome were

built

Over 2000 years ago ● the Romans had in place highly

developed community plumbing
system in which water was conveyed
over many miles by large aqueducts.
Water was then distributed to
residences in lead pipes

4th century C.E. ● Rome had 11 public baths, over 1300

public fountains and cisterns, and
over 850 private baths.

The term plumbing is derived from the Latin word plumbum for lead (Pb). Historians
theorize that lead leaching into drinking water from water supply pipes and lead from other
sources poisoned the Roman aristocracy, contributing to the decline of the Roman Empire

King Minos of Crete owned the world’s first flushing closet with a wooden seat and a small
reservoir of water, over 2800 years ago.

The decline of the Roman Empire and an outbreak of deadly bubonic plague that killed an
estimated one-third of the European population during the Middle Ages resulted in the decline
of public baths and fountains

500 to 1500 C.E ● dark age in terms of human hygiene;

community plumbing became almost
nonexistent

Around 1500 ● At the end of the Middle Ages,

London’s first water system was
rebuilt
● It consisted partly of the rehabilitated
Roman system with the remainder
patterned off of the Roman’s design.

Pumping devices have been an important way of moving fluids for thousands of years.
The ancient Egyptians invented water wheels with buckets mounted on them to move water
for irrigation. Over 2000 years ago, Archimedes, a Greek mathematician, invented a screw
pump made of a screw rotating in a cylinder (now known as an Archimedes screw). This type
of pump was used to drain and irrigate the Nile Valley.

The beginnings of modern plumbing began in the early 1800s, when steam engines became
capable of supplying water under pressure and inexpensive cast iron pipes could be produced
to carry it. Still it was considered unhealthy to bathe.

In 1835, the Common Council of Philadelphia nearly banned wintertime bathing (the
ordinance failed by two votes). Ten years later, Boston prohibited bathing except on specific
medical advice.
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Finally, it was through observation of several cholera epidemics in the mid-1800s that
epidemiologists finally recognized the link between sanitation and public health. This
discovery provided the thrust for modern water and sewage systems.

In 1848, England passed the national Public Health Act, which later became a model
plumbing code for the world to follow.
It mandated some type of sanitary disposal in every residence such as a flushing toilet, a
privy, or an ash pit.

Boston and later New York built the country’s first waterworks to provide water for
firefighting and domestic use about 1700. The wooden pipe system, laid under roads,
provided water at street pumps or hydrants.

Water pipes were made of bored-out logs. Wooden pipes were common until the early 1800s,
when the increased pressure required to pump water into rapidly expanding streets began to
split the pipes.

In 1804, Philadelphia earned the distinction as the first city in the world to adopt cast iron
pipe for its water mains. Chicago is credited with having the first comprehensive
sewerage project in the United States, designed in 1885

Modern Plumbing System

Fixtures ● are components, receptacles, or
pieces of equipment that use water
and dispose of wastewater at the
point of water use
● a plumbing fixture is an exchangeable
device which can be connected to a
plumbing system to deliver and drain
water.

Piping ● is a series of hollow channels that

carry water to and wastewater from
plumbing fixtures

Fittings ● are used to connect lengths of pipe in

the piping network

Valves ● are used to regulate or control flow of

water
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There are three different types of plumbing systems;

1. sanitary drainage,
2. storm water drainage
3. potable water.
Each of these systems have their own unique functions and purposes.

A plumbing system consists of three parts:

1. an adequate potable water supply system;
2. a safe, adequate drainage system;
3. and ample fixtures and equipment.

Plumbing Codes
2021 National Standard Plumbing Code provides the latest information about common
materials, fixtures, devices and equipment systems
used or installed in plumbing systems

Uniform Plumbing Code (UPC) Designated as an American National Standard

a model code developed by the International
Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials
(IAPMO) to govern the installation and inspection
of plumbing systems as a means of promoting the
public's health, safety and welfare
This code deals with water supply in buildings, and
covers general requirements and regulations for
water supply, plumbing connected to public water
supply, licensing of plumbers, design of water
supply systems, principles of conveyance and
distribution of water within the premises, storage,
water fittings

International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO) has released the
2021 edition of the National Standard Plumbing Code – Illustrated (NSPC). An updated
version of the 2018 NSPC.

● NATIONAL PLUMBING CODE

● Building Officials and Code Administrators International (BOCA)
● UNIFORM PLUMBING CODE
● INTERNATIONAL PLUMBING CODE (ICC)
● STANDARD PLUMBING CODE
● ONE AND TWO FAMILY DWELLING CODE
● NATIONAL STANDARD PLUMBING CODE
● ANSI A40, SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR PLUMBING
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Plumbing
art and science of installing pipes, fixtures and other apparatus to convey and supply water in
buildings and to dispose and discharge waste water and other liquids, gasses and other
substances out of buildings in a safe, orderly, healthy and sanitary way to ensure the health
and sanitation of life and property.

Plumber ● title given to a person who is skilled in the field of

sanitation
● was derived from the ancient Roman word
Plumbarius – an individual who works in the
sanitary field in Ancient Rome; which in turn, was
derived from the term Plumbum

Plumbum ● Lead (Atomic No.: 82)

● primordial material for making pipes

Categories of Plumbers
Apprentice plumber ● a beginner at the trade who usually serves for 3 to 5
years as helper to a journeyman.

Journeyman plumber ● has served his apprenticeship and is competent to

perform the tasks of installing and repairing
plumbing

Master plumber ● a person technically and legally qualified and

licensed to practice the profession of master
plumbing without limitations in accordance with
Republic Act 1378, having passed the examinations
conducted by the Professional Regulation
Commission (PRC), has received a certificate of
registration from the board of master plumbing and
possesses the current license to practice. (Section
214.5 NPC 200)

Water Supply
Potable ● is clean water that is suitable for human drinking
● It must be available for drinking, cooking, and
cleaning.
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Nonpotable ● water may be used for flushing water closets

(toilets), irrigating grass and gardens, washing cars,
and for any use other than drinking, cooking, or
cleaning

Rain and snowmelt ● the sources of most of the water available for our
use

surface water ● rain that runs off the surface of the ground into
streams, rivers, and lakes

Groundwater ● water found below the surface of the earth. It is

water that has percolated through porous soil until it
reaches an impervious stratum, upon which it
collects

Impurities in water ● it is the type and amount of these impurities that

affect water quality and suitability for a particular
use. Characteristics of water sources vary greatly.
● Impurities in the surface water and groundwater
may be harmful, of no importance, or even
beneficial to a person’s health

Water Testing ● All potable water supplies should be tested and

certified before being put in use and periodically
recertified during use.
● Test for potable water provides a chemical analysis
of the water, indicating the parts per million (ppm)
of each chemical found in the water

DRINKING WATER STANDARDS

The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) was originally passed by Congress in 1974, and
amended in 1986 and 1996. Its purpose is to protect public health by regulating the nation’s
public drinking water supply. The SDWA authorizes the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) to set national health-based standards for drinking water to protect against both
naturally occurring and human-made contaminants that may be found in drinking water.

Water Use ● Water use rates are described in units of gallons

per capita per day (gpcd) or liters per capita per
day (Lpcd), potable water supplied by public water
systems, only a small portion is actually used for
drinking.
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Type of Wells
Driven Wells ● also referred to as sand point wells
● consist of lengths of 11⁄4 to 2 in (32 to 50 mm)
diameter pipe that is driven into the ground.
● In driving this type of well, a sharp well point and
drive cap are attached to a pipe. An impact-loading
device such as a small pile driver is used to drive
the assembly into the earth by striking the drive
cap. The drive cap allows the assembly to be
driven into the earth without the pipe end being
damaged. The assembly is driven into the ground
until the well point extends below the water table.
As the well point is driven

Drilled/Bored Wells ● Drilling or boring methods are used for deep wells.
A well-drilling rig is used to create the well hole.
● Drilled wells have the holes formed by using rotary
bits. Bored wells have the holes formed by using
an auger and covered with a casing. Only the
drilling method is effective in cutting through hard
rock. Drilled wells typically have holes 200 feet or
more in depth. Shallow wells may have to be bored
or drilled if it is necessary to pass through rock to
reach the water table. The well shaft, or borehole,
is lined with a solid pipe that seals out
contaminants and stabilizes the hole. Dug/Bored
wells are holes in the ground dug by shovel or
backhoe. They are lined (cased) with stones, brick,
tile, or other material to prevent collapse. Dug wells
have a large diameter, are shallow (approximately
10 to 30 feet deep) and are not cased continuously

Piping Materials
Cast iron pipe ● pipe made predominantly from gray cast iron It was
historically used as a pressure pipe for
transmission of water, gas and sewage, and as a
water drainage pipe during the 17th, 18th, 19th and
20th centuries.
● Is used as pressure pipe for transmission of water
and sewage.

Copper pipe ● traditionally the most popular water supply pipe

material. It is also used in water space heating
(hydronic) systems, air conditioning and
refrigeration systems, sanitary drainage, and
natural gas and liquid petroleum gas piping
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Galvanized steel pipes ● steel pipes that have been dipped in a protective
zinc coating to prevent corrosion and rust.
● Galvanized piping was commonly installed in
homes built before 1960. When it was invented,
galvanized pipe was an alternative to lead pipe for
water supply lines.

Red brass pipe ● consisting of approximately 85% copper and 15%

zinc, is used as water supply piping.
● the most durable of all metals for the plumbing
industry and commercial water pipe applications.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe ● world's third-most widely produced synthetic plastic
polymer.
● About 40 million tons of PVC are produced each
year.
● PVC comes in two basic forms: rigid and flexible.
● The rigid form of PVC is used in construction for
pipe and in profile applications such as doors and
windows.

Steel pipe ● When steel pipe is forged, a black oxide scale

forms on its surface that gives it a dull black finish,
and as a result it is called black pipe

Lightweight wrought-iron pipe ● designated Standard (or Schedule 40), is the type
most commonly used for water supply and fire
suppression sprinkler systems
● The most commonly used wrought-iron pipe is
galvanized

Thermoplastic pipe ● sometimes referred to simply as plastic pipe, used

for water supply systems because its economy and
ease of installation make it popular, especially on
projects such as low-cost housing or apartments
where cost economy is important.

Fittings
Elbows ● usually at 45° and 90°, are angular fittings used to
change the direction of a supply pipe

Tees ● are used in a supply system when a line must

branch off at a straight run.
● A reducing tee allows different pipe sizes to be
joined together in a supply system.
● Sanitary T and sanitary Y are tee-like fittings used
in sanitary drainage systems that make a more
gradual turn to prevent blockage.
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● A sanitary Y can accept two or three branches

before combining flow into one pipe

Couplings ● used to join straight runs of pipe

union joins straight runs of pipe but also allows the pipes
to be more easily disconnected when future piping
revisions are expected or equipment needs to be
replaced

reducer ● is a straight fitting used to decrease the diameter in

a pipe in a water supply system

increaser ● a straight fitting used to increase the diameter in a

pipe in a sanitary drainage system

Adapters ● used in a supply system where threaded pipe is

being connected to copper or thermoplastic.
● Adapters have one threaded end to accommodate
threaded pipe

grooved Victaulic fitting. ● Fire suppression sprinkler pipes are frequently

joined by this fitting

compression fitting ● type of connection for tubing or pipe where a nut,

and then a sleeve or ferrule, is placed over a
copper or plastic tube, andi s compressed tightly
around the tube as the nut is tightened, forming a
positive grip and seal without soldering

Soldering, brazing, and welding ● ways of joining metal surfaces

● Soldering and brazing are methods of joining two or
more metal surfaces by melting nonferrous filler
metal with a melting temperature well below the
metals to be joined
● The melted filler metal distributes itself between the
surfaces to be bonded by capillary action

Solvent-cementing ● involves coating the plastic surfaces with a prime

coat and a solvent cement coat before they are
joined.
● The cement cures joining the surfaces in a manner
similar to the cementing technique used to attach
the pieces of a plastic model airplane

Fusion welding ● involves heating the surfaces until they melt,

allowing them to be joined
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Valves
used to control flow of the water throughout the system. Proper location of valves simplifies
repairs to the system, fixtures, or equipment being serviced. Valves also regulate flow to
deliver the appropriate quantity of water and reduce water consumption.

gate valve ● a manual valve that has a wedge-shaped leaf that,

when closed, seals tightly against two metal seats
that are set at slight angles.
● This type of valve is usually used where the flow of
the water is left either completely opened or closed
for most of the time

globe valve ● a manual, compression-type valve, commonly

used where there is occasional or periodic use,
such as lavatories (faucets) and hose connections
(called hose bibs)
● This type of valve regulates the flow of water

angle valve ● a manual valve similar in operation to the globe

valve, utilizing the same principle of compressing a
washer against a metal seat to cut the flow of
water
● It is commonly used for outside hose bibs.

check valve ● opens to allow the flow of water in the direction

desired and prevents flow in the other direction
● Two Types
1. swing check valve
2. spring check valve

Valves According to Functions

ball valve ● a manual valve that has a ball with a hole through
it that is mounted between two seats
● When the ball hole is in line with the valve
openings, full flow of water occurs

Metered valves ● designed to automatically discharge for a specific

length of time and thus deliver a fixed quantity of
water before closing off flow

flushometer valve ● a metered valve that discharges a predetermined

quantity of water to fixtures for flushing purposes
(e.g., water closets and urinals) and is closed by
direct water pressures

flow control valve ● automatically adjusts the rate of water flow to a

predetermined flow rate as pressure in the system
varies
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thermostatic valve ● frequently called a tempering valve or mixing

valve, is an automatic valve thermostatically
blends hot and cold water to desired temperatures
and to prevent scalding

temperature-pressure relief (T/P) ● a safety valve designed to limit pressure of a liquid

valve vapor or gas
● These valves are specified such that the valve
remains closed at normal operating pressures yet
it is allowed to open to release excessive pressure.
● They are commonly found as a safety feature on
water heaters and boilers

pressure-reducing valve ● an adjustable valve designed to reduce pressure

to a specific setting.
● These valves are commonly used in building
plumbing systems where street water pressure is
excessive and needs to be reduced before being
sent to plumbing fixtures

hose bibb ● sometimes called a sill cock, is a valve designed to

accept the threaded connection of a hose

freeze less hose bib ● has a long body that when placed in an exterior
wall, cuts off the water supply near the interior wall
surface.
● This allows water near the exterior wall surface to
drain out when the valve is closed to avoid
freezing of water and valve damage in severe
winter temperatures

Secured hose bibs ● require a specially designed knob to open the

valve, which prevents use by the general public

flushometer ● valve-like device designed to supply a fixed

quantity of water for flushing toilets and urinals.
When operated, it automatically shuts off after a
measured amount of water flow in order to
conserve water

sensor-operated valve ● automatically flushes the fixture when a user

departs
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Plumbing Fixtures
Water Closet ● serves as an indoor receptacle and removal system for
human waste, this fixture is commonly called a toilet or
commode

waterless urinal ● urinal that is specifically engineered to eliminate

potable water consumption for urinal flushing

Bidets ● personal hygiene plumbing fixtures used for genital

and perineal cleanliness

Bathtubs ● plumbing fixtures used for bathing

showerhead ● overhead nozzle that sprays water down on the bather

handshower ● showerhead attached to the end of a flexible hose

Shower surrounds ● cover the walls that enclose a shower stall

shower enclosure ● consists of glass panels, either framed or frameless,

used to enclose bathtubs, shower modules, shower
receptors, and custom-tiled showering spaces

receptor or shower pan ● shallow basin used to catch and contain water in the
bottom of a showering space

gang head shower ● multiple showerheads extending from the top of a post
● It is commonly used in institutions, schools, factories
where workers must shower after work

lavatory ● bathroom basin or sink used for personal hygiene

Undercounter lavatories ● an installation in which a lavatory (or sink) is attached

to the underside of a countertop.

Pedestal lavatories ● a basin that is supported primarily by a freestanding

pedestal leg

Kitchen sinks ● most commonly made of enameled cast iron or

stainless steel. Sinks are usually available in a single-
or a double-bowl arrangement; some even have a third
bowl, which is much smaller

waste disposal ● typically connected to one of the sink drains

utility or service sink ● has a deep, fixed basin that is supplied with hot and
cold water and is used for rinsing mops and disposing
of cleaning water
● They are often called slop sinks or mop sinks
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Laundry tubs ● sometimes called trays, are a large deep sink used in
laundry rooms. They are usually available in a single or
a double-bowl arrangement

Drinking fountains ● offer users a limitless supply of drinking water at any

location where water and sanitary drainage are readily
available

Emergency fixtures ● include eye-face washes, drench showers,

decontamination units, portables, and accessories
designed for use wherever hazardous substances are
present
● Other types of fixtures include baptisteries, ornamental
ponds, fountains, and aquariums

Main Parts of a Water Supply System

Plumbing Codes require that a potable water supply be adequately furnished to all plumbing
fixtures

Main parts of a typical water supply system

1. Building Supply or water service ● a large water supply pipe that carries
potable water from the district or city
water system

2. Water meter ● measures and record the amount of

water used
● It may be placed in a meter box
located in the ground near the street
or inside the building.

3. Building Main ● a large pipe that serves as the

principal artery of the water supply
system
● It carries water through the building to
the furthest riser

4. Riser ● is a water supply pipe that extends

vertically in the building at least one
story and carries water to fixture
branches
● It is typically connected to the building
main and runs vertically in the wall or
pipe chases
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5. Fixture branch ● water supply pipe that runs from the

riser or main to the fixture being
connected
● It supply the individual plumbing
fixtures and usually runs in the floor or
in the wall behind the fixtures

6. Fixtures connection ● runs from the fixture branch to the

fixture, the terminal point of use in
plumbing system
● Shut-off valve is typically located in
the hot and cold water supply at the
fixture connection

General Water Distribution System Layout

1. Water service pipe is an underground pipe that typically called a lateral

2. Water service lateral is connected to a water meter that measures consumption
3. As the building supply piping enters the building, pipes split off to supply water to hose
bibbs, irrigation system and any industrial process equipment using water that does not
need to be heated
4. If water treatment is desired in the building, water is passed through a treatment
device before the water is distributed to the building.
5. Water treatment is done after irrigation water and/or water for process equipment is
removed. Once the water supply main passes through the treatment device (if used), the
main pipe splits to provide water to a water heater or water heating system that
generates hot water before it is distributed.
6. A fixture connection links the hot or cold water branch to the fixture, the terminal
point of use in a plumbing system.
7. A shut-off valve is typically located in the hot and cold water supply at the fixture
connection. Air chambers are installed as close as possible to the fixture valves or
faucet and at the end of long runs of pipe to reduce water hammer.

Water hammer is a phenomenon that can occur in any piping system where valves are used
to control the flow of liquids or steam. It occurs when an open valve suddenly closes,
causing the water to slam into it, or when a pump suddenly shuts down and the flow
reverses direction back to the pump.
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The distribution configuration methods

1. Rigid-Pipe Distribution Configuration
○ In the conventional rigid-pipe distribution configuration, the hot and cold water
distribution pipes are installed parallel to one another as they convey hot and
cold water to risers and branch pipes.
○ Hot and cold pipes should be spaced at least 6 in (150 mm) apart or have
insulation placed between them to prevent heat interchange.
○ In top-quality work, both pipes should be insulated so that hot water pipes
minimize heat loss and cold water pipes prevent surface condensation.
2. Homerun (Manifold) Distribution Configuration
○ A homerun or manifold distribution configuration consists of a plastic or metal
plumbing manifold and flexible plastic piping.
○ can be installed more quickly than rigid plumbing.
○ Fittings and couplings are available for unique situations, such as creating
changes in direction that are tighter than the minimum bend radius allowable for
the piping
○ The homerun configuration requires much more pipe than the rigid
configuration, but the plastic pipe used is much less expensive than the
metal (copper) pipe used in the own supply line, the size of the pipe can be
adjusted for a fixture’s specific use
3. Upfeed and Downfeed Distribution
○ upfeed system, water pressure from the water supply main is relied on to drive
water flow
○ through the system. Water pressure in building water supply mains typically
ranges from 40 to 80 psi (275 to 550 kPa), with 80 psi (550 kPa) considered
the upper limit for most systems plumbed with metal pipe and 40 psi the upper
limit for plastic pipe.
○ This available pressure places limits on how far water can be driven upward
in a plumbing system.
○ Part of the available pressure is expended in friction losses as the water
passes through the meter and the various pipes and fittings; and part of the
pressure is expended to overcome gravity, which is the pressure required to push
the weight of water upward vertically (up the riser).

WATER PRESSURE CONSIDERATIONS

hydrostatic force ● force exerted by the weight of the fluid against the
walls of a vessel containing the fluid

Hydrostatic pressure ● the hydrostatic force per unit area, is perpendicular

to the interior walls at every point
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Water Pressure ● Water pressure difference is the driving force

behind fluid flow.
● Water pressure available at the water service is
lost as water flows through the piping of a
plumbing system. piping

Residual water pressure ● pressure available at the outlet, just before a

fixture. It affects water output of a fixture

Pressure Difference ● exist at a plumbing fixture to cause water to

flow—that is, water pressure at the fixture must be
at a higher level than atmospheric pressure for
water to flow from the fixture.
● Pressure difference (ΔP) is the driving force of fluid
flow.

RESIDUAL PRESSURE IS THE PRESSURE IN THE PIPE AT THE ENTRANCE TO THE PARTICULAR FIXTURE.

Pressure Difference from Elevation ● In a plumbing supply system, pressure difference

Change (Static Head) from elevation change or simply static head
(ΔPstatic) is found by multiplying the vertical
height (Z), in feet, by the factor of 0.433 psi/ft.
● By convention, the vertical height (Z) is positive if
elevation increases from the station with the
known pressure (the station is higher than the
station with the known pressure) and negative if
elevation decreases.
● static head, in psi, Δpstatic = = -0.433Z
● In the SI (metric) units, where vertical height (Z) is
measured in meters: static head, in kPa, ΔPstatic
= -9.8Z
● Pressure difference is negative (a loss) if the
elevation change from the known pressure is
upward (a positive Z) and positive if elevation
change is downward (a negative Z).

Pressure Losses from Friction ● applies to smooth pipe, such as copper and plastic
pipe and tubing.
● caused by water flow in smooth pipe (copper
tubing), based on flow rate and pipe diameter.

Friction loss ● applies to friction loss in rough pipe, such as steel

and iron pipe.
● Roughness of the inner walls of pipe influences
friction loss.
● Pressure drop for a particular rough pipe diameter
is greater than in a smooth pipe having the same
inside diameter
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WATER SUPPLY DESIGN CONCERNS

Water Velocity ● Noise, erosion of inner pipe walls and valves, and
economy of installation, operation, and maintenance
dictate the minimum and maximum water velocity in a
plumbing system;
● as a result, these have a bearing on pipe diameter. If
pipe diameters are small, cost is low but noise,
erosion (from high velocities), and pumping costs
(from highpressure losses) are high.
● In contrast, large diameter pipes reduce noise
erosion and pumping costs, but result in high
installation costs.
● An intermediate pipe diameter is desirable.

Cavitation ● a physical phenomenon that occurs in a liquid when it

experiences a drastic drop in pressure that causes
the liquid to vaporize into small vapor bubbles

Vaporization is a problem because the liquid being vaporized expands greatly

Cross-Connections ● an unsatisfactory connection or arrangement of piping

that can cause non-potable water to enter the potable
water system.
● A cross-connection can cause used or contaminated
water to mix with the water supply
● unsanitary and potentially hazardous condition

As a general rule, the minimum air gaps for cross-connection protection for fixtures against
one wall are as follows:
● Lavatory 1 in (25 mm)
● Sink 11⁄2 in (38 mm)
● Laundry tray 11⁄2 in (38 mm)
● Bathtub 2 in (51 mm

Backflow ● is a type of cross-connection that occurs when

contaminated water or some other liquid or substance
unintentionally flows backwards into distribution pipes
containing potable water
● It is water flowing in the opposite direction from
normal flow

Backpressure or back ● backflow caused by a negative pressure (vacuum) in

siphoning a potable water system
● A downstream pressure that is greater than the supply
pressure causes backpressure backflow

vacuum breaker ● a device or plumbing assembly that when properly

installed in a plumbing system prevents backflow
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Type of Backflow Prevention Assemblies

atmospheric vacuum breaker (AVB) the most common type, consists of a body,
a check valve-like member (to prevent
backflow), and an atmospheric opening.

A pressure vacuum breaker (PVB) A type of backflow prevention device used to

keep non potable (or contaminated) water
from entering the water supply

A double check assembly (DCA) or double a backflow prevention device assembly that
check valve consists of two check valves assembled
in series usually with a ball valve or gate
valve installed at each end for isolation
and testing

Some Random Terms

Air chambers ● 15 in to 5 ft long pipes or pipe-like
devices that can mitigate the various
problems caused by pulsation, such
as pipe vibration and the overfeed
phenomenon

Water hammer arrestors ● patented devices that absorb

hydraulic shock.

Thermal expansion ● in the pipes of a plumbing system

must be accommodated to minimize
damage from thermal movement.
● Expansion from temperature
increases can push a pipe through a
wall or cause it to burst
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Two methods in common use for providing for expansion in pipelines

Expansion bends and expansion loops ● make use of pipe fabricated with
Ushaped or circular bends

Expansion joints ● in common use include the slip

expansion joint and the corrugated
expansion joint.

slip expansion joint ● consists of a slip pipe and a flange,

which is bolted to an adjoining pipe.

corrugated expansion joint ● consists of a flexible corrugated

section.
● The corrugated, accordion-like section
is able to absorb a certain amount of
end movement of the pipe

Some Random Terms Again

Water viscosity ● varies depending on its temperature, and the higher the
temperature is, the less viscous water is.

Volume Change with ● Water is the only substance that can exist as a solid, liquid,
Temperature Change and gas at ordinary temperatures. Like most substances,
water expands when it is heated. Unlike most substances,
the volume of water increases when it freezes.
● Water in a 50-gal water heater cools to a temperature below
32°F (0°C) and freezes fully. Determine the volumetric
change, in gallons, as a result of freezing.
○ ΔV = 10% x 50 gal = 5.0 gal increase in volume

Freezing ● A phase change from liquid (water) to solid (ice) results in

about a 10% increase in volume.
● pipe, fitting, or tank filled with water can burst if the water is
exposed to below freezing temperatures, even for a short
period of time.

Expanding Water ● Liquid water expands above 39°F (4°C). Expansion is about
4.37% from 40°F (4.4°C) to 212°F (100°C). This volumetric
change from expansion (ΔV) equates to about 0.0254% per
°F (0.0457% per °C).

Steam ● Under standard atmospheric pressure (14.696 psi, 101.04

kPa), the boiling point temperature of water is 212°F
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(100°C).

Aging ● As pipes in a plumbing system are used, their inner walls

become increasingly rough. The effects of aging in a
plumbing system are related to piping material, quality of
water (e.g., hard versus soft), and water temperature.

Pipe insulation ● applied to the outer walls of piping to reduce heat loss from
the pipe or prevent condensation on the outside pipe walls

Testing ● a water supply system should be tested for leaks before it is

covered with finish materials to determine if it is watertight.
● Tests commonly run on water systems require that it be
watertight under a hydrostatic water pressure of 125 psi for
a minimum of 1 hr. Any leaks that occur should be repaired
with the joint compound originally used.

Leaks ● plumbing leaks contribute significantly to water

consumption in operating plumbing systems
● Leaks can develop from substandard piping, improper use
of materials, poor workmanship, and improper design

WATER SUPPLY PIPE DESIGN METHODS

Flow rate ● vary by type of fixture and water pressure at the fixture.
Each fixture in a plumbing system is designed to operate at
a specific flow rate, expressed in gallons per minute (gpm),
liters per second (L/s), or liters per minute (L/min) of flow

Water Consumption ● Water use in many homes is lowest from about midnight to
5 AM, averaging less than one gallon per person per hour.

water footprint ● shows the extent of water use in relation to consumption by

people. The water footprint of an individual, community, or
business is defined as the total volume of fresh water used
to produce the goods and services consumed by the
individual or community or produced by the business

Water Demand ● The instantaneous peak demand for water in a pipe serving
a number of plumbing fixtures or serving an entire building
is referred to as the design load. The design load is the
maximum probable or peak instantaneous demand for
domestic water by a group of fixtures. The design load is
typically expressed in gpm, L/min or L/s.

Types of Water 1. Domestic Water Demand.

Demands 2. Industrial Water Demand.
3. Institutional and Commercial Water Demand.
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4. Demand for Public.

5. Fire Demand.
6. Waste and Theft.

fixture unit ● an arbitrarily chosen measure that allow small types of

plumbing fixtures to be expressed in common terms; that is,
a fixture having twice the instantaneous flow rate of a
second fixture would have a fixture unit value twice as large
● to make it possible to calculate the design load on a system
composed of different types of fixtures, each having
different flow rates

The water supply fixture ● a probability factor that represents each fixture connected
unit (WSFU) to the water supply system and used to determine the total
use of water within a given system.

Simple Empirical Design Method

● the empirical design method, piping is sized with rules of thumb based on observation
and experience.
● For example, the mains that serve fixture branches can be sized as follows:
1. Up to three 1⁄2 inch branches can be served by a 3⁄4 inch main
2. Up to three 3⁄4 inch branches or up to six 1⁄2 inch branches can be served by a 1
inch main
3. Up to five 3⁄4 inch branches or up to ten 1⁄2 inch branches can be served by a
11⁄4 inch main
● Branch pipes can be sized from minimum branch requirements cited in the building code
The empirical approach is used in design of plumbing systems for residences and similar
buildings with simple plumbing systems

Household water supply

Water supply is conveyed from the main to the household or buildings by means of pipes
classified as:
1. House service –refers to the pipe connection from the public water main or any source
of water supply to the building served.
2. Riser –refers to the vertical supply pipe which extend upward from one floor to the next.
3. Branches – are horizontal pipes that serve the faucets or fixtures Water main –refers to
the public water connection which are laid underground along the streets where the
house service is connected.

Types of water distribution

3 types of water distribution in building
1. Normal water pressure from the public main
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2. Overhead feed system

3. Air pressure Distribution system

Overhead Feed system

● the overhead feed system supply water to the plumbing fixtures by means of gravity.
● Water is pumped to the large tank on top of a building and distributed the water to the
different fixtures.
● This type of water distribution is one of the oldest type.
● Many planners and planners still use this type of water system because of its advantage

4 Mechanical devices used in pressurized water supply system

1. Large storage tank, with all tapping required
2. Single or duplex centrifugal pump
3. Air compressor
4. An automatic pressure control switch

Direct up-feed Pumping System

● Is an innovation of the air pressurized water distribution
● Direct up-feed pumping system is a triplex pump installed to operate in sequence
according to the volume of demand.
● Advantage of Direct up-feed Pumping System:
○ Eliminate the construction of large house water tank
○ Avoid cost of heavy structures to carry the house tank
○ Eliminate periodic cost.
● The direct up-feed pumping system is dependent on the supply of electricity

Friction in Water Supply and Distribution System

● Friction refers to the resistance produced by the flowing water with the fittings and
interior surface of the pipe.
● Friction in water supply distribution system can be minimized under the following
conditions.
○ All water pipes should be installed straight and direct as possible
○ The use of turns, offset and traps, should be minimized if cannot be avoided
○ Pipes with plain and smooth surface should be used
○ Used of fittings, stop, and other devices connected to the distribution lines,
should be minimized.
○ All fittings and joints must be connected properly

Static pressure pressure exerted by the water at rest

Normal pressure the pressure range measured over a period of 24 hours.

-normal pressure for a residential house range from 30
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to 40 psi

Critical pressure the maximum and minimum pressure at which proper

function of the water supply system can be maintained

Head loss by Friction or friction is the loss in rate of flow due to friction between the
head loss water and the walls of the pipe

Pressure loss refers to the variation in pressure between water main

and the outlet end of the water service. Pressure loss is
generally caused by friction

Other Causes of Pressure loss 1. Simultaneous draw or use of water

2. Height or distance to which the water must flow
3. Fluctuation of water pressure in the water main
4. Mineral elements in water that adhere to the
interior of the pipe reducing the diameter
5. Inadequate size of the pipe.

Water supply coming from the public water main is also affected by water pressure
fluctuations caused by:
1. Peak load
2. Emergency draw
3. Breakdown of lines or pumping unit 4
4. Insufficient water level at the water system reservoir

Maximum demand ● refers to the maximum water discharge of

fixtures in terms of fixture units
● The maximum demand of water is equal to the
total fixture units in the plumbing system, where
one unit is valued at 8 gallons of water discharge
per minute interval